CoNTRIBUTORS

JOLANTA AMBROSEWICZ-JACOBS is a researcher and lecturer at the Centre for European Studies of the J agiellonian University in Cracow. A native ofVllnius, she holds an M.A. and Ph.D. from the Jagiellonian University. She was a Fellow at the Center for the Study of Human Rights at Columbia University (1996), at the Simon Wiesenthal Center in New York ( 1997), and at the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (2000-200 1 ). Ms. Ambrosewicz-Jacobs is currently co-chair ofthe working group "Education for Tolerance" of the OSCE/ODIHRAdvisory Panel of Experts on Free• dom of Religion or Belief. She is a member of the European Consortium for Political Research's Standing Group on Extremism & Democracy and is involved in numerous educational projects that focus on social, ethnic, and religious prejudices, intercultural edu• cation, and politics of reconciliation. Her areas of research and publications focus on the evaluation ofeffects ofeducation on attitudes, mechanisms ofxenophobia, and intolerance.

ABDELFATTAH AMORis Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Committee. He was appointed United Nations Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief in 199 3. Mr. Amor is currently based at the faculty of juridical, political, and social science at the University ofTunis and has worked as a higher education lecturer since 1979.

ARCHBISHOP DR. ANASTASIOS (YANNOULATOS) OF TIRANA AND ALL ALBANIA is Professor emeritus of the University ofAthens and a Corresp. Member of the Academy ofAthens. He studied Theology at the University ofAthens and History of Religions at the Universities of Hamburg and Marburg, Germany, with the Alexander von Rumbold scholarship. Archbishop Anastasios received a B.D. from the University of Athens, highest distinction, a Th.D. from the University of Athens, summa cum laude, a Th.D. (honoris causa) from three Theological Faculties, a Ph.D. (honoris causa) from seven universities, and an M.D. (honoris causa) from the University of Patras. Archbishop Anastasios is an Honorary Member of the Theological Academy ofMoscow. He was a full Professor ofHistory ofReligions at the University ofAthens ( 1976-1992) and Dean ofthe Theological Faculty ( 1983-1986 ). He was ordained Bishop ofAndroussa in 1972 for the position of the General Director ofApostoliki Diakonia of the Church of Greece (until1991) and was acting Archbishop ofEastMrica from 1981-1990. He is Patriarchal Exarch of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Albania ( 1991) and Archbishop of

Tore Lindholm, W. Cole Durham, Jr., Bahia G. Tahzib-Lie (eds.), Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook, 855-870. © 2004 Koninklijke Brill NTT. 856 • Contributors

Albania (since June 1992 ). He was Moderator ofthe Commission ofWorld Mission and Evangelism of the World Council of Churches ( 1984-1991). Archbishop Anastasios is the author ofeleven books, including Islam: A General Survey ( 1976, 11th ed. 2002) and Universality and Orthodoxy (2000, 2002 ). He has published more than 230 essays and articles in various languages. He has been honored with many international awards, such as the Grand Cross of the Order of Honour of the Hellenic Republic ( 1997) and the Athenagoras Human Rights Award ( 2001). Archbishop Anastasios is a leading Ortho• dox scholar in the field of interreligious dialogue and has struggled as a peacemaker within Albania and the Balkans.

EILEEN BARKER is Professor of Sociology with Special Reference to the Study of Religion at the London School of Economics. For over thirty years Prof. Barker has focused her research on "cults," "sects," new religious movements, and the social reac• tions such movements create. Additionally, since 1989 she has spent much of her time investigating changes in the religious situation ofpost -communist countries. Prof. Barker has produced over 200 publications, including her award -winning books, The Making of aMoonie: Choice or Brainwashing?(Oxford: Blackwell, 1984) and New Religious Move• ments: A Practical Introduction (London: HMSO, 1989). In the late 1980s, with support from the British Government and mainstream churches, Pro£ Barker founded INFORM, a charity that provides accurate, objective, and up-to-date information on new religions. Prof. Barker is the only non-American to have been elected President ofthe Society for the Scientific Study ofReligion.

JEAN BAUBEROT is Professor of History and Sociology of Lai:city and directs the Group of Sociology and Religions and Lalcity. Additionally, Prof. Bauberot is the presi• dent of the Ecole Pratique de Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, where he teaches. Recently the Academie Frans:aise awarded Prof. Bauberot a prize for his publication «une haine oubliee», l'antiprotestantisme avant le pacte lai"que, (avec Valentine Zuber) (Paris: Albin Michel, 2000). Prof. Bauberot is a Doctor of History and a Doctor of Literature and Social Sciences.

LEE BOOTHBY is a Senior Partner at the law firm Boothby & Yingst and is President of the International Commission on Freedom of Conscience. Mr. Boothby also serves as Vice President for the Council on Religious Freedom and is Vice President for the International Academy for Freedom of Religion and Belief. Mr. Boothby has been lead counsel in trials throughout the United States and has argued before the United States Supreme Court on important First Amendment issues. He has consulted with numerous governments in Eastern and Central Europe about church-state relations and interna• tional religious rights and is the author of numerous law review and magazine articles.

KARl ELISABETH B0RRESEN is Professor of Historical Theology/Gender Stud• ies in the Department of Church History at Oslo University. Prof. B0rresen has worked as a Research Fellow for the Norwegian Research Council and the Department of Systematic Theology at Arhus University and as a Research Professor for the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Culture. Prof. B0rresen was a consultant for the World Coun• cil of Churches in Geneve, she is a member of the Conseil de !'association internationale Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 857 d'etudes patristiques, a member ofseveral advisory boards for university research projects, and the Co-Director of a research project at Upsala University. In 1992 she received a Doctor Theologiae Honoris Causa from Uppsala University. Since 1995 she has been a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. Prof. B0rresen has pub• lished eleven books and numerous articles. She received her Doctor Philosophiae from the University of Oslo, and she has studied abroad in Paris, Poitiers, Heidelberg, Mainz, Oxford, and Rome.

H. VICTOR CONDE is Adjunct Professor oflnternational Human Rights and Hu• manitarian Law and Professor in Residence at the Strasbourg Human Rights Program of Trinity Law School, California. He received an L.L.M. in International Human Rights Law at the University ofEssex, England and a J.D. from the University of California at Davis. Prof. Conde fulfilled a United Nations legal internship and received an M.A. in International Human Rights at Simon GreenleafUniversity, California. He has a Diplome in International and Comparative Human Rights Law from the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France. His specializations include religious freedom and international law, the convergence of international human rights, humanitarian law, and international criminal law, and human rights education. Prof. Conde is author of Human Rights in the United States: A Dictionary and Documents (Santa Barbara, Ca.: ABC-CLIO, 2000) and A Handbook ofInternational Human Rights Terminology (Lincoln, Nebr.: Univ. ofNebraska Press, 1999). He is also a member of Amnesty International USA, the Hu• man Rights Education Committee (western U.S.), and the Legal Support Network. He is a practicing lawyer admitted in California and Hawaii.

