IN THE SHADOW OF HozAMEEN: ANARCflAE;OLtJGICAL INVENTORY $Tl.IDY OF THE S ~YLJNE TIUVL ~ YSTEM IN

MANNING AND STBRITISH COLUMBIA.

PROJECT YEAR NlJM6ER 1 (2002) In The Shadow OfHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail System in Manning And Skagit Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.e. Project Year Number One (2002)

Prepared for:

Skagit Environmental Endowment Commission 1610 Mount Seyrnour Road North Vancouver, B.C. V7G lL3

Prepared by:

St6:lo Nation Aboriginal Rights and Title Department 1-7201 Vedder Road Chilliwack, RC. V2R 4G5

June, 2003

8t6:15 NatIOn Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

'The steepest places have been at all times the asylum of liberty' - Baron de Tott, AD 1785 -

Hozameen ('Sharp, like a sharp knife') (a Nlaka'pamux word from Akrigg and Akrigg 1997)

8t6:10 Nation Pennrt #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

CREDITS

PROJECT DIRECTOR David Schaepe, M.A.

FIELD DIRECTORS Ian Franck, M.A. David Schaepe

REPORT AUTHOR Ian Franck

FIELD ASSISTANTS Larry Commodore (St6:16 Nation) Dennis Leon (St6:16 Nation)

