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Development of Sinkholes Resulting from Man1 S Activities in the Eastern United States

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Development of Sinkholes Resulting from Man1 S Activities in the Eastern United States U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 968 Development of Sinkholes Resulting From Man1 s Activities in the Eastern United States Development of Sinkholes Resulting 1 From Man S Activities in the Eastern United States By J. G. Newton U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 968 1987 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR DONALD PAUL HODEL, Secretary U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Dallas L. Peck, Director Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Newton, John G., 1929- Development of sinkholes resulting from man's activities in the Eastern United States. (U.S. Geological Survey circular; 968) Bibliography: p. 40 Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.4/2:968 1. Sinkholes-Southern States-Environmental aspects. 2. Sinkholes­ Northeastern States-Environmental aspects. 3. Sinkholes-Middle West-Environmental aspects. I. Title. II. Series: Geological Survey circular ; 968. GB609.2.N47 1986 624.1 '51 85-600298 Free on application to the Books and Open-File Reports Section, U.S. Geological Survey, Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver, CO 80225 CONTENTS Page Page Abstract -------------------------------------- 1 Causes and occurrence-Continued Introduction 1 Decline of water level-Continued Scope and objectives -----------------------­ 2 Water-level fluctuations -----------------­ 20 Area of study -----------------------------­ 3 Induced recharge -----------------------­ 24 Method of investigation --------------------­ 5 Occurrence and size --------------------- 26 Acknowledgments -------------------------- 5 Construction ------------------------------­ 28 Magnitude of sinkhole-related problems ----------­ 5 Diversion of drainage -------------------­ 29 Distribution and significance of sinkholes -----­ 6 Impoundment of water ------------------­ 29 Hazards, damage, and pollution -------------­ 6 Occurrence and s~e --------------------- 32 Development of subsurface openings -------------­ 8 Assessment of problem ------------------------­ 32 Solution ----------------------------------­ 8 Recognition -------------------------------­ 32 Mechanical erosion of bedrock and unconsolidated Site evaluation ----------------------------­ 34 deposits --------------------------------- 10 Prediction --------------------------------­ 36 Causes and occurrence of induced sinkholes -------­ 12 A voiding or mini~ing problems ------------- 38 Decline of water level ----------------------­ 14 Summary and conclusions ----------------------­ 39 Loss of support ------------------------­ 16 Selected references ----------------------------- 40 Increase in velocity ---------------------- 20 ILLUSTRATIONS Page FIGURES 1, 2. Photographs showing: 1. Collapse forming new sinkhole in Shelby County, Ala., 1972 ------------------------- 2 2. Collapse forming new sinkhole in Winter Park, Fla., 1981 --------------------------- 3 3, 4. Maps showing: 3. Area of study and distribution of carbonate rocks ---------------------------------- 4 4. Locations of sites of active sinkhole development ---------------------------------- 7 5-7. Photographs showing: 5. Collapse beneath railroad in Birmingham, Ala., in 1972 ----------------------------- 8 6. Collapse of bridge over Anclote River near Tarpon Springs, Fla., in 1968 -------------- 9 1 7. Sediment-filled solutionally enlarged opening extending downward from top of bedroc ..- -- 10 8. Cross section showing development of cavities in unconsolidated deposits --------------------- 11 9, 10. Photographs showing: 9. Inclined opening adjacent to cavity in residual clay in November 1970 in Birmingham, Ala. 12 10. Cavity in residual clay in November 1970 in Birmingham, Ala. ----------------------- 13 11. Composite photograph of cavity in residual clay in April 1971 in Birmingham, Ala. ------------- 14 12. Map showing areas of induced sinkhole activity ------------------------------------------- 15 13, 14. Schematic cross sections of: 13. Interior terrane showing water-level decline and resulting sinkhole development -------- 17 14. Coastal terrane showing decline in potentiometric surface and resulting sinkhole development 18 15. Graph showing pumpage at well field and water-level fluctuations in wells tapping unconfined and con­ fined aquifers in the coastal terrane ------------------------------------------------ 19 16. Photograph showing sinkholes and subsidence beneath and near Interstate Highway 59 in Birmingham, Ala., in 1972 -------------------------------------------------------------------- 21 17, 18. Cross sections showing: 17. Relation between water-level fluctuations and the bedrock-residual clay contact at Greenwood, Ala. ------------------------------------------------------------------- 