OZLEM DENLI works as a Research Fellow of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim. Her doctoral project at the intersection ofpolitics and phi• losophy is titled "Islam and Human Rights: The Public Significance ofLiberal Islamism in Turkey." Ms. Denli was born in Istanbul, Turkey in 1966. She majored in Political Science and Sociology at Bosphorus University in Istanbul, Turkey. Ms. Denli did postgraduate studies at the University of Oslo and received a Cand. Polit. degree in the Department of Political Science of the University of Oslo. Her thesis was titled "Islam and the Freedom of Religion or Belief: Perspectives from Contemporary Turkey."

DOUDOU DIENE directs the United Nations' Division oflntercultural Dialogue. Mr. Diene worked as Senegal's representative to UNESCO until1977, when he joined the UNESCO Secretariat as Director of the United Nations' Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization Office. From 1985 until1987, Mr. Diene worked as Deputy Assistant Director-General in the External Relations Sector, as Spokesman for the Director-General, and as Action Director of the Office of Public Information. Mr. Diene directed the task force for the Silk Roads Project until December 1988, at which time he was appointed Director of a project entitled "Integral Study of the Silk Roads: Roads of Dialogue." Within the framework of these Silk Roads projects, Mr. Diene organized several international expeditions to retrace the ancient silk roads in China, Mongolia, and Nepal. He has published a number of articles and has coau• thored a book. Mr. Diene graduated both from the Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (Sciences-Po) and from the University of Caen Law School. He also holds a 858 • Contributors

Ph.D. in Law from the University of Paris. Since his retirement from UNESCO in December 2001, Mr. Diene has been elected by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights as "United Nations Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance."

W. COLE DURHAM, JR. is Gates University Professor of Law at Brigham Young University. He also serves as Co-Chair of the OSCE/ODIHRAdvisory Panel ofEx• perts on Freedom of Religion or Belief and as Vice-President of the International Academy for Freedom ofReligion and Belief. A graduate ofHarvard College and Harvard Law School, Prof. Durham has been heavily involved in comparative law scholarship, with a special emphasis on comparative constitutional law and church-state relations. Prof. Durham has served as the Secretary of the American Society of Comparative Law and is an associate member of the prestigious International Academy of Comparative Law in Paris. He currently serves on the boards of the DePaul Center for Church-State Studies, the J.M. Dawson Institute for Church-State Studies, the Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief, and the International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, and has also served as Chair of both the Comparative Law Section and the Law and Religion Section of the American Association of Law Schools. He has published widely on comparative church-state themes and has testified in Congress, at the state level, and in various foreign countries on religious freedom issues.

INGE EIDSVAG directed the FridtjofNansen Academy in Lillehammer from 1986 to 1998. Mr. Eidsvag now holds the Academy's Free Speech Grant. As a writer and lec• turer, Mr. Eidsvag has initiated and participated in several dialogue projects, has edited six books, and has authored five books. In 1992 he was awarded the Bridge builder Prize.

MALCOLM D. EVANS is Professor of Public International Law at the University of Bristol. Prof. Evans researches the international protection ofhuman rights with particu• lar emphasis on freedom of religion; he also researches torture prevention and maritime law. His principal publications include Relevant Circumstances and Maritime Delimitation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989); Religious Liberty and International Law in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); with Professor Rod Morgan, Preventing Torture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 199 8 ); and Protecting Prisoners (Ox• ford: Oxford University Press, 1999). Additionally, he has contributed chapters concerning religion and human rights to a number of edited collections, including most recently Edge, ed., Law and Religion in Contemporary Society (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000); Adhar, ed., Law and Religion (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000); Lewis and O'Dair, eds., Current Legal Issues: Law and Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). Prof. Evans is a member of the International Law A<>sociation Committee on International Human Rights Law and Practice and is a board member of the Association for the Prevention ofTorture. He has also acted as a consultant to the Council of Europe on religious liberty issues.

WILLY FAUTRE is Director of the Brussels-based group Human Rights Without Fron• tiers and is a member of the Association of Religious Journalists in Belgium. Mr. Fautre is also the press correspondent for the American religious news agency Compass Direct. In 1978 Mr. Fautre founded EGLISI, a press agency in French and Dutch for freedom Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 859 ofreligion and belief. Mr. Fautre worked as the Editor-in-Chief ofEGLISI from 1978 to 1996. He was also the Project Manager ofa Phare Democracy Programme on Religious Minorities in Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania from 1995 to 1996. Mr. Fautre was the former Charge de Mission at the Cabinet of the Ministry of Education for linguistic exchanges between French- and Dutch-speaking students in Belgium. Mr. Fautre authored a book titled Nos Prisonniers du Goulag (S.N., 1980) and has participated in human rights missions in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Nicaragua, Panama, and Russia.

ALAIN GARAY is a practicing attorney in the Court of Appeals in Paris, France. Additionally, Mr. Garay has defended several individuals on freedom of conscience and religion issues before the European Court of Human Rights. His past cases before the European Court have included human rights disputes with Austria, Greece, Bulgaria, France, Romania, and Russia. Mr. Garay has authored numerous legal articles on civil liberties, including a study on anti -sect activism in 1999 that was published in French under the title "L'activisme anti-sectes-de !'assistance al'amalgame" (New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1999). Mr. Garay traveled to Latvia for the Council of Europe to provide an expert opinion on matters involving religious freedom and has also acted as an advisor on freedom of religion in Cuba and Vietnam. Mr. Garay is a member of the Council of Presidents of the World Association on Medical Law and is the cofounder of a Latin American medical law association, Associaci6n Latinoamericana de Derecho Medico in San Jose, Costa Rica. Mr. Garay has a degree in political science.

NAZILA GHANEA lectures on international law, human rights, and is the Course Convenor for the M.A. in Understanding and Securing Human Rights at the Univer• sity of London, Institute of Commonwealth Studies. She has participated in a number ofUnited Nations events such as the Commission on Human Rights, the Sub-Com• mission Working Group on Minorities, the Beijing World Conference on Women, and the Copenhagen Plus Five Review. Prof. Ghanea has also worked with a number of international NGOs in the United Kingdom and in Geneva. Prof. Ghanea's doctoral research and publications deal with religious minorities in Iran and under Islam, human rights and religious liberty, and the U.N. human rights machinery. She has authored the recent monograph, Human Rights, the United Nations and the Baba/is in Iran (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2003), and has edited the forthcoming collection The Challenge ofReligious Discrimination at the Dawn ofthe New Millennium (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, forthcoming 2003 ).