REPORT DRAFTING Leeanna Rhodes, G.I.S. Technician Ian Franck

ARTIFACT ILLUSTRATION Ian Franck

~~~~ St6:16 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 11 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

SYNOPSIS

This report presents the findings ofyear one ofan archaeological inventory study ofthe Skyline Trail System which runs through Manning and Skagit Valley Provincial Parks in southwestern RC. Although the entire length ofthe trail was walked through by project archaeologists at one time or another, during this study, intensive survey focused on areas west of Despair Pass including the Hozameen Ridge Trail.

A total of four precontact archaeological sites were identified during the 2002 survey (Sites DgR f 1 through 4). All sites identified consisted of a surface and/or subsurface scatter of lithic artifacts and material located primarily along ridgelines and secondly within protected areas such as basins.

The sites identified during the 2002 field season in the area ofthe Skyline (and Hozameen Ridge) Trail have greatly added to our understanding ofthis important travel corridor and general use area. They complement sites recorded within Skagit Valley Park by Franck (2000); Lepofsky et al. (1999); Rousseau (1988); and Bush (1997, 1998), not to mention many archaeological resources identified by North Cascades Park Archaeologist Bob Mierendorfto the south ofthe international line (e.g., Mierendorf 1986, 1987, 1991, 1993, 1997, 1998, 1999; Mierendorfet al. 1998, 1999). While still at its infancy, research within the North Cascade Mountains has made significant leaps over the last decade. Once considered to be a marginally, ifnot an entirely unused part ofthe landscape, the researchers mentioned above have proven that the area was significantly important to aboriginal people in the far past, the protohistoric time period, and continuing today. Our largest task, scientifically, is to generate more hard data particularly from excavated contexts with accompanying dates, faunal analysis, etc. This initial survey is a large step towards acquiring the data we need.

In addition to the obvious need for further hard empirical data it is equally important that we continue to assemble knowledge from people who traditionally used the area. Much ofthis information has been lost due to the sad fact that many ofthe elders ofFirst Nations who used or were knowledgeable ofthis area have now passed on. Fortunately, other lines ofevidence, particularly linguistic, could shed light on the use ofthese areas.

It is clear that aboriginal uses ofhigh elevation areas may not always follow strict resource-based and dependent criteria. Obviously, with this in mind, research cannot continue to simply follow conventional site identification methodology. Some sites may be so physically subtle or only recognizable through complex context that conventional methodology may overlook them. Developing alternative methodology will not be easy; however, realizing that there might be a problem with conventional methodology is the first step. A long list ofsite attributes associated with non-resource-based sites needs to be generated first. This data must then, ifpossible, be directly integrated into how we physically view the landscape. Of course the visibility ofsome criteria may be impossible for most people (e.g., areas ofhigh spiritual energy) but it might be high time to put 'spiritually in-tune' people into these areas and just see what happens and set empirical wisdom to the side for awhile. Regardless, ifwe do look for areas ofspiritual importance there should be at least some physical evidence. If people were attracted to an area, even for a completely non-utilitarian reasons, chances are something would have been left behind. It is our job, as archaeologists, to figure out what this might be.

Our most easily rectified data gap within the North Cascades is that ofexcavated site data and at least one site identified during this study (Site DgRl; Mowich Camp) has a very good chance ofproviding some ofthis information and should be pursued. In fact, a series ofexcavations ofsites identified in the North Cascades would greatly improve our knowledge base ofthe aboriginal use ofthis mountainous area. This would include several sites identified south ofthe international border by Mierendorf(1991, 1993, 1997, 1998, 1999) and to the north by Franck (2000) and Franck and Schaepe (2002).

Ofcourse further survey would always be valuable and should not be overlooked particularly ifit can identify additional sites with substantial subsurface deposits appropriate for excavation. These surveys may want to step away from ridgelines where sites are often easily identified but do not normally contain any significant depth ofdeposit and focus instead on sheltered basin areas below ridgelines (near water) and ultimately rock shelters or caves.

The archaeology ofthe North Cascades is at an exciting turning point that is bound to generate more and more important data. Only diligent, thoughtful, and ongoing research will make sure that we reach an understanding that comes close to the reality ofwhat happened in these steep places in the past.

St6:lo Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 111 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the Skagit Valley Environmental Endowment Commission for providing the financial opportunity to conduct this study. In particular I thank Jude Grass and Christine Tunnoch for the administration ofthe grant on behalfofSEEC.

My colleagues Dave Schaepe (St6:16 Nation) and Bob Mierendorf (North Cascades Park Complex) contributed to intellectual aspects ofthis report both directly and indirectly. I am particular fond ofthe many spirited conversations and mutual experiences we have shared in and out ofhigh places.

My trusted field assistants Larry Commodore and Dennis Leon approached the project with the necessary ardour punctuated with delicious humour making the time spent together a memorable experience.

I am grateful to those individuals who provided supporting letters for our grant application, specifically: Tom Blackbird (Resource Officer, BC Parks); Graeme Kenneth (Area Supervisor, BC Parks, Manning Area); Ray Kenny (Manager, Archaeology Planning and Assessment); and Kevin Chishlom (LF.P.A. Forester, Interfor Hope Logging).

Steven Acheson ofthe Archaeology and Registry Services Branch (ARSB) acted as the Heritage Resource Specialist for this project. Doris Lundy ofthe ARSB processed the site forms. Each are thanked for their contribution to this project.

St6:16 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit IV Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CREDITS i

SYNOPSIS .ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS .iv

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLE vi

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The Project and S.E.E.C.'s Mission 4 1.2 Definition ofSite and St6:l6 Nation's Involvement .4

2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION 6 2.1 Physiographic Setting 6 2.2 Glacial History 6 2.3 Bedrock Geology 7 2.4 Climate and Vegetation 8 2.4.1 Modem Conditions and Biogeoclimatic Zones 10 2.5 Fauna 10 2.6 First Nations Ethnography 11 2.6.1 The St6:l6 16 2.7 Aboriginal Use ofAnimal Resources in Upland Areas 16 2.8 Aboriginal Use ofPlant Resources in Upland Areas .16 2.9 Other Aboriginal Use ofUpland Areas 19 2.10 Archaeological Cultural Constructs and Previous Archaeology 19

3.0 STUDY METHODS AND OBJECTIVES .24 3.2 Objectives 24 3.3 Methodology 24 3.3.1 Pre-Field Work Component.. 25 3.3.2 Field Work Component. 25 3.3.3 Post-Field Work Component .27 3.3.4 Artifact Repository 27 3.3.5 Site Significance Evaluation Methodology .27

4.0 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS AND RESULTS .28 4.1 DgRf 1 (Mowich Camp) 28 4.2 DgRf2 35 4.3 DgRf3 37 4.4 DgRf4 39

8t6:16 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit v Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

5.0 SITE SIGNIFICANCE ASSESSMENT .42 5.1 DgRf 1 (Mowich Camp) 42 5.2 DgRf2 42 5.3 DgRf3 43 5.4 DgRf4 43

6.0 DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH .44

7.0 REFERENCES CITED 46

GLOSSARY 59

8t6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit VI Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1. Project area location within Manning and Skagit Valley Parks .2 Figure 2. Intensively surveyed areas in 2002 3 Figure 3. Traditional territories ofFirst Nations mention in the text. 12 Figure 4. Map drawn by Thiusoloc's Father while as a St6:15 guide for the Boundary Commission Survey of 1858-59 14 Figure 5. Map drawn by Thiusoloc while acting as a St6:15 guide for the Boundary Commission Survey of 1858-59 15 Figure 6. One ofa pair ofprecontact snowshoes recovered from a dry rockshelter 21 Figure 7. Location ofselected archaeological site in the upper Fraser Valley and lower Fraser Canyon referred to in the text 22 Figure 8. Skagit Valley and Manning Park Projects (Previous) .23 Figure 9. Location ofSites DgRf 1-4 identified during the 2002 survey .29 Figure 10. General plan map ofSite DgRf 1 30 Figure 11. View ofSite DgRf 1 showing the location ofsurface lithics and evaluative tests 31 Figure 12. Knife and its location recovered from the Skylne Trail running through DgRf 1 32 Figure 13. Raw material recovered during evaluative testing and surface ofDgRf 1 34 Figure 14. Intersection ofthe Skyline and Hozameen Ridge Trails showing the approximate locations ofidentified Sites DgRf2 and 3 35 Figure 15. General plan map ofidentified Site DgRf2 36 Figure 16. View ofSite DgRf3 showing trail bed 37 Figure 17. General plan map ofidentified Site DgRf3 38 Figure 18. Location ofarchaeological Site DgRf4 39 Figure 19. Biface perform identified at Site DgRf4 .40 Figure 20. Site ofDgRf4 showing the location ofidentified biface perform .40 Figure 21. General plan map ofidentified Site DgRf4 .41

Table 1. Stratigraphic Profile (DgRf 1) 28 Table 2. Lithics collected from the surface and Evaluative Tests 1 and 2 from DgRf.. 32

8t6:1O Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 1 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This report presents the findings ofyear one ofan Archaeological Inventory Study (AIS) of the Skyline Trail System which runs through Manning and Skagit Valley Provincial Parks (Figure I). Although the entire length ofthe trail was walked through by project archaeologists at one time or another during this study, intensive survey focused on areas west ofDespair Pass including the Hozameen Ridge Trail (Figure 2). The project area was visited initially during a two-day preliminary reconnaissance in July of2002, followed by a more intensive ten-day survey in September ofthe same year. The project was undertaken to determine whether traditional use and anecdotal information with respect to the precontact use ofthe trail system was accurate, and ifso, to what extent this use occurred, when, where, and why. As with many archaeological projects we were aware that we might return with more questions than answers, an awareness that is vital to the execution ofobjective archaeological research.

This project was made possible through a grant from the Skagit Environmental Endowment Commission (SEEC).

This project was undertaken by St6:16 Nation's Aboriginal Rights and Title Department under St6:16 Heritage Investigation Permit # 2002-3i and Provincial Heritage Inspection 2 Permit # 2002-249 .

The project was overseen on behalfofthe St6:16 Nation by Senior Archaeologist Dave Schaepe, M.A. (Project Director) and Ian Franck, M.A., RPCA (Project Archaeologist).

Field workers involved in the study included: Ian Franck (all aspects), Dave Schaepe (preliminary reconnaissance), Larry Commodore (main survey), and Dennis Leon (all aspects).

Project objectives were to: 1) Inventory and evaluate archaeological remains within the study area landscape; 2) Apply findings in the modeling ofaboriginal use ofmontane ridge complexes ofthe study area and broader Upper Skagit River watershed; 3) Develop management recommendations for the preservation and interpretation ofthis cultural landscape.

1 Issued by the Sto:10 Nation Department ofAboriginal Rights and Title in accordance with the Sto:10 Nation Heritage Policy (1995) 2 Issued by the Archaeology and Registries Services Branch, under Section 14 ofthe Heritage Conservation Act (RSBC 1996, Chpt. 187)

St6:1O Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 2 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

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-z.. i'i..."." ~ t.t".A, WA 5 '"_ I !'l G TON .ufO I M -a " .l'..A N A Figure 1. Project area location within Manning and Skagit Valley Provincial Parks.

St6:1o Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 3 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

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Figure 2. '""1) Sto:lo Nation, (2002) ~M" Skyline Trail Survey Project Area Shaded = main surveyed areas.

Figure 2. Intensively surveyed areas in 2002.

St6:1o Nation Penmt #20020037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 4 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

1.1 The Project and S.E.E.c.'s Mission

This project supports the S.E.E.C.'s mission to improve our ecological literacy through a better understanding ofthe role humans have had and continue to have in the natural world. This project helps identify precontact and early historic cultural resources which exist within the Upper Skagit watershed and provide recommendations to land managers on either side of the international border for the protection ofthese cultural resources.

Education: The results ofthis survey will be disseminated to First Nations, the academic community, and to resource managers in a number ofmediums including technical/academic papers, WEB publication, and public presentations.

Recreation: The Skyline and associated trail systems are popular hiking routes. Knowledge ofthe existence ofarchaeological resources along these trails will heighten the appreciation ofthese routes as well as provide direction to hikers with regard to the protection ofthese resources.

Research: Archaeological investigation within high elevation areas ofthe North Cascade Mountains is very much in its infancy. All data collected will serve to greatly improve our understanding ofthe use ofthis area in precontact times.

Stewardship: The archaeological record is an important and non-renewable resource for all people. Identification ofthese resources and the development ofa cultural landscape model will allow for appropriate decisions regarding their preservation.

Collaboration: This project is to be undertaken by American, Canadian, and Indigenous archaeologists. This cross fertilization ofmethod and experience will result in a unique approach to archaeological research which can be appreciated by professional archaeologists, land resource managers, First Nations, and the general public.

1.2 Definition ofSite and St6:1O Nation's Involvement

According to the Protocol Agreement on the Management ofCultural Heritage Resources (1994), an 'archaeological site' is defined by the Ministry ofSustainable Resource Management and Ministry ofForests as:

any locality that contains physical evidence ofpast human activity for which the application ofscientific methods ofinquiry (i.e., survey, excavation, data analysis, etc.) are the main source ofinformation. These resources are associated with both pre-contact and post-contact periods ofBritish Columbia.