22 18. Subsurface erosion caused by water-level fluctuations resulting from pumpage --------- 23 19. Photograph showing erosion of soil into rotted-out root opening ----------------------------- 24 III 20. Cross section showing subsurface erosion (piping) resulting from water-level decline------------- 25 21-24. Photographs showing: 21. Induced recharge forms vortex in stream in Shelby County, Ala. --------------------- 26 22. Collapse and loss of streamflow in Shelby County, Ala. ----------------------------- 27 23. Collapses in open area in Shelby County, Ala. ------------------------------------- 28 24. Growth and collapse of cavity due to piping near Centreville, Ala. -------------------- 30 25-29. Photographs showing: 25. Collapse beneath sewage lagoon in Bibb County, Ala., in 1972 ----------------------- 31 26. Circular fracture in asphalt ----------------------------------------------------- 33 27. Ponding of water in depression -------------------------------------------------- 34 28. Downward movement of signpost ------------------------------------------------ 35 29. Construction of warehouse and office complex in area of active sinkhole development in Bir­ mingham, Ala., in 1966 --------------------------------------------------- 37 TABLES TABLE 1. Records of selected sinkholes forming in the Eastern United States since 1940 -------------- 42 2. Sources of information used to evaluate sinkhole problems in Alabama ----------------------- 54 FACTORS FOR CONVERTING INCH-POUND UNITS TO INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI) UNITS Multiply inch-pound units To obtain SI units inch (in) 25.4 millimeter inch (in) 2.540 centimeter foot (ft) 0.3048 meter mile (mi) 1. 609 kilometer square foot (ft2) 0.09294 square meter acre 0.4047 hectare square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second million gallons per day 0.04381 cubic meters per second (Mgal/d) pound per square foot 4.882 kilograms per square meter (lb/ft2) IV Development of Sinkholes Resulting from Man's Activities in the Eastern United States By J.G. Newton ABSTRACT Alternatives that allow avoiding or minimizing sinkhole hazards are most numerous when a problem or potential prob­ Development of induced sinkholes in carbonate terranes in lem is recognized during site evaluation. The number of alter­ the Eastern United States has resulted in costly damage and natives declines after the beginning of site development. Where water pollution. Previously, detailed investigations of sinkholes sinkhole development is predictable, zoning of land use can were limited to Alabama and Missouri, with the most com­ minimize hazards. prehensive being in Alabama. An investigation of the remainder of the area was made in 1981 to regionalize previous findings. More than 850 sites of sinkhole development have been iden­ tified in 19 States. It is estimated that more than 6,500 sink­ INTRODUCTION holes or related features have formed at these sites. Most have occurred since 1950. Based on information available, States Sudden large collapses of the land surface dur­ most impacted are Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Missouri, Penn­ ing the formation of sinkholes in recent years (figs. sylvania, and Tennessee. The total cost of damage and associated protective measures 1, 2) have focused attention on a little-understood resulting from induced sinkholes is unknown. Costs reported geologic hazard. Few people realize that thousands for a limited number of sites were about $170 million-expended of similar but smaller sinkholes have formed in the almost entirely after 1970. About $140 million were expended United States since 1950. Costly damage and ac­ at five dams in four States and to repair or protect highways cidents have resulted from their sudden develop­ in two States. Sinkholes are of two types, natural and induced (accelerated ment beneath highways, railroads, buildings, or caused by man). The sudden development of both types sewers, dams, reservoirs and other impoundments, results from the collapse of the roof of a cavity or cavern in pipelines, vehicles, and, in some instances, people rock, or from the downward migration of unconsolidated and animals. Sinkholes have also resulted in, or are deposits into solutionally enlarged openings in the top of bed­ potential sources of, pollution of water supplies. rock. The occurrence of sinkholes resulting from bedrock roof collapses, in comparison with the occurrence of sinkholes Concern about the problem has increased with the resulting from downward migration of unconsolidated deposits, growing awareness that much, if not most, active is rare. sinkhole development in many areas is induced (ac­ Induced sinkholes are of two types: those resulting from a celerated or caused) by man's activities and that decline in water level due to ground-water withdrawals and most of these activities involve changes in the those resulting from construction. Sinkholes resulting from
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