URBAN GIBSON is the Chairman of a network of OSCE-interested organizations in Sweden. He is also a member of the OSCE/ODIHR Advisory Panel of Experts on Freedom of Religion or Belief, Working Group III: Education/Awareness for Toler• ance, and is a member of the Council and the Executive Board of the International Peace Bureau (IPB) in Geneva. Mr. Gibson has been invited to speak on OSCE regulations of Freedom of Religion and Belief at several conferences arranged by the International Academy for Freedom of Religion and Belief, the OSCE Advisory Panel ofFreedom of Religion, and governments in Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, and Lithuania. Mr. Gibson has worked to strengthen the role offreedom ofreligion in the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and especially in the Office for Democratic Institutions and 860 • Contributors

Human Rights. Since 1975 Mr. Gibson has been a member of the Church of Sweden Assembly. For some years he has also been a member of the Church of Sweden Board and the Board of the Nordic Ecumenical Council. He is Senior Advisor to the Swedish Fellowship of Reconciliation. Mr. Gibson has been a teacher, director of a Swedish headmaster organization, Mayor of Sollentuna (a suburb of Stockholm), and President of the Church of Sweden Fund Stock Company.

RAJAJI RAMANADHA BABU GOGINENI is the Executive Director of the Inter• national Humanist and Ethical Union and Editor of International Humanist News. Additionally, Mr. Gogineni is a member of the International Advisory Board of the Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief and is Secretary to both the IHEU Commit• tee on Universal Values and the IHEU Committee on Religious Abuse of Children. Originally from India, Mr. Gogineni was Joint-Secretary of the Indian Radical Humanist Association, General Secretary of the Rationalist Association oflndia, and Trustee of the Indian Renaissance Institute. Before moving to London for his IHEU appointment, he taught French at the Alliance Francaise ofHyderabad in India (1987-1996), where he was in charge of the Alliance Francaise's Cultural Centre as well as the Scientific Resource Centre and its scientific and commercial translation wing. Mr. Gogineni has coedited two books: Rationalist Essays and The Humanist Way, published by the Ratio• nalist Association of India, and he regularly publishes articles in various newspapers, magazines, and journals in Europe, North America, and India-in English and in French. His articles have been translated into German, Polish, Finnish, Norwegian, Swedish, Telugu, and Hindi. He has lectured in Mexico, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Finland, Israel, Italy, France, India, the UK, and Norway. Babu Gogineni has a degree in Microbiology (Nizam College, 1988) and a Postgraduate Diploma in International Trade ( 1991 ).

LARS GULE is Secretary General of the Norwegian Humanist Association. Before becoming Secretary General, he worked as a researcher and research administrator at the Chr. Michelsen Institute and the University of Bergen. Mr. Gule researches politi• cal philosophy and specializes in Arab and Islamic political thinking, human rights, and religion. Mr. Gule defended his dissertation, "Social Development and Political Progress in Two Traditions-A Conceptual and Comparative Analysis ofWestern and Arab-Islamic Ideas of Social and Political Change and Improvement" in 2001. Mr. Gule has an M.A. in Philosophy from the University of Bergen.

T. JEREMY GUNN is Executive Fellow and Guest Scholar for the United States Institute ofPeace in Washington, D.C. and has served as the Principle Adviser to the Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious Freedom at the U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. He practiced international law, appellate law, and church and state litigation with the law firm Covington & Burling in Washington, D.C. and was a law clerk for the United States District Court in Boston, Massachusetts. Mr. Gunn has served as a member of several advisory panels on religion, including the International Advisory Board for the World Report on Freedom of Con• science and Belief. Additionally, he was General Counsel for the National Committee for Public Education and Religious Liberty. Mr. Gunn authored a book titled A Standard for Repair: The Establishment Clause, Equality, and Natural Rights(New York: Garland, Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 861

1992) and has published numerous articles. Mr. Gunn received a B.A. from Brigham Young University, an A.M. from the University of Chicago, a J.D. from Boston U niver• sity School of Law, and a Ph.D. from Harvard University.

THORBJ0RN JAGLAND has been Leader of the Norwegian Labor Party since 1992, was Prime Minister ofNorway from October 1996 to October 1997, and was Minister of Foreign Mfairs from March 2000 to October 2001. Mr. J agland has been Chairman of the Committee on ForeignMfairs in Stortinget (Norway's Parliament) since Octo• ber2000.

URSULA KING is Professor Emerita, Senior Research Fellow, and Associate Member of the Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Bristol, England, and Professorial Research Associate at the Centre for Gender and Religions Research, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. From 1989-1997 she chaired the Depart• ment ofTheology and Religious Studies at the University of Bristol, where she also directed the Centre for Comparative Studies in Religion and Gender ( CCSRG) for several years. From 1998-2001 she held a visiting Chair in Feminist Theology at the University of Oslo. Prof. King has published several books on religion and gender, including the forthcoming volume, coedited with Tina Beattie, on Religion, Gender and Diversity: Cross-Cultural Perspectives (Continuum, 2004). She has also published extensively on the French thinker Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and on contemporary spirituality. Currently Prof. King is researching comparative gender perspectives in world religions and is acting as consultant on gender and religion entries for the second edition of The Encyclopedia of Religion (1st ed., M. Eliade, 1987). Prof. King has received several degrees, including an STL (Paris), M.A. (Delhi), Ph.D. (London), FRSA, and honorary doctorates from the universities ofEdinburgh (1996), Oslo (2000), and Dayton (2003).

LENA LARSEN is Coordinator of the Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief (since March 1999). Since March 2000 Ms. Larsen has been President of the Islamic Council ofNorway. She is a member of the Committee for Revision of the Mandatory Religious Education Curriculum taught in Norwegian Schools, appointed by the Minis• try of Education, Research, and Church Mfairs, and she has served as a consultant for quality control of the presentation oflslam in textbooks from 1996 to 1998. Her publi• cations include Religion, livssyn, og menneskerettigheter i Nm;ge (Religion, Life Stance, and Human Rights in Norway), ed. Eidsvag and Larsen (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1997); Dialog med og uten slur (Dialogue with and without the veil), Grung and Larsen (Oslo: Pax, 2000). Ms. Larsen is also Associate Editor of the present volume. She received a Master's degree in Religious Studies ( Cand. Philo!.) from the University ofOslo in 199 5. Her M.A. thesis deals with conversions to Islam in Norway: "Velkommen til en star familie: islam og konversjon i norsk kontekst" (Welcome to a Vast Family: Islam and Conversion in the Norwegian Context).

NATAN LERNER is Professor oflnternational Law at the Interdisciplinary Center in Herzliya, Israel and also teaches International Human Rights at Tel Aviv University. Prof. Lerner practiced law in Buenos Aires for several years. Later he worked at the International Affairs Department of the World Jewish Congress in New York. In addi• tion, he has served as the Director of the World Jewish Congress Branch in Israel. 862 • Contributors

Prof. Lerner has lectured at Universities in Mexico, Venezuela, Spain, the United States, Japan, and Australia. He has also published legal articles in English, Spanish, and Hebrew on international law, human rights, minority rights, and religious freedom. Prof. Lerner's more recent publications include Religion, Belieft and International Human Rights (New York: Orbis, 2000); Group Rights and Discrimination in International Law (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1991 ); and The U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofRacial Discrimination (Alphen aan den Rijn, 1980). Prof. Lerner graduated from the Buenos Aires University School of Law.