In addition to archaeological sites, a number ofcultural site types not recognized under Heritage Conservation Act - such as transformer sites - were also included for consideration in this study. The entirety ofcultural site types considered in this report are presented in the Sto:lo Nation Heritage Policy (1995).

St6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 5 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

Common types ofarchaeological and cultural sites located in St6:16 Traditional Territory include: e lithic scatters (i.e., stone tools and flakes) e cultural depressions (e.g., pit houses, cache pits) e culturally modified trees (e.g., bark-stripped trees, aboriginally-Iogged trees) e rock art (i.e., pictographs and petroglyphs) e cultural earthworks (e.g., burial mounds, defensive sites) and rock cairns e transformer rocks (i.e., rocks created as a result of the transformation of people or animals by the Transformers ofSto:lo legend - Xe:Xals)

This study - archaeological in nature - focuses upon the identification and evaluation of cultural resources associated with physical evidence ofpast human activity. The inherent limitations ofarchaeology to document the whole past aboriginal use ofthe landscape must be first clearly stated.

Archaeological (i.e. physical or material) evidence ofpast human behavior is dependent upon a variety offactors, including the nature ofpast cultural activities, their frequency, scale and intensity ofoccurrence, and conditions ofnatural preservation. For example, while ancient village sites in St6:lo Traditional Territory generally exhibit substantial archaeological evidence ofpast settlement and resource use, many other past cultural activities, such as plant gathering, hunting, traveling and religious practices, often leave few, ifany, material traces. Importantly, spiritually powerful places in the landscape may have been purposely left untouched. Many cultural materials, such as artifacts made ofwood, antler and bone, are further subject to rapid decomposition in the wet maritime climate and acidic soils. Generally, only the most durable cultural materials (such as stone artifacts) and features (such as hearths, depressions, and mounds) remain.

Thus, archaeological evidence must be understood to demonstrate only a fraction ofpast aboriginal land and resource use in St6:lo Traditional Territory -lack ofphysical evidence does not equate to lack ofuse or occupation ofan area. It must be noted that - while traditional use information may be used and referenced in this study - it is neither an intention nor an objective ofthis study to identify and/or assess traditional use sites.

Please be advised that St6:i6 Nation's participation in this project does not constitute consultation. Traditional and/or Contemporary Use infonnation is not incorporated into this report. Nothing in this report is intended to affect the exercise or scope of, or justifY any infringement of any St6:15 aboriginal rights, nor shall anything in this report be interpreted as affecting the legal relationship between parties.

This report, and negotiations leading up to it, and infonnation shared as a result ofit, are without prejudice to any legal positions that have been taken or may be taken by either ofthe parties in any court proceedings, process or otherwise or any treaty or other negotiations, and shall not be construed as an admission offact or liability in any such proceedings, process or negotiations

The proponent can use the infonnation in this report to infonn management decisions and can exhibit this report in a court of law in any case that challenges their decisions.

The transfer ofany infonnation in this report shall not be construed as concurrence with provincial policies.

St6:l5 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 6 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

2.1 Physiographic Setting

The study area concerned here is situated near the northern extent ofthe North Cascade 3 Mountains , specifically in the Hozameen Range located to the south ofthe Fraser and East ofthe Skagit Rivers (see Figures 1 and 2). This mountainous environment is one ofextremes where terrain and climate vary abruptly. The numerous and diverse landforms ofthe North Cascades are the culmination ofa unique environmental setting affected by both maritime and interior patterns ofclimate and a relatively brief, but complex, geologic past.

Peaks in the Cascades rise dramatically above nearby valley floors with vertical gains of 2000 m over distances as little as 500 m not unusual. Prominent peaks surveyed included Red Mountain (2922 m asl.) Snowcamp Mountain (2980 m asl.) and Lone Goat Mountain (2004 m asl.). Reliefin much ofthe surveyed area is severe and demanding.

2.2 Glacial History

All parts ofthe study area have at one time or another been covered with glacial ice, the last such occurrence, although relatively minor, taking place between the 15th and 19th centuries.4 While several episodes ofglaciation are believed to have taken place in the Pacific Northwest, this chapter will focus on the last major event known as the Fraser Glaciation, the end ofwhich coincides with that ofthe Pleistocene Epoch. This latest major glacial period is believed to have begun sometime between 22,000 and 19,000 years ago and ended at the beginning ofthe current inter-glacial period known as the Holocene approximately 10,000 years ago (Booth 1987; Ryder and Clague 1989; Mann and Hamilton 1995).

The Fraser Glaciation has been divided into three main stades termed from earliest to latest: "Coquitlam"; "Vashon" and; "Sumas" (Booth 1987). One named interstade termed the "Port Moody" is also used (Mann and Hamilton 1995). These stadial and interstadial periods describe the various waxing and waning events ofthe Cordilleran Ice-Sheet which covered much ofBritish Columbia, northern Washington, and the southern portions ofthe Yukon and Alaska. At its peak between 14,500 and 15,000 years ago this massive ice-sheet is believed to have been as much as 2.5 km thick effectively covering all but the highest peaks in the North Cascades (Armstrong 1981; Clague 1981; Pielou 1991; Souch 1989). After 14,000 years ago the ice-sheet melted quite rapidly with the exception ofminor readvances such as the Sumas Stade between 11,700 and 11,100 years ago (Booth 1987; Ryder and Clague 1989; Mann and Hamilton 1995). Glacial ice, with the exception ofthe alpine glaciers which exist today, is generally believed to have left the Pacific Northwest by around 10,000 years ago with the Fraser lowland becoming ice-free some time before (Booth 1987; Ryder and Clague 1950). An age of"Neoglaciation" was evident world-wide beginning around 5000 years ago represented locally by the Garabaldi phase ofthis age (Pellatt 1996). A glacial advance in the Coast Mountains termed the Tiedemann occurred between 3300 and 1900 years

3 The Cascade Mountains actually extend in a finger approximately 110 km further north near Lytton, RC. They are separated from the Coast Mountains to the west by the Fraser River. 4 Late glacial period termed the "Little Ice-Age" (as termed in Porter and Denton 1967; Leonard 1974).

8t6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 7 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) corresponding more or less with the Peyto and Robson advance in the southern Rocky Mountains between 3100 and 2500 years ago (Pellatt 1996). These local advances did not appear to affect the study area specifically; however, many ofthe mountain glaciers in the North Cascades grew again measurably during the "Little Ice-Age" between 150 and 400 years ago, perhaps reaching their greatest size in over the last 4000-4500 years (Porter et al. 1983:8-9 in Mierendorfet at. 1998). This would have affected areas primarily in the current alpine or krummholz zones; and would have covered and likely destroyed any archaeological evidence which may have existed in these areas.

The massive Cordilleran Ice-sheet ebbed and flowed over the landscape; growing in one area and shrinking in another, during which time it exacted a devastating and profound effect on the earth surface beneath it. The vast majority ofthe landforms seen in British Columbia today are the result ofthis scouring, as well as the dynamic hydrological processes which immediately followed it. Evidence ofthis glacial history is shown by cirque basins often infilled as mountain tarns such as the Galene Lakes opposite the study area on the west side ofthe Skgit River, heavily serrated peaks and ridges such as Mount Hozameen located just south ofthe main study area, and the deep V-shaped valleys as through which the Skagit River runs (Fleischner and Weisberg 1993: 10). Lower peaks which were completely over­ ridden by ice at the glacial maximum are more rounded and dome-shaped (Holland 1976). Other rock features formed by glacial movement in the higher alpine areas include aretes, cols, and horns (Mierendorf et at. 1998:13-14). Depositional glaciallandforms which occur in the North Cascades include moraines, solifluction lobes and terraces, protalus ramparts, among others (Mierendorf et al. 1998:95).

Geological dynamics associated with the steep terrain continue to modify existing landforms through erosional processes including solifluction, soil creep, and the basic downslope movement ofvarious materials. Annual meltwater episodes, wind and frost also contribute to the erosion and redistribution oflandforms. A model ofthe early Holocene deglaciation of the lower mainland ofsouthestern, RC., including the study area, is presented by Schaepe (2001).

2.3 Bedrock Geology The North Cascades are considered to be relatively young mountains having been thrust upward sometime in the Mesozoic Era (225 to 65 million years ago). The layers of sedimentary rock, sandstone and shale which comprised the original mountains, however, were formed early in the Paleozoic Era (575 to 270 million years ago) at which time a great sea covered North America (Staatz et al. 1972). This combined with later metamorphic processes including volcanism and fault dynamics has created a rather complex geological history including the formation ofa diverse array ofexposed bedrock, some portions of which were actively sought by aboriginal people for the production oftools.

The Hozomeen Lithic Group is most important to the study area as it contains a variety of quartz which has been locally termed "Hozomeen Chert". This rock type has been used in the past for stone tools and is evident in numerous sites throughout the North Cascades area (e.g., Bush 1997; Mierendorf 1993, Mierendorfet al. 1998, Rousseau 1988) and peripheral areas (e.g., at the Maurer Site near Agassiz, see Schaepe 1998b). Other rocks within the

8t6:15 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 8 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

Hozomeen Group include a large amount ofgreenstones with lesser amounts ofchert, argillite and mafic intrusions (Staatz et. al1972 in Mierendorfet al. 1998). These greenstones are generally too soft to have been suitable for stone tools. Minor intrusions of high quality chert and fine-grained metasediments, suitable for stone tool manufacture, can be found throughout the North Cascades, sometimes as eroded nodules in stream and river beds.

2.4 Climate and Vegetation

Climate and associated vegetation have changed and cycled continually, undergoing many successions over geologic time. Ofconcern here, however, is only the period over the last 10,000 years known as the Holocene as this was when the study area was most suitable for human occupation (i.e., it was more or less ice-free). As climate and vegetation are linked, the existence ofone can be used to infer the other. The reconstructions presented below are the result ofpaleobotanical analyses including palynology and the examination ofplant macrofossils such as fossil logs and stumps. A third line ofevidence used in determining the following reconstructions comes from the study offossil chironomids (flies). A strong warming trend is believed to have occurred in southwestern British Columbia by 10,000 years BP (Hebda 1995; Mathewes 1973, 1984; Pellatt and Mathewes 1994; Warner 1984). This rapid warming marks the start ofthe Holocene, the period in which we live today. The Holocene is divided into three broad periods ofdifferential climate, starting with conditions which were warmer and drier than today known as the "Xerothermic Period", followed by a mid-Holocene period which was warmer than today with equivalent moisture termed the "Mesothermic Period"s, and finally the cool, moist modem climate we experience currently know as the "Neoglaciation" (Mathewes and Heuser 1981; Porter and Denton 1967; Hebda 1995). Some researchers also believe that a minor cooling event termed the "Younger Dryas" may have occurred just before the beginning ofthe Holocene between 11,000 and 10,000 years BP (Mathewes 1993; Mathewes et al. 1993; Peteet 1995). Such an event may have made the use ofhigher areas difficult or impossible during this time. Similarly, during the "Little Ice-Age", occurring between 150 and 400 years ago, when mountain glaciers reached their greatest extent during the Holocene (Porter et al. 1983; Pelatt 1996), human use ofmany portions ofthe North Cascades would have been compromised.

These periods and phases ofclimate corresponded with specific changes in vegetation both in lowland and mountain areas. This included a shift in treeline which was higher in warmer times and lower in cooler (Pellatt 1996; Pellatt et al. 1998). This likely would have influenced human land use patterns greatly, as subalpine and alpine resource amounts and locations changed over time. The North Cascades have seen rather dramatic shifts in treeline over the last 10,000 years. During the early and middle Holocene when it was measurably warmer (the Xerothermic and Mesothermic) the treeline from one test site location on Mount Stoyama in the North Cascades appears to have been at least 100 m higher than it exists today (Pellatt 1996; Pellatt et al. 1998), a significant amount ifone considers the vertical micro-environment ofmountains. Pellatt (1996) notes that treeline shifted downward again

5The warm, moist Mesothemic Period lasted for approximately 300 years longer in the Cascades than it did on the Coast which had already reached near modem conditions by around 7000 BP (Pellatt 1996).

St6:lo Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 9 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002) during the Neoglaciation about 5000 years ago, advanced again after 3000 years, and was forced downward again at the time ofthe Little Ice Age between 150 and 400 years ago. Treeline has advanced somewhat again over the last 150 years attributed not only to natural climatic cycling but also to the anthropogenic greenhouse effect (Pellatt 1996). This has likely swallowed up recently open areas which could have been used for berry collection and processing in the recent past.

2.4.1 Modem Conditions and Biogeoclimatic Zones

Three main ecological sections should be considered to have been surveyed in this study: subalpine forest, in which the Mountain Hemlock (MH) and Engelmann Spruce Subalpine Fir (ESSF) zones fall; subalpine parkland which consists ofa krumholz variant ofthe MH and ESSF zones and; Alpine which defined by the Alpine Tundra (AT) biogeoclimatic zone. Exactly where one zone grades into another is affected by elevation and aspect and is not consistent throughout.

Mountain Hemlock zone The MH biogeoclimatic zone is considered to be the characteristic subalpine environment of coastal British Columbia and is found at elevations from 900 to 1800 m asl (Meidinger and Pojar 1991). In the North Cascades it is divided into two zones, a lower closed canopy forest, and an upper parkland zone interspersed with subalpine meadows (Fleischner and Weisberg 1993:14). One ofthe main differences ofNorth Cascades subalpine parkland with other mountain ranges is the breadth ofthe zone which appears as an extensive patchwork quilt throughout the study area. The MH zone has cool, short summers and cold, long, wet winters with a deep snowpack (Brooke et. a11970; Pojar and Klinka 1983; Meidinger and Pojar 1991). The amount ofsnow and precipitation differs significantly from west to east due to the rainshadow provided by the high Pickett, Chilliwack and Skagit Ranges (Mierendorfet al. 1998). A wet to dry gradient is also seen moving from south to north during the late spring to early fall period as climate becomes more heavily influenced by interior systems (Mierendorf et at. 1998). Mean annual temperature in the MH zone varies from 0 to 5°C with average monthly temperatures below O°C for one to five months and above 10°C for 1 to 5 months (Meidinger and Pojar 1991).

Engelmann Spruce Subalpine Fir zone

As the MH zone becomes more continental, as is apparent in the study area, it begins to grade into the Engelmann Spruce Subalpine Fir (ESSF) zone (Pojar and Klinka 1983). Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) were noted in many parts ofthe subalpine portions ofthe study area often mixed in with western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) in parkland areas. Understorey vegetation is dominated by heaths comprised oflow evergreen shrubs ofthe heather family. These springy heaths survive, in part, because ofthe long soaking they receive from the slow melting annual snowpack. Pockets offorest with plant species typical ofthis zone were found in the several portions ofthe surveyed area.

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Alpine Tundra Zone

The Alpine Tundra (AT) biogeoclimatic zone occurs only in the very highest portions ofthe study area such as Red, Snowcamp and Lone Goat Mountains. It is generally considered to be the area that lies above treeline; however, treeline does not have a consistent break throughout and is often punctuated with small patches ofkrummholz. This is a reflection of the complex nature ofthe alpine ecosystem where aspect, elevation, slope, wind exposure, and snow accumulation dictate true climax stands.

Common trees found in the patchy krummholz surrounding the AT zone include mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) (Pellatt 1996), all ofwhich were noted during the survey. Dwarf shrubs, herbs, lichens and bryophytes dominate the vast percentage ofAT Zone areas. The whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) observed in the study area represents the northernmost reaches ofthis species in the Cascades, with larger amounts found in alpine areas ofthe Coast Range (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994).

Average temperatures in the AT zone are below freezing for seven to eleven months ofthe year allowing for very limited soil development (Pojar 1983 b; Meidinger and Pojar 1991). Snowpack in the AT zone is not as deep as in the sublapine as it is often blown away by strong winds settling in areas where trees can hold it in the subalpine.

2.5 Fauna

Animals that reside today in the study area which would have been important resources in the aboriginal economy include mule deer (odocoileus hemionus), black and grizzly bear (Ursus americanus and Ursus arctos horribilis), mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus), hoary marmot (Marmota caligata), pika (Ochotona princes), blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus), Ptarmigan (Lagopus sp.), eagles and various waterfowl. Other important animals would have included cougar, fisher, hare, lynx, marten, mountain beaver, porcupine, squirrel, among others. Elk, although currently not generally available in the study area, would also have been an important prey species.

St6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 11 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

2.6 First Nations Ethnography The ethnographic record ofthe study area has been extracted primarily from studies conducted in the peripheries ofthe North Cascades. While these ethnographies do contain some specific information with respect to the use ofupland and mountain environments, they are heavily weighted towards lowland subsistence activities and cultural organization. Nevertheless, a suitable amount ofinformation can be derived from these early works to begin to understand land-use patterns within mountainous areas, and suggest what residues this use might have left behind.

There appears to be no one First Nations group which can lay sole claim to use ofthe mountainous areas within and surrounding the study area. There is also no evidence that any particular group occupied the region on a year-round basis, although extended forays into it are suggested for some. The North Cascades in general appear to have been an area on the fringe ofmany group's areas and likely brought many different cultures in contact with one another. The main First Nations groups concerned here include the St6:15 the Nlaka'pamux (or Thompson) the Nooksack, the Upper Skagit, the now-extinct Athapaskan-speaking Nicola people, as well as North Okanagan people from the Similkameen area. In the absence ofproperly vetted and direct ethnographic information from all groups other than the St6:15, the author asks that the reader contact these groups directly for the most succinct information and/or consult the following well-known resources for further information:

Nlaka'pamux (see Laforet and York 1998, Smith 1988, Teit 1900); Upper Skagit (see Collins 1974; Gibbs 1877, Smith 1988; Suttles 1957, Teit 1928, Thompson 1979); Nooksack (see Duff 1952, M. Smith 1952, Smith 1988, Suttles 1957); North Okanagan (see Teit 1900, 1909, 1928, 1930).

Territorial maps are provided within ethnographies for all ofthe groups mentioned above. These include those provided by Teit (1900:166) and Laforet and York (1998:4) for the Nlaka'pamux; by Duff(1952:20) for the Upper St6:lo (Chilliwack and Tait Bands); for the Nooksack by Duff(1952:20 and Smith 1950:340), and for the Upper Skagit by Collins (1974: 17). Considerably more information regarding traditional territories ofthese groups is provided as part ofthe text within these volumes, among others. Much ofthis work has been summarized by Smith (1988) which represents the only major attempt to date to synthesize the previous ethnographic work for the mountainous areas ofthe North Cascades. Figure 3 below compiles information from the aforementioned ethnographic works with respect to general use areas ofthe major groups that are known to have used the study area. It should be noted that these boundaries are not considered to be hard or precise reflective ofthe high mobility ofthe culture groups involved.

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)

(Former Ten1tOf;9 j~r l:Ni~ola villle~ JI t)apaskal1J

f>rintetor.

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Ross ~~e

Figure 3. Traditional territories ofFirst Nations mentioned in the text, as well as that ofsurrounding groups. (Base map adapted from DrafTen et al. 1993:31 using information provided in Collins 1974:17; Duff 1952:20; Laforet and York 1998:4; Smith 1950:340; Smith 1988:7, 17)

8t6:lo Nation PermIt #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 13 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

2.6.1 The St6:16

The Halkomelem-speaking aboriginal people (the St6:16)ofthe Lower Fraser River Watershed used the region inclusive ofthe project area for many purposes (Duff 1952:11-12; Elmendorf and Suttles 1960:1-2, 17, Carlson et aI2001). The St6:16 are comprised ofthe downriver Hunq'uminum and upriver Halq'emeylem dialects ofthe Halkomelem language family ofthe Coast Salish Language Group (Boas 1894:455; Duff 1952:11, 12,39,43; Hill­ Tout 1903:355, 357; Suttles 1990; D. Smith 2001). Ofparticular interest to the study area concerned in this report are the existence ofHalkomelem words for prominent landscape features such as 'Skwa-kwa-eets' for the Lightning Lake(s) - Lightning Creek area; 'Skweh­ kwai-eets' for a probable travel route via Lightning Creek; 'Che-cheet-hu' for an area north ofmodern Ross Lake in the vicinity ofChittenden Meadow (see Figure 8); 'Kwai-tee-kan' for the Galene Lakes area (See Franck 2000; Figure 8 [this report]); 'Lexwpopeqwem' for Nepopekum Creek (see Figures 4,5, and 8); 'Nuch-htii-cheen for the upper Skagit River above its confluence with Klesilkwa Creek; 'Ptip-Ioshe-ka' for Silver Lake (to the north of the Study area); and 'Sleha:wetem; for Shawatum (Steamboat) Mountain (Mchalsie 2001;134-143; see Figures 4,5 and 8 [this report]).

St6:16 groups traditionally used the study area most often during the summer and fall months (Smith 1988).. Duff(1952:21) notes that the 'upriver' (Tait) St6:16 sent hunting (and gathering) parties into the mountainous areas several days east ofthe Fraser during which time they sometimes met Upper Skagit people. This area most likely includes the present study area. Meetings between the Tait and the Upper Skagit were believed friendly; however, the encounters between Chilliwack groups ofSt6:16 and Upper Skagit peoples are reported to have resulted in occasional hostilities (Collins 1974:118-119).

Known St6:l6 trail systems running through or in relatively close proximity to the the study area are documented in a number ofreferences (Schaepe 1999,2001); These routes likely included trails along the Methow and Similkameen River systems (Brown 1914; Smith 1946:309,316,320). Wilson (1970:62-63) notes that the Chilliwack did appear to have considerable knowledge ofthe upland resources ofthe study area. Extensive aboriginal knowledge ofriver and mountain trail systems throughout the North Cascades is displayed in the maps ofThiusoloc and his father (Figures 4 and 5), St6:16 guides for the Boundary Commission Survey of 1858-59 (Boxberger and Schaepe 2001).

More detailed ethnographic accounts ofthe St6:l6 and Coast Salish are available in the anthropological literature (e.g., Barnett 1955; Boas 1894; Duff 1952; Hill-Tout 1903; Jenness 1955; Smith 1950; Suttles 1987, 1990; Wells 1987; Carlson et a12001).

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Thiusoloc's Father's Map

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St6:1o NatIon Penmt #2002-037

Provilliciacl Pemlit # 2002 0 249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit Valley Provincial 15 Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Nwnber One (2002)

Thiusoloc's Map

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Figul'~,Ji. ~aJ.l 4"~wn l' .­ bX l'JliU!lGlO\? wh.Qe .. ~-::Y\ ~cting:ll$ ~ St~J:lO' gu'i~e for the BClUOdarY: '-=~ ~9ftmli's~iQn 8urv~y 0f185,8~9 shQ~ _ ....-.. I ...~-~- ...

the IO.catkin pftlle lmm~Qjate-~.odyar~a ­ ""'.__------. _._e;Y'" (aciapt~d th,m BQxberger.Mld Sehaep~ 2001 :125),

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2.7 Aboriginal Use ofAnimal Resources in Upland Areas The North Cascades area offered particular animal resources not available in the lower elevations in which First Nations were known to establish their permanent villages (see sections above). The most notable animals sought were the mountain goat, which lives its entire life at high altitude, and the grizzly bear which, in this region, also prefer to spend the vast majority oftheir time in high, isolated areas. Other animals, although less revered than mountain goat and grizzly, were also known to be pursued at altitude. These included deer and elk (many ofwhich spend considerable time in the high country), black bear (many of which spend their summers in the alpine), marmot and pika (perennial mountain dwellers), grouse and ptarmigan (ofwhich ptarmigan is only found at altitude), among others. Animals were hunted using a wide variety ofmethods including bow and arrow, deadfalls, traps, snares, fences, and pursuit with the aid ofdogs. Two methods which were particularly unique to the mountain environment are discussed below.

Mountain goat was probably the most important animal species hunted specifically in the alpine areas ofthe North Cascades (Duff 1952:71; Laforet and York 1998:66; Teit 1900:249). Mountain goat wool was a valuable trade item to all groups which used the study area (Smith 1988:55; Teit 1900:260) and goat meat was considered to be only second in importance to bear (Duff 1952:71). An unusual manner ofhunting these animals is described in Duff(1952:71-72). He describes a technique whereby one hunter would chase a goat along a narrow path at a precipice where another hunter would be waiting with a large stick to knock the animal over the cliffto its death. While this is an interesting manner in which to dispatch goats, it is unknown how the technique might show up archaeologically. One possibility would be evidence ofhigh impact trauma in the faunal remains consistent with a fatal fall. It seems reasonable also that areas in which this strategy proved successful likely were re-used and could be associated with temporary camp and processing areas.

A dangerous method ofhunting grizzly bear is described both for the St6:l6 (Duff 1952:72; Carlson and McHalsie 1998) as well as for the Nlaka'pamux (Teit 1900:248-249). Both are slightly different but each involve wedging a section ofpointed bone or stick inside a charging bear's mouth and subsequently dispatching it with a spear or club while it tried to free itselfofthe encumbrance. Unfortunately this type ofhunting would not likely have produced any sort ofresidue whatsoever, not even in the form ofbase camps, as it was generally believed to be the strategy ofa solitary hunter undertaken to prove his bravery and skill.

By far the most common archaeological residue which would persist in the study area from hunting would be lithic waste and tools, either associated with hunting events themselves, or with associated support camps or game monitoring areas.

2.8 Aboriginal Use of Plant Resources in Upland Areas

The use ofplants has been rather well documented for the Nlaka'pamux (Steedman 1930; Teit 1900; Turner 1978; Turner et al. 1990) and somewhat less so for more coastal-based economies such as the St6:l6 and Upper Skagit (Collins 1974; Duff 1952; St6:l6 Sitel Curriculum 1982; Turner 1995; 8t6:16 Nation 1998). No volumes to date have concentrated

St6:lo Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 17 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) on the traditional use ofplants available only in the alpine and subalpine regions of southwest British Columbia; however, most references do note that certain plant varieties are/were available only in upland areas. Unfortunately, many early ethnographers concentrated primarily on seemingly more glamorous pursuits than plant gathering such as hunting, or became deeply mired in the study ofsocial constructs, beliefs, and rituals. It would seem reasonable to assume, however, that the abundant and unique plant resources which grow in high elevation areas ofthe North Cascades contributed strongly to the economy ofthe people who traditionally used the region.