TORE LINDHOLM is Associate Professor at the University of Oslo's Norwegian Cen• tre for Human Rights (NCHR), Head of its Research Committee, and Coordinator of its Research Program on Human Rights and Normative Traditions. His academic field is philosophy, originally working in the philosophy of science, social theory, and ethics. He has done extensive critical work on the social theory of Karl Marx, including a study of Marx's critique of human rights (1989, in Norwegian). Working at the NCHRsince 1989, he has authored a number of publications, including: "Prospects for Research on the Cultural Legitimacy of Human Rights: The Cases of Liberalism and Marxism" in Human Rights in Cross-Cultural Perspectives, ed. An-Na'im (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992 ); "Article 1: A New Beginning?" in The Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights: A Common Standard ofAchievement, ed. Alfredsson and Eide (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1999); The Emergence and Development ofHuman Rights. An Interpretation with a View to Cross-Cultural and Inter-Religious Dialogue (Oslo: NIHR, 1997; in Turkish, 1998 ); and "Ethical justification of universal rights across normative divides," in Universal Ethics: Perspectives and Proposals from Scandinavian Scholars, ed. Bexell and Andersson (The Hague: Kluwer, 2002 ); and coedited with Kari Vogt a book on An-Na'im's reform thinking: Islamic Law Reform and Human Rights: Challenges and Rejoinders (Oslo: Nordic Human Rights Publishers, 1993). Prof. Lindholm co• initiated and sat on the steering committee of the Norwegian Research Council Ethics Program from 1990 to 2001 and is a board member of the Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief. His ongoing research addresses conditions and strategies for constructive and critical collaboration, cooperation, and dialogue across religious and cultural divides, on further elaboration, entrenchment, and plural justification of human rights norms and mechanisms.

DAVID LLEWELLYN is Professor ofLaw and former Dean, Trinity Law School, Cali• fornia. His principal subjects are U.S. constitutional law, jurisprudence, international human rights, and religious liberty. Prof. Llewellyn received a Juris Doctor from the University of California at Los Angeles, School of Law; a Diplome oflnternational and Comparative Human Rights Law from the International Institute of Human Rights, Strasbourg, France; and a M.A. in English Literature from the University ofTennessee at Knoxville. He also did graduate study in Theology at Dallas Theological Seminary. Prof. Llewellyn is former President and legal counsel for the Western Center for Law and Religious Freedom, a public interest law firm. He is now a practicing civil rights attorney and CEO of a Christian economic development NGO. He is also author of"America's Constitutional Covenant," in The Christian Vision: Man and State, ed. Brown (Hillsdale, Mich.: Hillsdale College Press, 1989); and "Licensed To Kill: The Death With Dignity Initiative," Crimina/Law Journal, Western State University School ofLaw, San Diego. Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 863

KAREN S. LORD spent the last six years of her life working as the Counsel for Religious Freedom at the U.S. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Ms. Lord also served as a member of the United States Delegation to the OSCE/ODIHRHuman Dimension Seminar on Constitutional, Legal, and Administrative Aspects of the Free• dom ofReligion held in Warsaw in April1996, where she served as the rapporteur for the working group on Law, Church, and Religious Communities. She was one of the initial members of the Advisory Panel of Experts on Freedom of Religion or Belief for the OSCE's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. Ms. Lord received her Bachelor's degree in Political Science from Wheaton College in 1989, where she served as class Vice-President. She attended the American University School of Law in Washington, D.C., where she received her J.D. in 1992. She was a member of the Maryland Bar, the District of Columbia Bar, and the Latvian Bar. Ms. Lord died on Monday, January 29, 2001 at the age of thirty-three after a long and courageous struggle against cancer.

JAVIER MARTINEZ-TORRON has been a Professor of Law (Catedrtitico) since 1993. He obtained his first chair at the University of Granada and later moved to Complutense University in Madrid. Prof. Martinez-Torr6n is the founder and Direc• tor of the Seminar of Comparative Law at the University of Granada and is a visiting professor and researcher at universities in Europe, North America, and Latin America. He is a member of the International Academy for Freedom of Religion and Belief and is also a member of the International Advisory Council of the Oslo Coalition on Freedom ofReligion or Belief. In 1995 he helped found the first Spanish legal periodical specifically focused on religious and legal issues ofthe State (Anuario de Derecho Eclesitistico del Estado, 199 5). The results of his research on religion have been published in Spanish, English, Italian, French, and Russian.

JANNE HAALAND MATLARY is Professor oflnternational Politics in the Department of Political Science at Oslo University. Dr. Matlary focuses her study on the European Union as a political system, the European Union's foreign and security policy, European security at large, human rights, "soft law," and public diplomacy. From 1997 to 2000 Dr. Matlary was State Secretary for Foreign Mfairs ofNorway, representing the Chris• tian Democratic Party in the Bondevik government. Apart from her daily leadership functions, she was responsible for the security policy (especially the Norwegian OSCE chairmanship in 1999 and the Balkans), the Norwegian campaign for membership in the U.N. Security Council, international human rights negotiations, and internationalization of Norwegian fishing and energy. Dr. Matlary also does political risk analysis for the international communications company CGI Monsen and is a member of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace and for the Family in the Vatican.

ROLAND MINNERATH is Professor at the Catholic Theological Faculty ofthe U niver• sity ofStrasbourg, France, teaching history of Christianity and Church-State relationships. His main publications are Les chretiens et le monde, 1"-2: siecle (Paris: Gabalda, ~973); Le droit de FEglise ala liberte. Du Syllabus a Vatican II (Paris: Beauchesne, 1982 ); L'Eglise et les Etats concordataires, 1846-1965 (Paris: Cerf, 198 3); jesus et le pouvoir (Paris: Beauchesne, 1987); De jerusalem aRome. Pierre et l'unite de VEglise apostolique (Paris: Beauchesne, 1995 ); Histoire des conciles (Paris: PUF, 1996 ); Apologie A Diognete-Exhortation aux Grecs 864 • Contributors

(Paris: Migne, 2002 ). Professor Minnerath also serves as a consultant to the Secretariate of State (Vatican) and is a member both of the Pontifical Academy for Social Sciences and the International Theological Commission. He is a member of the Board of the International Religious Liberty Association. He was ordained Archbishop ofDijon, France in March 2004.

MAKAU MUTUA is Professor of Law and Director of the Human Rights Center at the State University of New York, Buffalo School of Law. Prof. Mutua has been a visiting professor at Harvard Law School, the University oflowa College of Law, and the Uni• versity of Puerto Rico School of Law. Prof. Mutua has worked as the Associate Director at the Harvard Law School Human Rights Program and has directed the Africa Project at the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights. He serves as the Chairman of the Kenya Human Rights Commission and sits on the boards of several international organiza• tions and academic journals. Prof. Mutua has conducted numerous human rights, diplomatic, and rule oflaw missions to countries in Mrica, Latin America, and Europe and has spoken at public fora in many parts of the world, including Japan, Brazil, France, and Ethiopia. Prof. Mutua has written numerous scholarly articles exploring topical subjects in international law, human rights, and religion. He has also written human rights reports for the United Nations and leading NGOs and has authored dozens of articles for popular publications such as The New York Times and The Wash• ington Post. Prof. Mutua was educated at the University of Nairobi, the University of Dar-es-Salaam, and at Harvard Law School, where he obtained a Doctorate ofJuridi• cal Science in 1987.