Many ofthe plants which are available either exclusively or in great number in subalpine and alpine areas ofsouthwestern British Columbia are bulb plants. These include avalanche, glacier, and tiger lily, as well as great camas and spring beauty. These plants provided not only an important carbohydrate component to the diet of aboriginal people (Kuhnlein and Turner 1991:9-10) but were also an important trade commodity. All bulbs required some form ofcooking in order to become palatable or digestible (Kuhnlein and Turner 1991 :9-10), often utilizing an underground pit oven in which the bulbs were steamed or boiled. The depressions from such processing represent the main archaeological residue from their harvest. Unfortunately bulbs were probably not always processed in the areas in which they were dug. Another line ofevidence for the repeated use ofroot as well as other crops such as berries (see below) is that which may be visible from the controlled burning ofmountain areas (e.g. see Laforet and York 1998:68; Turner 1991). Periodic burning greatly increases the production ofmany food plant species which otherwise become overgrown by competing species. Exactly how intentional burning shows up in the archaeological record is currently being investigated (e.g., Lepofsky et al. 1999; in press.), but most likely would include evidence such as a distinct layering ofisolated charcoal deposits.

Subalpine and alpine berry species were also a major resource for aboriginal people. These included black and cascade huckleberry, crowberry, dwarfblueberry, grouseberry, among others. Little evidence oftheir use is left behind with the exception perhaps ofpatterns of controlled burning (as discussed above) or in some cases the remains oftrenches in which they were dried. Berry trenches are a relatively new type ofsite in British Columbia (Franck 2000, Lepofsky et al. 1999) having only previously been recorded in Washington State (e.g., Mack 1989, 1992, Mack and Mclure 1998; Miss and Nelson 1995). Drying the berries while in the alpine greatly reduced their weight without losing their nutritional value (Kuhnlein and Turner 1991; Norton et al. 1984:223) creating an extremely valuable resource which could be later eaten or exchanged.

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2.9 Other Aboriginal Uses of Upland Areas

Mountains have attracted people for thousands ofyears for reasons much less utilitarian than that ofhunting and gathering. The sheer beauty and ruggedness ofthese areas continue to invoke a sense ofawe and welling ofspirituality in people even today. The distribution, amount and type ofsites in upland areas do not necessarily follow a strict resource-based model. Schaepe (2003:1-2) suggests that 'as archaeologists we are working within the complex inter-relations between humans and resources that require the recognition ofboth materialistic and mentalist platforms in order to be explained'.

Mierendorf (1986:97) suggests that alpine areas may have been traveled into as a way of asserting a group's tie to the land by leaving signs for others to find. This could be something as simple and ephemeral as the creation ofa small fire but could also include the construction ofstone cairns and the execution ofrock art. It is also possible that it may have been important for people to climb into high mountain areas as a way ofmapping their territory (Mierendorf 1986:97). Without the existence ofmaps, views from high areas would be the only way to see how features ofthe landscape are linked together.

Many aboriginal groups revere mountain areas as highly spiritual places. Puberty rituals for Nlaka'pamux and St6:16 boys involved solitary excursions high into the mountains for up to ten days at a time where they would become purified through "fasting, sweating, and praying until he gained the desired knowledge" (Teit 1900:318). Teit (1900:338-340) notes that many high mountain areas, particularly lakes, streams and passes were believed to be inhabited with supernatural beings and spirits which would sometimes preclude these areas from being used. Similarly, spiritually significant beings such as "little people" and stl'alaqem were believed to inhabit mountain forests (Teit 1900:340; McHalsie 2001). It was often necessary to provide offerings when hunting in certain mountain areas and women would sometimes have to paint their faces red before picking berries or fishing in the mountains (Teit 1900:344). The St6:lo still use mountain areas as part oftheir winter dancing rituals and have identified a number ofmountains in St6:16 traditional territory as Transformer sites (McHalsie 2001). These types ofmountain uses would leave very little in the way ofa long-lasting material record with the exception perhaps ofsmall sweatlodge depressions, culturally modified trees (sometimes twisted to mark an area), or rock art.

The understanding ofthe St6:lo transformer sites is complex and suggests a deep understanding ofthe landscape; an understanding that would have been greatly aided by views from high places such as occur in the study area. 'Interestingly, the alpine vantage points and peaks ofplaces....represent the only places in the landscape where the complete route ofthe Transformer's journey can be viewed as a cohesive and complete unit depending upon perspective' (McHalsie et al. in Schaepe 2003:4). The entire St6:lo cultural landscape should be considered to be what has now been popularly termed a 'living landscape'; alive in St6:lo cultural tradition and knowledge, not necessarily reflected by conventional archaeological remains.

A final possible use ofmountain areas, particularly within the study area concerned here, is the extraction ofimportant rock and mineral resources such as usable stone and salt, both of

St6:l5 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 19 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002) which are found in the North Cascades (Mierendorf 1998; Smith 1988). Ofparticular importance is the presence ofHozomeen Chert, the dominant lithic found in archaeological sites in the region. Quarry sites such as this should display dense flake and core scatters and battered bedrock surfaces.

2.10 Archaeological Cultural Constructs and Previous Archaeology

There is no established precontact sequence for the North Cascades area at this time. Attempts to develop such a sequence involve borrowing time-lines from adjacent lowland portions ofthe GulfofGeorgia Region and attempting to tie them together with the small amount ofchronometric information which has been garnered from mountain settings (e.g., Mierendorf 1986; Mierendorf et at. 1998). This is probably a sound approach (basically the only approach at this time) as peripheral lowland cultural developments no doubt had considerable influence on the extent and intensity ofthe use ofmountain areas. It should be noted, however, that not all the groups which are reported to have used the range ethnographically are associated with coastal economies. There is no evidence that any groups lived in higher portions ofthe North Cascades year-round which makes extrapolations from surrounding established chronologies somewhat appropriate. Slightly more work has been undertaken constructing such a sequence for the South Cascades (e.g., Burtchard 1998; Lewarch and Benson 1991); however, whether or not this is relevant to the study area concerned here is not clear. These latter studies do, however, provide good baseline information for cultural changes on a more regional scale.

The earliest known use ofthe North Cascades and its peripheries extends as far back as late Pleistocene times (10,000-12,000 years ago) as evidenced by the presence ofClovis spear points at the East Wenatchee (Richey Clovis Cache) Site in Washington State (Gramly 1993; Mehringer 1988; Mehringer and Foit 1990; Meltzer and Dunne1l1987) and possibly by recent finds ofScotsbluff-like spear points during drawdown surveys at Stave Lake (Figure 4) in British Columbia (Eldridge and McLaren 1998; Maxwell et al. 1998; McLaren et al. 1997; Mclaren 1998; McLaren and Maxwe1l1998; McLaren, D, J. Stafford and T.Dandurand 1998; Millennia Research Ltd. and Kwantlen First Nation 1998; Ryder 1998; Stafford and McLaren 1998, Vincent 1998) and more recently in the draw down ofCoquitlam Lake (Wilson and Clark 2001). Absolute dates have not been attained for any ofthe 'apparently early' point styles recove-red in the region. In the draw-down cases this is due to the disturbed context in which the artifacts were found, while a single mid-Holocene date from the Wenatchee Site does not correlate with other dated Clovis Sites. A single Clovis projectile point found near Lake Cle Elum (Hollenbeck and Carter 1986) in Washington State represents the only such artifact which has been found directly in the Cascade Range.

A stemmed projectile point from the lower Fraser Canyon (Schaepe 2000: 10-11) resembles others which have been dated in early contexts in nearby plateau areas ofWashington and Idaho (e.g., Rice 1972). While not ruling out a possible ancient origin, this artifact lacks the heavy edge grinding commonly found on early dating artifacts ofthe same type. Some researchers, particularly Bryan (1980, 1988) suggest that the stemmed point tradition may in fact pre-date that ofthe more well-known Clovis culture, although this remains a bone of

St6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 20 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) contention with many. A single stemmed projectile point was recovered in an excavated context within Skagit Valley Park (DgRg 4) by Bush (1998); however, dateable material was not found associated with this artifact.

Regardless ofthe fact that these artifacts described above (Clovis, Scotsbluff, and Stemmed Projectile Points) are not associated with absolute dates, their presence in and around the North Cascades does suggest that late Pleistocene (presumably big game hunters) were in the Northwest at this time, and could well have utilized its mountainous regions.

Other sites considered to perhaps fall within this early period within the region include the South Yale Site from which a previously unknown lithic tradition termed the "Pasika Complex" was identified (Figure 7). This complex consisted oflarge waterworn chopping tools which were believed to predate artifacts found at the nearby Milliken Site (DjRi 3; Irvine 1973; Kidd 1963; Mitchell1965; von Krogh 1975). This inference was based on the apparent crudeness ofthe tools without any absolute dates to substantiate such a claim. Artifacts similar to that found at the South Yale Site were also identified near Hope, RC. (Site DiRi 1; Franck et al. 1994). Haley (1987, 1996) later established that the crude unifacial cobble tools characteristic ofthe postulated Pasika Complex are more than likely associated with later period developments. Such artifacts have been found in fairly recently dated sites and appear to represent a common tool type used over a long period oftime.

There is considerably more evidence for use ofthe region during the time period between 9,000 and 4,000 years ago. The earliest date from this time remains the "Old Cordilleran Tradition" component excavated at the Milliken Site in the southern portion ofthe Fraser Canyon (Borden 1960, 1975; Mitchell and Pokotylo 1996). This tradition is typified by large leaf-shaped knife and spear points in association with otherwise simple stone tools. Sites to the south and east ofthe North Cascades which fall within this time period include those excavated along the Columbia River between the Okanagan and Wenatchee Rivers (Chatters 1986; Galm and Masten 1985; Mierendorfand Bobalik 1983). This early Holocene period is represented near to the study area by the Desolation Chert Quarry on Ross Lake which produced a basal date ofaround 7,600 BP with the heaviest use occurring between 3,500 and 5,000 BP (Mierendorf 1993). Mierendorf(1991) suggests that the North Cascades appear to have been used more intensively during the middle Holocene time period than any other (Mierendorf 1998). Other North Cascades area sites which fall within the early to mid­ Holocene time period in Washington State include Chester Morse Lake which produced a date of8,540 BP (Samuels 1993); and dates inferred from artifact types recovered from the lower Similkameen River Valley (Salo 1987).

Sites from the mid-Holocene period are believed to reflect the use ofa wider variety ofplants and animals than had occurred in earlier times; however, did not generally involve food storage or the establishment ofsemi-permanent villages (Schalk and Cleveland 1983; Ames and Maschner 1999). Mid-Holocene village sites or sites which contain residential structures near the study area, include the Esilao Village Site (DjRi 5; Borden 1975; Figure 4) located in the lower Fraser Canyon, and the Maurer Site (DhRk 8; LeClair 1973, Schaepe 1998b; Figure 4) located in the upper Fraser Valley. The dates for these houses do fall within the latter portion ofthe mid-Holocene (ca. 4000 BP) exhibiting a general trend toward

St6:l5 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 21 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) sedentism. From 4000 years ago up to the time ofsustained contact with Europeans (around 200 years ago), a dramatic shift in the economies ofNorthwest People began to occur. This period saw the establishment oflarge permanent villages, an emphasis on food storage, and a general decline in wide-ranging food procurement except by small task-oriented groups (Schalk and Cleveland 1983; Kuijt 1989). Village sites associated with this time period include the Flood (DiRi 38) and Pipeline (DiRj 14) pithouse sites excavated by von Krogh (1980) near Hope (Figure 7). Upland gathering sites associated largely with this latter time period are believed to be represented by those identified by Franck (2000) in Skagit Valley Park in the area ofthe Galene Lakes (see Figure 8). Sites identified by Franck and Schaepe (Franck and Schaepe 1999) along Silverhope Creek also suggest movement into the upland areas ofthe North Cascades during the latter time period.

While it is commonly believed that the aboriginal use ofthe North Cascades took place only in non-winter months, a set ofredcedar snowshoes ofprecontact Aboriginal origin (ca. AD 1784; Figure 6) recently found in a rockshelter at about 640 m ASL in the North Cascade mountains near Hope, RC. challenges this view (see Franck and Schaepe 2002).

SOWERBY CREEK SNOWSHOES RECOVERED FROM A RARE DRY ROCKSHELTER NEAR HOPE, BRITISH COLUMBIA IN 2001 DATING TO CA. 1784 A.D. Figure 6. One ofa pair ofprecontact snowshoes recovered from a dry rockshelter to the north ofthe study area (approximately 65 cm long).

8t6:10 NatIOn Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 22 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) •N Key DjRi3 Miliken DjRi 5 Esilao Village DjRi 7 South Yale DiRi 1 Hope DiRi 39 Silverhope Creek DiRj 1 Katz DiRj 14 Pipeline DhRk 2 McCallum DhRk 8 Maurer DhRI 16 Scowlitz

Figure 7. Location of selected archaeological sites in the upper Fraser Valley and lower Fraser Canyon referred to in the text (adapted from Franck et al. 1994:6).

o 10 1§. .~o 25 km ...... H.3

The protohistoric and early historic period saw enormous changes in the way aboriginal peoples used the land. This was influenced particularly by the decimation ofthe aboriginal population from European diseases such as smallpox (Carlson 1997; Harris 1994) as well as technological influxes including horses and metal tools. Such changes greatly affected the way in which aboriginal people used the land perhaps initiating a greater dependence on certain resources than had occurred previously. This would have greatly affected the way in which this use was portrayed archaeologically over the landscape and may be responsible for such archaeological sites as the berry trenches identified in Skagit Valley Park (Franck 2000; Lepofsky et a12002) and increased use ofhorse trails which leave a different land signature than that offoot trails.