RAFAEL NAVARRO-VALLS is both a Professor of Law and Secretary General at Complutense University in Madrid. From 1983 to 1995 he directed the Department ofChurch -State Relations ( Derecho Eclesiastico del Estado) at Complutense University. Prof. Navarro-Valls is a member of the Advisory Commission on Religious Freedom at the Spanish Ministry of Justice and is a member of the Board of Directors of the Interna• tional Association of Canon Lawyers. He is also a founding member of the Spanish Society of Sciences of Religions, which is part of the International Association for the History of Religions. He has lectured widely at Spanish, European, and Latin-American Universities. He is a founding member of the first Spanish legal periodical specifically focused on the State's law on religious issues (Anuario de Derecho Eclesidstico del Estado, 199 5) and is also a member of the advisory boards for the Italian periodicals II diritto eclesiastico and Revista de Ia Facultad de Derecho de Ia Universidad Complutense. Prof. Navarro-Valls has published almost one hundred legal essays, especially in the areas of marriage and family, religious freedom, and conscientious objection.

YVES NID EGGER is an Attorney at Law in Geneva, Switzerland. Mr. Nidegger worked as a journalist in the 1980s and as a Professor ofAccounting in the 1990s. Mr. Nidegger has published a number of articles in reviews and journals. He is the legal adviser for CLIMS, a Geneva-based Center oflnformation on Religious Minorities, and he is an expert for Human Rights Without Borders, a Brussels-based NGO. Mr. Nidegger earned his BBA from the Ecole Superieure de Commerce in Geneva in 1977 and later studied general History and the History of Christianity at Geneva University. Mr. Nidegger earned a law degree from Geneva Law School. Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 865

RUDIGER NOLL is the Executive Secretary for Church and Society of the Conference ofEuropean Churches with an emphasis on Human Rights, Security, and Environment. He is the Chairperson of the OSCE Advisory Panel on Freedom of Religion and Belief and has represented the Conference of European Churches at various intergovern• mental conferences, including UNCED and the World Conference on Human Rights. From 1990 to 1994 Mr. Noll was a Consultant for Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of Creation at the Conference on European Churches. From 1995 to 1997 he was the Organizing Secretary for the Second European Economical Assembly in Graz. In addition, Mr. Noll has served as the Parish Pastor of the United Church ofWestphalia, Germany. His publications include nearly fifty titles on various themes related to church and society issues such as civil society, human rights, religious freedom, environment and development, and minority issues. Mr. Noll focuses his educational studies on Theology, Philosophy, and Political Sciences at the Universities and Institutes ofBochum, Wuppertal, Bossey, and Geneva.

MANFRED NOWAK is the Chairman of the European Master's Degree in Human Rights and Democratization. He has served as the Director of the Ludwig-Boltzmann Institute of Human Rights in Vienna and was elected by the Committee of Ministers of the Council ofEurope as Vice-President of the Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia• Hercegovina, which was established under the Dayton Peace Agreement. Since October 1989 Prof. Nowak has been a Professor of Law at the Austrian Federal Academy of Public Administration in Vienna. From 1973 to 1987 he was an Assistant and later an Associate Professor at the Institute of Constitutional and Administrative Law at Vienna University, and from 1987 to 1989 he was the Director of the Netherlands Institute of Human Rights (SIM) at the University ofUtrecht. In 1994 Prof. Nowak received the UNESCO Prize for the Teaching of Human Rights. He received a Dr. iuris from the University ofVienna in 1973, an LLM from Columbia in 1975, and a Dr. habil ofconsti• tutionallaw from the University ofVienna in1986. Pro£ Nowak has participated in several human rights fact-finding missions, including missions to Brazil, Suriname, and Tibet.

INGVILL THORSON PLESNERhas been a Research Fellow at the Norwegian Cen• tre for Human Rights since April 2003, with a doctoral project on the concepts of "neutrality" and "tolerance" in relation to freedom ofreligion or belief. Until April2003 Ms. Plesner was an Advisor for the Norwegian Ministry for Education, Research, and Church Affairs. Ms. Plesner has focused her work on state relations to religion and freedom of religion or belief. She helped evaluate a religious education project financed by the Norwegian Research Council and also helped evaluate a research project on "Religious and Moral Plurality" financed by the Nordic Council ofMinisters. From 1999 to 2000 Ms. Plesner received grants from the Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst (DAAD) and was affiliated with the Berlin Freie Universitlit in conducting research on a project called "Religio-Political Models." She has published several articles and reports on freedom of religion or belief, models of religious education, and state relations to religion. Ms. Plesner received a Master's Degree in Sociology (Cand. Polit.) from the University of Oslo in 1998. In her Master's Thesis Ms. Plesner analyzed the public debate about the new model for religious education in Norway that was introduced in Norwegian primary schools in 1997. 866 • Contributors

ROMAN PODOPRIGORA is Professor of Administrative Law and Legal Status of Non-Profit and Religious Associations and is Chair of the Administrative Law Depart• ment of Adilet Law School in Almaty, Kazakhstan. He is also a legal consultant for numerous religious associations in Kazakhstan and has authored many publications on religious freedom. Prof. Podoprigora is a member of the Advisory Panel of Experts on Freedom of Religion or Belief at the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR). In 1993 he received a Ph.D. from Kazakh State University. He titled his dissertation "Legal Status of Religious Organizations in Kazakhstan."

MICHAEL M. ROAN has worked to help implement freedom ofreligion or belief since 1984. He was the representative of the World Federation of United Nations Associations (WFUNA) at a two-week United Nations Seminar in 1984 on ways to implement the 1981 Declaration on the Elimination ofAll Forms oflntolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief. In 1985 he founded The Tandem Project, a non-govern• mental organization formed to help implement the 1981 Declaration. His publications include a paper written with Leonard Swidler ofTemple University titled, "Attitudes of Religions and Ideologies Toward the Outsider." Mr. Roan, together with John Witte, Jr. of Emory University, contributed a chapter to the two-volume publication Religious Human Rights in GlobalPerspective(Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1996). Mr. Roan was on the Preparatory Committee for the "International Consultative Conference on School Education in Relation with Freedom ofReligion and Belief, Tolerance and Non-discrimi• nation ," a conference organized in Madrid in 2001. He received an undergraduate degree in Political Science from the University of Minnesota and a Master's degree from Luther Theological Seminary in St. Paul, Minnesota.

MARY ROBINSON was President oflreland from 1990-97 and United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights from 1997-2002. She was educated at Trinity College and holds law degrees from the King's Inns in Dublin and Harvard University.

MARTIN SCHEININ is the Armfelt Professor ofConstitutional and International Law. He also directs the Institute for Human Rights at Abo Akademi University in Finland. He has taught Human Rights Law at several universities in different parts of the world, including the University of Toronto, Canada; Cardozo Law School and St. Thomas University, USA; Kaliningrad University and Petrozavodsk University, Russia; the Uni• versity of Latvia; the University ofTartu, Estonia; the University ofTroms, Norway; and the African and European Master's Programmes in Human Rights and Democratiza• tion. Prof. Scheinin is a member of the Human Rights Committee acting under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. His publications range from articles on the domestic implementation of international human rights norms and the nature of economic and social rights to articles on specific legal issues such as nondiscrimination, indigenous people's rights, social and economic rights, freedom of movement, and freedom of religion or belief. Prof. Scheinin received a Master of Laws in 1982 from the University ofTurku, Finland, and a Dr. iuris in 1991 from the University ofHelsinki.

ELIZABETH A. SEWELL is Associate Director of the Brigham Young University In• temational Center for Law and Religion Studies. Prior to joining the Center, Prof. Sewell was an associate in the Washington, D.C. office of Mayer, Brown & Platt, where she was Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 867 a member of the Appellate and Supreme Court Litigation Group. She has briefed a variety of constitutional issues in federal and state courts of appeal and in the U.S. Supreme Court. Prof. Sewell also clerked for Judge J. Clifford Wallace of the U.S. Court ofAppeals for the Ninth Circuit. Drawing on her multilingual talents in Russian, Czech, German, and French, she has been active in writing and lecturing on church-state and comparative law topics and has testified before the U.S. Congress on religious freedom issues. Prof. Sewell graduated summa cum laude from the J. Reuben Clark Law School at Brigham Young University, where she was Editor-in-Chief of the BTU Law Re-view.

JULIET SHEEN has been a fellow of the Human Rights Centre, University ofEssex, United Kingdom, since 1994. She is based in Australia and New Zealand. She compiled with coeditor Professor Kevin Boyle, the HRC director, the book Freedom ofReligion and Belief A World Report (Roudedge, London & New York, 1997). From 1977 to retirement in 1994, she pursued research, policy, and law reform proposals for the NSW Anti-Discrimination Board, for which she compiled the Board's report Discrimination and Religious Conviction (ADB, Sydney, 1984 ). She represented Australia at the U.N. Seminar on the 1981 Declaration held in Geneva in 1984, and took part in subsequent NGO international conferences on DEAFI. She has written widely on freedom of reli• gion or belief, human rights, minority issues, women's rights, and discrimination. Ms. Sheen received a Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Sydney in 1979 and a Master ofArts in English Language and Literature from Victoria University ofWellington, New Zealand in 1962.

JOSE DE SOUSA E BRITO has been judge of the Constitutional Court in Lisbon since 1989 and is a Professor at the Universidade Moderna in Lisbon. He has been President of the European Consortium of Church and State Research and of the Committee for the Reform of the Law of Religious Liberty of Portugal. Since 1977 he has been the Portuguese expert at the Committee of Experts for the Development of Human Rights of the Council ofEurope. Mr. Brito was a visiting professor at the University of Munich. He holds a law degree from Lisbon University, and he also studied at the Universities of Vienna, Freiburg im Breisgau, Heidelberg, and Oxford.

TAD STAHNKE joined the staff of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom in February 2000 and currendy serves as the Deputy Director for Policy. Prior to joining the Commission, Mr. Stahnke spent three years with Cleary, Gotdieb, Steen & Hamilton, a law firm in New York City. He also worked as a judicial clerk for the Hon. Wilfred Feinberg in the United States Court ofAppeals. From 1996 to 1998 Mr. Stahnke helped lead a program on "Religion, Human Rights, and Religious Freedom" at Colum• bia University Law School, where for several years he taught a seminar on religious freedom and international human rights law. Mr. Stahnke's published works include "Proselytism and the Freedom to Change Religion in International Human Rights Law," BTU Law Re-view (1999): 251-350; Religion and Human Rights: Basic Documents, ed. Stahnke and Martin (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1997); and "Equality and Reli• gious Preferences: Theoretical, International, and Religious Approaches" in Protecting the Human Rights ofReligious Minorities in Eastern Europe, ed. Danchin and Cole (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2002). Mr. Stahnke received his J.D. from Columbia University Law School, and his Master's in Urban Planning and his BA. from New York University. 868 • Contributors

GUNNARSTALsETT is Church ofNorway Bishop of Oslo (since 1998), President of the International Advisory Council ofThe Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief, President of the World Conference on Religion and Peace, President of the International Religious Liberty Association, as well as a member of several interna• tional and national boards and councils, including the Norwegian Nobel Committee (since 1984). His career has included service as minister in the Church of Norway, Leader of the Norwegian Center Party ( 1977-1979 ), Secretary General of the Lutheran World Federation ( 1985-1994 ), and Director of Practical-Theological Seminary at the University of Oslo (1994-1998). He has published and edited several books, including Bible translations, theological studies, and sermons. He has received several prizes, in• cluding the Albert Schweitzer Humanitarian Award, The Wittenberg Award, and the Grand Order of Quetzal of the Republic of Guatemala (for constructive involvement in the peace process, 1998), and he is Commander of the Royal Order of St. Olav.

BARBRO SVEEN is today employed as the first Administrative Leader of the Council for Religious and Life Stance Communities in Norway and was one of the persons behind its establishment in May 1996. The members are the ten most important and numerous religious and life-stance communities in Norway, from the Norwegian state church to the Norwegian Humanist Association. Barbro Sveen has a diploma as a journal• ist from the Department ofJournalism and Mass Communication, Gothenburg University, Sweden and has a Master's degree in Sociology, Oslo University, Norway. She has also taken some courses at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin, Germany and in San Fran• cisco, USA. Barbro Sveen has been working as an editor for different periodicals in Norway for nearly twenty-five years, among them the Norwegian Humanist Association's "Fri tanke" (Free Thought). She was born in Sweden.

LEONARD SWIDLER is Professor with tenure at Temple University in the Religion Department. Additionally, he has been an exchange and visiting professor at universi• ties in several different countries around the world and has organized and led several interfaith dialogues. In 1972 Prof. Swidler won the "Outstanding Teacher ofAmerica" award, and in 1977 he was the recipient of an Honorary Doctorate, L.L.D. from La Salle University. Prof. Swidler has authored numerous books and well over one hundred articles in several different languages. He received a B.A. in Philosophy from St. Norbert's College, an M.A. in History with minors in Philosophy and Literature from Marquette University, a Ph.D. in History from the University ofWisconsin, and has studied exten• sively at universities in Germany.