All previous archaeological sites and survey areas within Manning and Skagit Valley Parks are illustrated in Figure 8 below.

St6:1O Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 23

In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

. =;I~~ .;p, ."'_! __' ); _.: A . I } :I a- - _~ \..=:v .. '. ~\~(" , Figure 8. Skagit Valley and Manning Park Projects ---. N

o

St6:1O Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 24 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

3.0 STUDY METHODS AND OBJECTIVES

3.1 First Nations Involvement

This study was conducted directly by St6:lo Nation's Aboriginal Rights and Title Department under St6:lo Nation Heritage Investigation Permit # 2002-037. The Section 14 Heritage Inspection Permit application (Provincial Heritage Conservation Act Permit) was forwarded to all other recognized First Nations groups with a concern in the study area for a 30-day 'opportunity to comment'. No comments with respect to study methodology were received. Two members of St6:lo Nation were directly involved in the Field work component ofthis study. Copies ofthis final report have been forwarded to all concerned First Nations Groups.

3.2 Objectives

The main objective ofthe project was to determine whether aboriginal use ofthe Skyline Trail System occurred. Specifically, the objectives were to:

• Determine whether archaeological sites are associated with the present Skyline Trail; • Determine the distribution ofarchaeological sites in association with the Skyline Trail; • Determine the time-frame represented by archaeological sites associated with Skyline Trail; • Apply the information gathered from the project to archaeological overview assessment models currently being used in the general and analogous areas; • Train local First Nation's members in the archaeological method in order to provide future employment opportunities; • Provide St6:lo Nation with information regarding past aboriginal use ofthe Skyline Trail re in a useable format.

3.3 Methodology

The methodology used during this study followed Sections 2.2. and 2.2.1 ofthe Archaeological Inventory Guidelines (Archaeology Branch 2000). The work consisted of three main components: pre-field work; field work; and post-field work. The pre-field work component involved the review ofexisting archaeological and traditional use records and the choosing ofthe study area location. The field work component involved the physical survey ofthe trail system and identification ofarchaeological and/or traditional use sites. The goal ofthe post-field work component was to analyze, assess, synthesize, and explain the results ofthe data gathered in the field. Specifically the three phases involved:

St6:15 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 25 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

3.3.1 Pre-Field Work Component

This was the planning and initial assessment phase ofthe project. Its purpose was to ensure that the following two phases proceeded smoothly and with the desired results. Specifically this component involved: a) A review ofpreviously recorded archaeological sites in file in the Archaeological and Recreation Inventory ofthe Terrestrial Information Branch ofthe Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management as well as other government agencies such as BC Parks and the American National Park Service; b) Discussion ofthe project area with St6:16 Nation elders and/or advisors; c) Delineation ofthe survey area; d) Application for requisite permits (i.e, Section 14 Heritage Inspection Permit, St6:16 Nation Heritage Investigation Permit; BC Parks Permit). e) Field logistics planning.

3.3.2 Field Work Component

Field work methodology involved the actual reconnaissance ofthe areas selected during the Pre-Field work phase. This work included a 2-day initial reconnaissance conducted in July of2002 and an intensive 1O-day reconnaissance in September of2002. Specifically field work involved: a) Pedestrian survey ofselected areas. Researchers searched for physical signs of traditional and early historic use ofthe landscape. Features and artifacts sought included: cultural depressions such as cache and plant processing pits; lithic (stone) tools and waste from the production and maintenance ofstone tools; culturally modified trees; burial mounds and cairns; trail beds other than the maintained recreational sections; food remains such as bone and charred plants; rock art (i.e., petroglyphs and pictographs); trails; architectural remains such as cabins; and any other obvious cultural remains.

Survey was conducted systematically along the entire Skyline and Hozameen Ridge Trails to the west ofDespair Pass. Areas to the east ofDespair Pass were briefly investigated during the initial reconnaissance but were no revisited during the latter intensive survey. Walkable areas (i.e., not excessively steep areas) peripheral to the trail were also surveyed up to a distance up to 2 km away from the main trail. These sorties away from the trail concentrated primarily on ridgeline areas, flat basin or terrace areas near to water sources, and areas that appeared to have potential for containing rock shelters (very few). Normally, researchers were spaced between 10 and 30 m apart; however, due to steepness in some areas, it was necessary to follow in a single line. Upon identifying cultural material or features the survey crew tightened transects to no more than 5 m apart.

St6:1O Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 26 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) b) Collection ofimportant (e.g., complete and/or diagnostic) artifacts and/or artifacts that appeared to be in immediate danger or disturbance (such as unauthorized collection) or destruction. c) Judgmental subsurface testing (shovel testing) within the proposed survey areas in order to establish whether buried archaeological deposits exist. Shovel testing was used as a site discovery technique in areas which appeared to be appropriate places for past human activity but lacked surface evidence (e.g., raise levellandforms adjacent to aquatic features, viewpoints, etc.). There tests generally entailed the excavation of a roughly circular hole approximately 30 cm in diameter. Removed matrix was passed though a 6 mm screen in order to ensure the discovery ofmost cultural material. No positive shovel tests were conducted during the survey as most material identified was readily visible on the surface. d) Evaluative testing (Apland and Kenny 1998:12-13) was conducted only at identified site DgRf 1 (Mowich Camp). This testing was conducted as it was considered necessary to obtain more date to properly assess the depth, extent and integrity ofarchaeological deposits. Shovel testing was not conducted in this area in order to limit the extent of disturbance within the popular hiking destination. Evaluative tests consisted oftwo 1 x 1 m excavation units dug in arbitrary 5 and 10 cm levels. All matrix was passed through a 6 mm screen in order to ensure the discovery ofmost archaeological material. All cultural material recovered during evaluative testing was collected and recorded according to site, test number, stratigraphic layer, and depth below ground surface. Artifacts discovered in situ were recorded three dimensionally by measuring the distance from the nearest two unit walls and their depth below surface. Floor plans were drawn at the completion ofeach level. Each test was conducted until culturally sterile deposits appeared to be reached. e) Site boundaries were determined primarily through surface archaeological evidence (as visibility was generally excellent and shovel testing was limited in order to avoid unnecessary disturbance) and the margins ofnatural landforms (e.g., a section of ridgeline or terrace). Sites were not flagged in the field in order to avoid attracting attention to them. f) All four sites identified were mapped in the field using a chain and compass and a handheld global positioning system unit. g) All identified sites were recorded with a digital and film format camera.

St6:lo Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 27 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

3.3.3 Post-Field Work Component

The Post-field work component involved the synthesis, analysis, and archiving ofthe archaeological sites identified in the field following methods as outlined in the Archaeological Inventory Guidelines (Archaeology Branch 2000). Specifically it involved: b) Analysis ofcollected artifacts. Lithic artifacts were measured and described placing them in morphological and functional categories. It was not possible to place them in temporal categories as diagnostic artifacts were not recovered. Lithic raw material for each artifact was determined through discussion with researchers familiar with the study area. c) Computer drafting ofsite maps as per Section 2.4 and 2.4.1 ofthe Archaeological Inventory Guidelines, Version 1 (Archaeology Branch 2000). d) Scanning and illustration ofimportant artifacts. e) Completion and submission ofBritish Columbia Site Inventory Forms for sites which appear to pre-date 1846. This ensures that identified sites are protected under the Heritage Conservation Act (1996). f) The writing and distribution ofthis final archaeological inventory survey report which includes the findings ofthe survey and analysis.

3.3.4 Artifact Repository

Collected artifacts have been curated at the St6:l5 Nation Material Culture Repository (1­ 7201 Vedder Road, Chilliwack, RC. V2R 4G5). David Schaepe will oversee the ongoing curation ofthe artifacts on behalfofthe Department ofAboriginal Rights and Title at St6:15 Nation.

3.3.5 Site Significance Evaluation Methodology

Ap1and and Kenny (1996) separate significance into five different categories including Scientific, ethnic, historic, public, and economic. Scientific significance is based upon the ability ofa site to provide further data which could significantly improve our understanding ofthe culture history ofa region. Ethnic significance refers to the traditional, social or religious importance ofa site to a particular community. Historic significance is based upon whether or not a site is somehow connected with an event or person in history considered important in British Columbia's past. Public significance assesses whether or not the site is accessible to the general public and whether or not it contains features that could be appreciated by the public. Economic significance refers to the ability ofa site to somehow create revenue (e.g., a heritage park with visitation fees) which links it closely with its public significance.

8t6:lo Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 28 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

4.0 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS AND RESULTS

A total of four precontact archaeological sites were identified during the 2002 survey (Sites DgR f 1 through 4; for survey coverage and general site locations see Figure 8, detailed maps and photos presented below). All sites identified consisted of a surface and/or subsurface scatter of lithic artifacts and material located primarily along ridgelines and secondly within protected areas such as basins (however with good access to ridgelines).

4.1 DgRf 1 (Mowich Camp)

Site DgRf 1 is in the same location as the recreational 'Mowich Camp' campsite used by climbers and hikers following the Skyline Trail. Mowich Camp is located 7.6 km @ 250° (WSW) ofStrawberry Flats; 3.3. km @ 130° (NW) ofthe inlet to Thunder Lake; 7.3 km @ 62° (NE) ofwhere the Skagit River flows into Ross Lake Reservoir (Figures 9-13; Tables 1 and 2). The Site is located in a hollow at the headwaters oftributaries ofMowich and Nepopekum Creeks.

The site consists ofa moderately rich scatter of surface and subsurface lithics which include both formed tools and debitage. No temporally diagnostic artifacts were recovered from the surface or within the two evaluative tests conducted at the site in 2002. Conventional shovel testing was not conducted in order to maximize the amount ofinformation from the site while minimizing the impact to it. The table below (Table 2) lists the wide variety oflithic materials collected from the two evaluative units and the single formed artifact (a knife fragment; DgRf 1:9) recovered from the surface directly within the Skyline Trail tread. Table 1 below describes the matrix encountered during testing.

Table 1. Stratigraphic Profile.

---0 El -;l-< =l-< Depth .....= = 0 Matrix Description (colour, texture, composition) C"l (cm below surface) l-< .:::: '" ..... = ~ 1J.J ub I Y 0-5 Medium brown sandy silt with very few gravels and the occasional small to medium-sized cobble, lithics, bone. 2 Y 5-15 Dark brown sandy silt with a moderate amount ofsmall gravels and the occasional medium to large-sized cobble, lithics. 3 Y 15-27 Tan-brown sandy silt with a large amount ofsmall gravels and the occasional medium to large-sized cobble, lithics. 4 N Yellowish-brown coarse silty sand with a large amount of small to medium-sized gravels and cobbles increasing with depth (glacial till).

St6:lo Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 29 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

Figure 9. ~l Skagit Valley and Manning Pork Projects \~..:,., Sto:lo "Nation. (2002) Skyline Trai/ Survey Project

Recorded Sites

Figure 9. Location ofSites DgRf 1-4 identified during the 2002 survey ofthe Skyline Trail.

816:10 Nation Pennrt #20020{)37 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 30 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

1: 1,000 Scale UTM Projection Zone 10, DatumNAD83 10 0 10 20 Meters !M';;; L,!iiiiJ

Figure 10. Legend I Skyline Trail df Large Dolomite Flake ...•.__. Foot Trail Hearth ~1- Stone Knife on Trail -\I Slope () Rock i DgRf 1 x Surface Lithics -;> Creek :11 Food Cache Estimated Site Treeline Il!l!l Log Shelter I 5t6:16 Nation Aboriginal Rights & Title Dept. r:!'-? I GIS Technician, Leeanna Rhodes Boundary -- Contour @ 20 m IIi Outhouse ! Archaeologists, Dave 5chaepe & lan Franck o Evaluative TestI Date: Jan 16th, 2003

5t6:lo NatIOn Pemut #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 31 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

DgRf 1(Mowich Camp) is well situated immediately east and below ofHozameen Ridge, which leads directly to the base ofMount Hozameen (North Peak), and immediately west of a prominent ridge system which skirts Lone Goat and Snow Camp Mountains. It is also an obvious decanting point for travelers moving southward along the ridge offofNepopekum Mountain and offers excellent access to the Skagit Valley down the west side ofNepopkum and Hozameen Ridges. It is located in a sheltered hollow with year-round water and wood for fuel.

It is believed that this location was likely used as a base camp to access several important alpine and subalpine areas. Further planned excavations hope to identify the exact time­ frame represented at the site as well as the tasks conducted there. Knives, scrapers and utilized flakes recovered from the evaluative tests do suggest that the processing of animals did occur at the site; however what animals were been processed (presumably deer but also perhaps goat and others) is unknown and can only be determined through further excavation and the identification ofa hearth(s) with preserved faunal remains.

St6:1o NatIOn Penmt #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 32 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

I Figure 12. Knife and its location recovered from Skyline Trail running through DgRf 1, looking south southeast.

Table 2. Lithics collected from the surface and Evaluative Tests 1 and 2 from Site DgRf 1 in 2002.

DgRf1 (Mowich Camp) Evaluative Test #1 lc:lv~i'i i\.lja~if)~iCili Art l"ypa #of Descripiion Size Length Width Thick. ICAT# Machine cut round end 2 0-5 cm Metal Nail 4.00 nails medium Medium-grained Projectile point tip, distal 3 0-5 cm metasediment Biface frag. 1.00 end missina medium 1.13 cm 1.27 cm 0.30 cm Tan fine-grained Large irregularly-shaped 1 0-5 cm metasediment (Silstone) Core 1.00 core large 8.54 cm 6.79 cm 3.30 cm Core Small core piece with 4 0-5 cm Chalcedony Shatter 1.00 corte small 1.30 cm 0.94 cm 0.83 cm Fossiliferous (speckled) 4 0-5 cm chart Flake 4.00 Thinnina flakes small Coarse-grained 4 0-5 cm metasediment Flake 9.00 Thinnina flakes small 0-5 cm lAllenby Chert Flake 23.00 Thinning flakes small 4 Medium-grained 4 0-5 cm metasediment F!al

St6:1O NatIOn Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002·249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 33 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

Level 2 Material Art. Tvpe #of Description Size Lenath Width Thick. 5-15 cm Hozameen Chert Flake 7.00 Thinnina flakes medium-small 8 5-15 cm Silstone Flake 1.00 Hard Hammer Flake larae 8 Medium-grained 8 5-15 cm metasediment Flake 6.00 Hard Hammer Flake medium-Iarae Coarse-grained 8 5-15 cm metasediment Flake 18.00 Thinnina flakes small-medium 5-15 cm Unknown Unknown 1.00 Incised Rock medium 5 5-15 cm Faunal N/A 1.00 Calcined bone fraa. small 7 Machine cut round end 6 5-15 cm Metal Nail 10.00 nails medium Total # of Lithics: 33.00 D!(Rf1 (Mowich Camp) Evaluative Test #2 Level 1 Material Art. Tvpe #of Description Size Lenath Width Thick. CAT.# Fine-grained 12 0-5 cm metasediment Flake 1.00 Small thinnina flake small Total # of Lithics' 100 Level 2 Material Art. Type #of Description Size Lenqth Width Thick. Medium-grained Small to large flakes and 12 5-10 cm metasediment Flake 7.00 fraaments varied Fine-grained Distal end of biface, 10 5-10 cm metasediment Biface fraa. 1.00 snapped transverselv small 1.33 cm 0.84 cm 0.34 cm Large hard hammer 12 5-10 cm Hozameen Chert Flake 1.00 flake lame 5-10 cm Chalcedonv Flake 1.00 Soft hammer flake small 12 Total # of Lithics' 1000 Level 3 Material Art. Tvpe #of Description Size Lenath Width Thick. Medium-grained 12 10-15 cm metasediment Flake 3.00 Thinnina flakes small Total # of Lithics' 300 Level 4 Material Art. Type #of Description Size Lenqth Width Thick. Medium-grained Large hard hammer 12 15-20 cm metasediment Flake 2.00 flakes larae Thinning flake with 11 Medium-grained Utilized microflake removal 15-20 cm metasediment flake 1.00 alona one marain medium 2.83 cm 2.22 cm 0.28 cm 12 15-20 cm Chalcedonv Flake 1.00 Thinnina flake medium Total # of Lithics: 4.00 DJgJRf 1 (MOWIC. h Camp ) Surf:ace p'IndS Surface Material Art. Type #of Description Size Length Width Thick. CAT.# Large knife tip, split 9 obliquely, displays Coarse-grained discontinuous bifacial metasediment Knife/biface 1.00 retouch larae 7.64 cm 3.00 cm 0.72 cm Raw materials present at DgRf 1 are quite extensive including several varieties of Allenby Chert (from the Similkameen area), obsidian (source unknown; could be from some distance away and could be sources through XRF analysis), metasediment (various types; local sources), Hozameen chert (local sources), fossiliferous chert (unknown source; likely local), dolomite and chalcedony (sources unknown; likely local). This array of materials indicates the movement of goods and people into the area from some distance away as well as illustrates a knowledge oflocal sources. A particularly large piece of metasediment (a core) recovered from Evaluative Test #1 indicates that a source for this material is very likely nearby perhaps eroding out of the stream bank. Further investigation at the site will hopefully pinpoint its location.

St6:15 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Sk-jline Trail, Manning and Skagit 34 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

RAW MATERIALS IDENTIFIED

-~- -~ - - , .. . ,.'

- .., . . '­ .1 Fine-grained metasediment Coarse-grained metasediment Medium-grained metasediment

-I I

Chalcedony J Obsidian (unknown non-local variety)

Hozameen AIlenby Chert A1lenby Chert (Variety 2) Chart (Variety 1) ~t'".~;;- ,~~ I --:J#--;.~,- ._ 1.--:<1t!6I....-. , . • .- , , , .' ~ ,. -,.l ~ ... -.'~ . .,. , ·1 ~ ....." ',11 A1lenby Chart AIlenby Chart A1lenby Chert (Variety 3) (Variety 4) (Variety 5)

Figure 13. Raw materials recovered during evaluative testing and from the surface of Site DgRfl.

Fossiliferous Chert (Speckled Chart)

St6:Io Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 35 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

4.2 DgRf2

Site DgRf2is located along the Hozameen Ridge Trail 1.5 km north ofthe international border; 6 km SSE (164°) ofNepopekum Mountain; 3.5 km V-1NW (278°) ofLone Mountain and; 3.25 km SSW (195°) ofMowich Camp (DgRf 1) (Figures 9, 14 and 15).

The site consists ofonly a single utilized metasediment flake identified on the surface along the west side ofthe main trail. It is believed that foot traffic (human and animal) have exposed only portions ofthe site with other evidence occurring in anthills, ground squirrel holes, etc. Due to the sensitivity ofthe area inspection involved only surface examination with no shovel testing conducted.

Obviously insufficient artifactual material was identified at the site to draw any conclusions with respect to its function or period ofuse. It does fall along a prominent ridge however, which likely served as an important transportation route offering ease oftravel and excellent viewpoints. This artifact may simply reflect an item lost or discarded while moving along the ridge between more heavily used site areas.

Mount Hozameen (North Peak)

DgRf 3 (lithic scatter DgRf 2 (isolate) Mount Hozameen ~I atlha base of Mt. Hozameen) (SOMtte Peak)

.:J" .;:.~;~,! l~. ~ J .- ,:;, '!fr' •.•:'!f.".P' .'.. Figure 14. Intersection ofthe Skyline and Hozameen Ridge Trails showing the approximate locations ofidentified Sites DgRf2 and 3, looking southeast.

St6:!o Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 36 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

///.------/~"~

·I ·I• l DgRf 2 I I I

I· I ------/ I· / · .:· ------{/ )

UTM Projection Zone 10 Datum NAD 83 .0__-- 60 m

1:2,000 scale

St6:lo Nation Aboriginal Rights & Title Dept. Legend DgRf 2 GIS Technician, Leeanna Rhodes 6 Isolated Flake Archaeologists, Dave Schaepe & lan Franck Trail Date: lan 16th, 2003 ""I" Slope ->- Drainage Figure 15. General plan map ofidentified Site DgRf2.

8t6:10 NatIon PermIt #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 37 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

4.3 DgRf3

Site DgRf3 is located in along the Hozameen Ridge Trail 0.5 km north ofthe international border; 6.85 km SSE (166°) ofNepopekum Mountain; 3.65 km WSW (264°) ofLone Mountain and; 4.1 km SSW (195°) ofMowich Camp (DgRf 1) (Figures 9, 14, 16, 17). It is situated on a moderately large flat just north ofthe first steep upward pitch to the north peak ofMount Hozameen. The headwaters ofa small unnamed creek are located to the northwest ofthe site area at the bottom ofa steep slope. Mowich Creek runs approximately 1 km to the east ofthe site at the base ofwhat is essentially a cliff.

This site consists offour small concentrations oftiny to small black metasediment and possibly basalt flakes and one larger isolated utilized metasediment flake. Due to the sensitivity ofthe area inspection involved only surface examination with no shovel testing conducted.

This large flat area at the base ofthe north peak ofMount Hozameen represents the furthest area along the ridge that one can easily walk before steep upward pitches begin. As such it may have held people for short periods oftime before decisions were made to travel elsewhere likely serving as short term camp location and meeting place. The presence of concentrations ofsmall sharpening flakes suggest relatively short stays in this area. Subsurface investigation might reveal more sustained use.

Mount Hozameen

Figure 16. View of Site DgRf 3 showing the trail bed (of the Hozameen Ridge Trail), looking southeast.

St6:1O Nation Penmt #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 38 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

,N

/ / / 0" <$:'b?' "'~// '\'/ // 1:1,000 Scale DIMProjection Zone 10, Datum NAD83 . / //~ 10 0 10 20 30,/Meters ~~-~~~-~~)/ / /' DgRf3 Legend 5t6:1o Nation Aboriginal Rights & Title Dept. Lll: Utilized Flake ...... Foot Trail GI5 Technician, Leeanna Rhodes .)( Basalt Flake I"'"f Slope Archaeologists, Dave 5chaepe & lan Franck Flake Scatter

St6:10 NatIOn Penmt #20020037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozam~en: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 39 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

4.4 DgRf4

Site DgRf4 is located north ofthe Skyline Trail (~500 m); 0.6 km NNW (346°) ofLone Goat Mountain; 2.2 km SSW (198°) ofRed Mountain and; 3.35 km W ofDespair Pass along a saddle/ridge between Lone Goat and Red Mountains Figures 9, 18-21).

This site currently consists ofonly two artifacts observed on the surface; one medium-sized biface perform (Figure 19) and one thinning flake. Both artifacts are made ofthe local black medium-grained metasediment (see Figure 13). A single shovel test placed near the edge of the ridgeline did not reveal any buried archaeological deposits (Figure 21). Further shovel tests were not conducted in this area out ofa concern for unnecessarily impacting the ground surface. This area is believed to have a very slow rate ofdeposition due to its exposed context and is, therefore, not believed to have any substantial buried cultural material. It is likely that further artifacts exist just below the surface which are bound to become exposed during ongoing soil deflation processes.

This site probably represents occasional use of the area for short term camping while traveling through the area and/or as a vantage point from which to monitor game in the broad bowl to the east. The site should be monitored now and again in order to recover and record artifacts as they become exposed through natural deflation.

lone Goat ,Mountain

Figure 18. Location ofArchaeological Site DgRf4, looking southeast.

St6:1o NatIOn Penmt #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 40 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

Figure 19. Biface perform identified at site DgRf4 (not collected) o

Figure 20. View of Site DgRf 4 showing the location of identified biface perfonn (see Figure 19), looking south.

St6:1o NatIOn Penmt #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 41 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

\

1:500 Scale UTM Projection Zone 10, Datum N 83 10 o 10

DgRf4 Legend 5t6:lo Nation Aboriginal Rights & Title Dept. B Biface -11 Slope GI5 Technician, Leeanna Rhodes " Basalt Flake c0? Treeline Archaeologists, Dave 5chaepe & lan Franck o Negative Shovel Test -- Contour @ 20 m Date: lan 16th, 2003 Estimated Site Boundary

Figure 21. General plan map ofidentified Site DgRf4.

8t6:lo Nation Penmt #2002:037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 42 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

5.0 SITE SIGNIFICANCE ASSESSMENT

The methodology for arriving at site significance is discussed in Section 3.3.5. Significance ratings for each site have been provided using the significance rating system as outlined in the Archaeological Impact Assessment Guidelines (Apland and Kenny) and also using the system formulated by BC Gas. The latter system has been developed simply to rate one site from another in respect to further work concerns for BC Gas and in no way attempts to evaluate any other archaeological concerns (i.e., that is scientific, ethnic, public, historic or economic; see Section 3.3.5 for further detail).

5.1 DgRf 1 (Mowich Camp)

Scientific Significance: The 'Scientific' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'high' as this site falls with a biophysical region (subalpine parkland) that is little understood by archaeologists and appears to have substantial buried archaeological deposits which could greatly improve this understanding ifexcavated.

Ethnic Significance: The 'Ethnic' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'high' through discussions with St6:lo Nation advisors, elders and professionals. This is based somewhat on the same rational as that stated above for 'Scientific Significance' as well as the fact it shows important land-use information which corroborates oral and written histories ofSt6:lo Nation and, undoubtedly, other concerned First Nations organizations.

Historic Significance: The 'Historic' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'non­ applicable' as there does not appear to be any significant historical event, person, or human activity that took place in the early historic period at this location.

Public Significance: The 'Public' significance ofthis site is 'high' due it location within a popular backcountry camping location.

Economic Significance: The 'Economic' significance ofthis site is 'medium' as it may be possible to design eco-tourism programs in association with this site (e.g., guided excavations; interpretive signage, etc.).

5.2 DgRf2

Scientific Significance: The 'Scientific' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'low' because ofthe fact that, while it is located in an area with very little prior archaeological knowledge, it does not appear to hold significant (or necessarily any further) artifacts that could improve our understanding ofthe aboriginal use ofthe area.

Ethnic Significance: The 'Ethnic' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'high' as it displays the aboriginal use ofan area that has been documented in written and oral histories by several First Nations groups including St6:lo Nation.

St6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 43 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

Historic Significance: The 'Historic' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'non­ applicable' as there does not appear to be any significant historical event, person, or human activity that took place in the early historic period at this location.

Public Significance: The 'Public' significance ofthis site is 'low' since there is very little archaeological interpretation for this apparent 'isolated find' that would be ofinterest to the general sight-seeing public, not to mention the rather difficult access to the site area.

Economic Significance: The 'Economic' significance ofthis site is 'low' due to its relative inaccessibility and lack ofresources that could be developed into a revenue building endeavor.

5.3 DgRf3

Scientific Significance: The 'Scientific' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'medium' as this site falls with a biophysical region (subalpine parkland) that is little understood by archaeologists and may have buried archaeological deposits which could greatly improve this understanding ifexcavated. Its prominent location at the base ofMount Hozameen would presumably have attracted people continually over time and should, therefore, hold some significant artifactual material; however, identifying this material would likely require substantial subsurface exploration which would greatly damage this sensitive area.