BAHIA G. TAHZIB-LIE is a Human Rights Advisor to the Human Rights and Peace building Department of the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Mfairs in The Hague. Dr. Tahzib-Lie currently serves as the Co-Chair of the Working Group on Conflict Prevention/Dialogue of the OSCE ODIHRAdvisory Panel ofExperts on Freedom of Religion or Belief and is a member of the International Advisory Council of the Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief. She has served as a legal staff member at the Council ofState, Legislation Department in The Hague and the Dutch Refugee Council in Amsterdam. She has been an associate lecturer in the fields of international law and international organizations at Utrecht University. Her career started as a volunteer hu• man rights advisor to the U.N. office of the Baha'i International Community in Geneva. Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 869

She has published various works in the field of human rights and in the area of freedom of religion or belief, including her Doctorate on "Freedom of Religion or Belief: Ensur• ing Effective International Legal Protection." Dr. Tahzib-Lie received an LL.B. in 1988, a Ph.D. in 1995 from Utrecht University, and an additional LL.M. in 1989 from the University of Michigan.

THEO VAN BOVEN is Professor oflnternational Law at the University of Maastricht in the Netherlands. He is a member of the International Commission ofJurists, Geneva and a Vice-President of the International Institute ofHuman Rights, Strasbourg. He was the Director ofHuman Rights for the United Nations from 1977 to 1982 and served for many years on various United Nations human rights bodies, including the Commission on Human Rights, the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, and the Committee on the Elimination ofAll Forms of Racial Discrimination. At present he is Special Rapporteur on Torture for the Commission on Human Rights. Prof. van Boven received a Doctor ofLaw degree from the University ofLeiden, Netherlands and holds Doctoral degrees honoris causa from the Catholic University of Louvain-la• Nueve, Belgium, the Erasmus University ofRotterdam, Netherlands, and the University ofNew York at Buffalo, USA. He wrote his doctoral thesis on the international protection of religious liberty and has authored a series of articles on freedom of religion or belief.

GERALDINE VAN BUEREN is Professor oflnternational Human Rights Law and Director of the Programme on International Rights of the Child at Queen Mary Col• lege, University of London. Additionally, she is the inaugural Wates Visiting Fellow and is a visiting professor at the University of Cape Town. She helped draft the U.N. Convention Policy on the Rights of the Child as well as other international laws. She has been a consultant to the Commonwealth Secretariat on children's rights and ad• vised the Law Commission in Uganda on revising their law on children. Prof. Van Bueren represented the United Nations before the Law Commission in South Mrica. She is on the Legal Advisory Board of the Redress Trust, the Human Rights Watch (Children's Rights Project), and is the author of The International Law on the Rights ofthe Child (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1998) and Childhood Abused (Dartmouth: Dartmouth Pub. Co., 1998).

JOHAN D. VANDER VYVERis the I.T. Cohen Professor oflnternational Law and Human Rights at Emory University Law School in Atlanta, Georgia. Prof. van der Vyver has also worked as a Professor of Law at the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education and at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa. He has authored over 250 published works, including books, monographs, chap• ters in books, law-review articles, lectures, popular articles, and book reviews. Prof. van der Vyver coedited the two-volume treatise on "Religious Human Rights in Global Per• spective" (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1996) and edited a special edition of the Emory International Law Review on "Problems ofProselytization in South Mrica" (2000). Prof. van der Vyver received his Bachelor of Laws degree from the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education ( 19 56), the degree of Doctor Legum from the University ofPretoria (1974), the degree Doctor Legum (honoris causa) from the University ofZululand (1993), and another Doctor Legum (honoris causa) from the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, South Mrica ( 2003). 870 • Contributors

TANJA VOSPERNIKis a legal researcher at the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute ofHuman Rights in Vienna, Austria. Since January 2000 she has been working on an editorial collaboration with the journal Die Union (Representation of the European Commission in Austria). Since 1999 Ms. Vospernik.has been an honorary legal guardian, and in 1999 she was legal advisor at the Refugee Organization "Helping Hands" in Vienna. In 1998 she completed her legal studies at the University ofVienna. INTRODUCTION TO THE APPENDICES

Most states have undertaken extensive and detailed commitments and obligations in the area of freedom of religion or belief. Within the UN system, there are a variety of documents containing provisions relating to freedom of religion or belief, and of course, many significant standards have been established by regional organizations such as the Council of Europe, the European Union, the Organization of American States, the Organization of African Unity and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. The Appendices contain a collection of the most important documents articulating these standards that those working in the field need to have at hand. Appendix A contains selections from the most important international human rights documents regarding freedom of religion or belief at global and regional levels. Provisions in Appendix A are arranged by organization and then chronologically by document. The UN's 1981 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms oflntoler• ance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief is set forth in Appendix B. Appendix C provides a more exhaustive list of treaties that address freedom of religion or belief. Appendix D contains the text of the UN Human Rights Committee's Gen• eral Comment which provides the authoritative interpretation of Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It provides an excellent concise statement of the meaning of international human rights standards with respect to freedom of religion or belief. Since religious and minority rights issues are often inter• twined, the UN Human Rights Committee's General Comment No. 23 (50), included here as Appendix E, is also very helpful. Finally, Appendix F contains the Oslo Decla• ration on Freedom of Religion or Belief. Many states have also taken on obligations and commitments relating to freedom of religion or belief at the regional level. In preparing the Appendices, we have been conscious that many additional hu• man rights norms beyond those that deal directly with freedom of religion or belief provide supplemental or overlapping coverage for the rights of believers. For example, many of the rights of believers are also covered by freedom of expression and freedom of association. Equality and nondiscrimination norms provide protection for believ• ers. Conscience and religion are central aspects of human dignity and are also properly shielded by privacy norms. Claims relating to cultural rights and property can also be very significant for religions. General protection ofminorities may benefit religious groups. Moreover, the scope of religious protections cannot be fully understood without clarity about other state interests, the nature and weight of sometimes conflicting rights, and the extent to which issues of security, health, safety, and morality can be taken into account in limiting manifestations of religion. Tore Lindholm, W. Cole Durham, Jr., Bahia G. Tahzib·Lie (eds.), Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook, 871-872. © 2004 Koninklijke Brill Nv. 872 • Introduction to the Appendices

In light of these considerations, it comes as no surprise that it is not possible within a single volume to include the full range of international norms that are rel• evant to protecting religious believers and institutions in the broadest sense. Our aim has been to include the major provisions that ought to be at hand in a "deskbook." We have been forced due to space constraints to focus here on the major norms that relate most directly to freedom of religion or belief itself, and those that play a particu• larly important role in protecting the rights of believers. Of course, in today's internet world, full texts of the various documents are in• creasingly accessible online. Full texts of all the documents cited in the Appendices, together with relevant citations to original sources, are available in the online library of the Religion and Law Research Consortium at www.religlaw.org. This site has the advantage of that it collects sources that are particularly relevant to freedom of reli• gion or belief issues. Each of the major international and regional organizations gen• erating standards in the field offreedom of religion or beliefhas its own webpage. For convenience, we are listing the relevant websites here:

United Nations General http://www.un.org/ High Commissioner for Human Rights http://www.unhchr.ch/

Council ofEurope General http://www.coe.fr/ European Court of Human Rights http://www.echr.coe.int/

European Union General http:/jeuropa.eu.int/ Eur-Lex /European Union Law http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/ index.html

Organization of American States General http:/jwww.oas.org/

African Union (Organization of http://www.africa-union.org/en/ African Unity) home.asp

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe ( OSCE)

General http://www.osce.org Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) http://www.osce.org/odihr/

Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief http:/jwww.oslocoalition.org

For references to other sources, see: http://www.religlaw.org APPENDIX A

MAJOR INTERNATIONAL PROVISIONS ON FREEDOM OF RELIGION OR BELIEF

I. UNITED NATIONS

A. UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HuMAN RIGHTS (1948)1

ARTICLE l

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are en• dowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

ARTICLE 2

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. ( ... )

ARTICLE 7

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

ARTICLE 8

Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

1 Adopted and Proclaimed by United Nations General Assembly Resolution on 10 December 1948, GA Res. 217A (III), UN Doc A/810 at 7l (1948). 874 • Appendix A

ARTICLE l2

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

ARTICLE 13

l. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each State. 2. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to re• turn to his country.