Ethnic Significance: The 'Ethnic' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'high' as it displays the aboriginal use ofan area that has been documented in written and oral histories by several First Nations groups including St6:15 Nation.

Public Significance: The 'Public' significance ofthis site is 'medium' due to its spectacular location at the foot ofMount Hozameen, a location visited by many groups ofhikers and climbers in the summer months. While there are few artifacts that would be readily identifiable by most people, a possibility oferecting interpretive signage does exist.

Economic Significance: The 'Economic' significance ofthis site is 'low' due to its relative inaccessibility and lack ofresources that could be developed into a revenue building endeavor.

5.4 DgRf4

Scientific Significance: The 'Scientific' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'low' because ofthe fact that, while it is located in an area with very little prior archaeological knowledge, it does not appear to hold significant (or necessarily any further) artifacts that could improve our understanding ofthe aboriginal use ofthe area.

Ethnic Significance: The 'Ethnic' significance ofthis site is considered to be 'high' as it displays the aboriginal use ofan area that has been documented in written and oral histories by several First Nations groups including St6:15 Nation.

St6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 44 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002)

Public Significance: The 'Public' significance ofthis site is 'low' since few archaeological resources exist that would be ofinterest to the general sight-seeing public, not to mention the rather difficult access to the site area (i.e., it is some distance from the main trail up a steep slope).

Economic Significance: The 'Economic' significance ofthis site is 'low' due to its relative inaccessibility and lack ofresources that could be developed into a revenue building endeavor.

6.0 DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The sites identified during the 2002 field season in the area ofthe Skyline (and Hozameen Ridge) Trail have greatly added to our understanding ofthis important travel corridor and general use area. They complement sites recorded within Skagit Valley Park by Franck (2000); Lepofsky et at. (1999); Rousseau (1988); and Bush (1997, 1998), not to mention many archaeological resources identified by North Cascades Park Archaeologist Bob Mierendorfto the south ofthe international line (e.g., Mierendorf 1986, 1987, 1991, 1993, 1997, 1998, 1999; Mierendorf et al. 1998, 1999). While still at its infancy, research within the North Cascade Mountains has made significant leaps over the last decade. Once considered to be a marginally, ifnot an entirely unused part ofthe landscape, the researchers mentioned above have proven that the area was significantly important to aboriginal people in the far past, the protohistoric time period, and continuing today. Our largest task, scientifically, is to generate more hard data particularly from excavated contexts with accompanying dates, faunal analysis, etc.

In addition to the obvious need for further hard empirical data it is equally important that we continue to assemble knowledge from people who traditionally used the area. Much ofthis information has been lost due to the sad fact that many ofthe elders ofFirst Nations who used or were knowledgeable ofthis area have now passed on. Fortunately, other lines of evidence, particularly linguistic, could shed light on the use ofthese areas. For example, as mentioned earlier in this report (see Section 2.6.1), there are several Halkomelem words for prominent landscape features within the North Cascade Mountains. Other groups that used this area should also have names which specifically refer to landscape features in this area. It would be ofinterest to compare these to the Halkomelem words. Beyond geographic place names it would also be interesting to see ifany shared names occur for simple topographic mountain elements (e.g., tarns, avalanche chutes, cirques, etc.). Ifthis really was a shared use area important for meetings ofdifferent cultures it would be expected that at least some terms are shared by different cultures; serving basically as a high-elevation jargon language (similar to the Chinookjargon used for trade throughout the Northwest).

As mentioned in Section 2.9 aboriginal uses ofhigh elevations areas may not always follow strict resource-based and dependent criteria. Obviously, with this in mind, research cannot continue to simply follow conventional site identification methodology. Some sites may be so physically subtle or only recognizable through complex context that conventional methodology may overlook them. Developing alternative methodology will not be easy;

St6:15 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 45 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) however, realization that there might be a problem with conventional methodology is the first step. A long list ofsite attributes associated with non-resource-based sites needs to be generated first. This data must then, ifpossible, be directly integrated into how we physically view the landscape. Ofcourse the visibility ofsome criteria may be impossible for most people (e.g., areas ofhigh spiritual energy) but it might be high time to put 'spiritually in-tune' people into to these areas and just see what happens and set empirical wisdom to the side for awhile. Regardless, ifwe do look for areas ofspiritual importance there should be at least some physical evidence. Ifpeople were attracted to an area, even for a completely non-utilitarian reason, chances are something would have been left behind. It is our job, as archaeologists, to figure out what this might be.

Our most easily rectified data gap within the North Cascades is that ofexcavated site data and at least one site identified during this study (Site DgR1; Mowich Camp) has a very good chance ofproviding some ofthis information and should be pursued. In fact, a series of excavations ofsites identified in the North Cascades would greatly improve our knowledge base ofthe aboriginal use ofthis mountainous area. This would include several sites identified south ofthe international border by Mierendorf (1991, 1993, 1997, 1998, 1999) and to the north by Franck (2000) and Franck and Schaepe (2002).

Ofcourse more survey would always be valuable and should not be overlooked particularly ifit can identify further sites with substantial subsurface deposits that would be appropriate for excavation. These surveys may want to step away from ridgelines where sites are often easily identified but do not normally contain any significant depth ofdeposit and focus instead on sheltered basin areas below ridgelines (near water) and ultimately rock shelters or caves.

The archaeology ofthe North Cascades is at an exciting turning point that is bound to generate more and more important data. Only diligent, thoughtful, and ongoing research will make sure that we reach an understanding that comes close to the reality ofwhat happened in these steep places in the past.

St6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 46 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002)

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St6:15 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 59 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) anthropogenic materials Earth materials modified by human activities to the extent that their physical properties (e.g., structure, cohesion, consolidation) have been drastically altered. It includes soil heaps and fill. archaeological remains Any materials or substances that were manufactured, altered, modified, conditioned, or transported by human activity or under human influence. artifact Any object that was manufactured, altered, modified, or transported by human activity or human influence. basalt A dark gray to black igneous rock varying in texture from very fine to coarse-grained; a rock commonly used in British Columbia for the manufacture ofpre-contact artifacts. biface A stone tool manufactured by removing flakes from both faces. Knives and projectile points are normally bifaces. bifacial Refers to both faces, or surfaces. Back and front.

RP. Before Present; in radiocarbon dating, refers to the number ofcarbon years before the year A.D. 1950. cairn A built rock pile. conchoidal A geologic term that describes a distinctive rock or mineral fracture leaving smooth, curved surfaces, such as are characteristic ofglass or obsidian. chalcedony A variety ofquartz (silicon dioxide) often softened with some iron and aluminum; occurs in varieties suitable for the manufacture ofprecontact artifacts. Capable ofproducing a conchoidal fracture. chert Siliceous quartz. Occurs in a wide spectrum ofcolours throughout British Columbia. Capable ofproducing a conchoidal fracture. Suitable for the manufacture ofprecontact artifacts. contact That time ofthe first sustained contact between the indigenous people ofBritish Columbia with Europeans. Occurs between ca. A.D. 1800-1850 in British Columbia. culture A complex body or assemblage ofhuman beliefs, art, morals, customs, religion, and laws, which has evolved and is handed down though the generations as a force that determines behaviour and standard social characteristics ofa society. In archaeological and ethnographic context, the term cultural refers to materials, objects, or features ofhuman origin and can be considered to be the opposite of 'natural'. cultural depression A pit excavated into the ground for the purpose ofconstructing a dwelling (e.g., a pithouse), for the storage of food (i.e., a cache pit), cooking (e.g., a root roasting pit), or for burials.

St6:16 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 60 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest B.C. Project Year Number One (2002) culturally modified tree (CMT) A tree that has been intentionally modified by humans during the extraction ofconstruction materials (e.g., bark, planks), food and medicine (e.g., cambium, pitch), or for orienteering (e.g., a blaze). CMTs in British Columbia are normally associated with First Nations people. debitage or detritus (see lithic waste) diagnostic artifact An artifact ofa specific shape or function which is associated with a known time period established by excavation ofsimilar artifacts in dateable contexts. diffusion The spread ofideas from one culture to another. distal Far from the point ofattachment or origin, such as the far end ofextremity ofa landform. ethnography The scientific description and classification ofthe various cultural groups ofpeople, based on First Nations testimony and participant feature A recognizable, physical association ofartifacts or archaeological materials; examples include cooking hearth, house floor, mound, rock pile, pit, etc. Features generally are non-portable. flake A fragment ofstone removed from a larger stone mass, and that has recognizable attributes ofa conchoidal fracture. flakeable lithic material A type ofrock or mineral that breaks with a conchoidal fracture and is thereby useful for the manufacture of flaked stone tools. fluvial A comprehensive term for several stream or river processes, involving the transport and deposition ofmaterials by water; alluvial (syn.). formed tools Tools ofany material that were manufactured to a particular shape or style. historic In British Columbia the historic period is defined as any time dating after 1846 and is generally distinguished by the presence ofwritten documents. impact Describes a positive or negative change in the environment through space or time as a result ofhuman, nonhuman (natural), or abiotic activity.

Holocene The last ca. 10,000 years oftime; the non-glacial epoch sine the last great ice age; the present time is considered to be part ofthe Holocene. land use A culture or society's (or group thereof) characteristic patterns or settlement and subsistence.

St6:l6 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 61 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002) lithic Made ofstone, rock, or mineral lithic scatter A broad category ofarchaeological site characterized predominately by the presence offlaked stone artifacts. lithic waste The stone byproducts (flakes and shatter) resulting from the manufacture and maintenance ofstone tools. Debitage, Detritus (synm.) model A conceptual unit that organizes a body offactual information into a more general framework. outwash Glaciofluvial sediments deposited by glacial meltwater downstream from a glacier. petroglyphs Pictures that have been pecked into stone. pictographs Pictures that have been painted on stone.

Pleistocene The geological epoch characterized by the advance and retreat oflarge continental glaciers; the Pleistocene ended ca. 10,000 years ago. pre-contact That time previous to the first sustained contact between the indigenous people ofBritish Columbia with Europeans. In British Columbia, it is the time previous to ca. A.D. 1800-1850. prehistoric/prehistory A general time period distinguished by the absence ofwritten records or documents. pressure flaking Removal offlakes by pressing the point ofa bone, antler, or wood flaking implement directly against the edge ofa stone to be worked and applying steady pressure to push a flake off. projectile point An object used as the penetrating tip on a projectile such as an arrow, spear, or dart. radiocarbon dating A method ofdating based on the natural radioactivity ofcarbon; only organic materials are dated directly. retouch Finishing process in which the edge ofa stone tool is intentionally flaked. shatter those pieces ofwaste material from the manufacture ofstone tools that do not exhibit the characteristics of conchoidal fracture. Shatter generally occurs in angular or cubical pieces. single component site Sites that exhibit evidence ofonly one cultural occupation. site A location identifiable as a place ofhuman activity.

St6:16 Nation Pennit #2002-037 Provincial Pennit # 2002-249 In the Shadow ofHozameen: An Archaeological Inventory ofthe Skyline Trail, Manning and Skagit 62 Valley Provincial Parks, Southwest RC. Project Year Number One (2002) stratigraphy Natural geologic layering or stratification in a sedimentary deposit, soil or bedrock. tephra A volcanic ash layer or deposit. terrace Any relatively level or gently inclined surface, generally less broad than a plain, bounded along one side by a steeper descending slope or scarp. Many terraces in British Columbia have been formed by glacial outwash or by the downcutting ofa stream or river. utilized flake a flake exhibiting wear along its edge(s) from having been used. Can be denoted by striations, rounding, or microflake removal along an edge. uniface A stone tool manufactured by removing flakes from only one side. Scrapers are normally unifaces. unifacial Refers to one face, shaped or worked on one face only. wetland A general term used to describe areas ofland that are inundated by surface water or groundwater. x-ray fluorescence; XRF A technique used to measure the amount oftrace elements in glassy rocks; upon subjecting a rock sample to high energy x-rays, a distinctive spectrum ofenergy emissions provides a geochemical signature specific to each glassy rock source.

St6:16 Nation Permit #2002-037 Provincial Permit # 2002-249