ARTICLE 14

l. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. 2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from nonpolitical crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

ARTICLE 16

l. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. ( ... )

ARTICLE 17

l. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. 2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

ARTICLE 18

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

ARTICLE 19

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart infor• mation and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 875

ARTICLE20

1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. 2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

ARTICLE26

( ... ) 2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personal• ity and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the mainte• nance of peace. ( ... )

ARTICLE29

( ... ) 2. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. 3. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the pur• poses and principles of the United Nations.

B. CONVENTION ON THE PREVENTION AND PUNISHMENT OF THE CRIME OF GENOCIDE ( 1948) 2

ARTICLE II

In the present Convention, genocide means any of the following acts commit• ted with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: (a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions oflife calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

2 Adopted and Opened for Signature by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948. GA Res. 260A (III) (1948), 102 Stat. 3045, 78 UNTS 277, entered into force January 12, 1951. 876 • Appendix A

C. INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CML AND POLITICAL RIGHTS (1966)3

ARTICLE2

1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recog• nized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. ( ... )

ARTICLE 3

The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights set forth in the present Covenant.

ARTICLE4

1. In time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and the existence of which is officially proclaimed, the States Parties to the present Covenant may take measures derogating from their obligations under the present Covenant to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such mea• sures are not inconsistent with their other obligations under international law and do not involve discrimination solely on the ground of race, colour, sex, language, religion or social origin. 2. No derogation from Articles 6, 7, 8 (paragraphs 1 and 2), 11, 15, 16 and 18 may be made under this provision. ( ... )

ARTICLE 8

( ... ) 3. (a) No one shall be required to perform forced or compulsory labour; ( ... ) (c) For the purpose of this paragraph the term "forced or compulsory la• bour" shall not include: ( ... ) (ii) Any service of a military character and, in countries where consci• entious objection is recognized, any national service required by law of conscientious objectors; ( ... )

3 Adopted and Opened for Signature by the United Nations General Assembly on 16 December 1966. GA Res. 2200A (XXI), 21 UN GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52, UN Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 UNTS 171, entered into force March 23, 1976. Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 877

ARTICLE 18

l. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and reli• gion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching. 2. No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice. 3. Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others. 4. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.

ARTICLE 19

1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference. 2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall in• clude freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice. 3. The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restric• tions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; (b) For the protection of national security or of public ordre (order public), or of public health or morals.

ARTICLE20

( ... ) 2. Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incite• ment to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.

ARTICLE21

The right of peaceful assembly shall be recognized. No restrictions may be placed on the exercise of this right other than those imposed in conformity with the law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, public order ( ordre public), the protection of public health or morals or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

ARTICLE 22

l. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of association with others, includ• ing the right to form and join trade unions for the protection of his interests. 878 • Appendix A

2. No restrictions may be placed on the exercise of this right other than those which are prescribed by law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, public order ( ordre public), the protec• tion of public health or morals or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. This article shall not prevent the imposition of lawful restrictions on members of the armed forces and of the police in their exercise of this right. ( ... )

ARTICLE24

l. Every child shall have, without any discrimination as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, national or social origin, property or birth, the right to such mea• sures of protection as are required by his status as a minor, on the part of his family, society and the State. ( ... )

ARTICLE26

All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimina• tion and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

ARTICLE27

In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language.

D. INTERNATIONAL CoVENANT oN EcoNOMIC, SociAL AND CuLTURAL RIGHTS ( 1966) 4

ARTICLE2

( ... ) 2. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. ( ... )

4 Adopted and Opened for Signature by the United Nations General Assembly on 16 December 1966. GA Res. 2200A (XXI), 21 UN GAORSupp. (No. 16) at 49, UN Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 UNTS 3, entered into force January 3, 1976. Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 879

ARTICLE 13

l. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to education. They agree that education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. They further agree that education shall en• able all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. ( ... ) 3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to choose for their children schools, other than those established by the public authorities, which conform to such minimum educational standards as may be laid down or approved by the State and to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions. ( ... )

E. CoNVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION oF ALL FoRMs OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN ( 1979 )5

ARTICLE 5

States parties shall take all appropriate measures: (a) To modifY the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women; ( ... )

ARTICLE 16

l. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating to marriage and family relations ....

F. CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD (1989)6

ARTICLE 2

l. States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present Con• vention to each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind,

5 Adopted and Opened for Signature by the United Nations General Assembly Resolution on 18 December 1979. GA Res. 34/180, 1249 UNTS 13, entered into force September 3, 1981. 6 Adopted and Opened for Signature by the United Nations General Assembly on 20 Nov. 1989, GA Res. 44/25, UN GAOR, 44th Sess., Supp. No. 49, art. 32(1), UN Doc. A/44/49 (1989), entered into force September 2, 1990. 880 • Appendix A irrespective of the child's or his or her parent's or legal guardian's race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, prop• erty, disability, birth or other status. 2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that the child is protected against all forms of discrimination or punishment on the basis of the status, activities, expressed opinions, or beliefs of the child's parents, legal guardians, or fam• ily members.

ARTICLE 14

1. States Parties shall respect the right of the child to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. 2. States Parties shall respect the rights and duties of the parents and, when applicable, legal guardians, to provide direction to the child in the exercise of his or her right in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child. 3. Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals, or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.

ARTICLE20

1. A child temporarily or permanendy deprived of his or her family environment, or in whose own best interests cannot be allowed to remain in that environment, shall be entided to special protection and assistance provided by the State. 2. States Parties shall in accordance with their national laws ensure alternative care for such a child. 3. Such care could include, inter alia, foster placement, Kafalah oflslamic law, adoption or ifnecessary placement in suitable institutions for the care of children. When considering solutions, due regard shall be paid to the desirability of continuity in a child's upbringing and to the child's ethnic, religious, cultural and linguistic background.

ARTICLE29

1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to: ( ... ) (d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous origin; ( ... )

ARTICLE 30

In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities or persons of indigenous origin exist, a child belonging to such a minority or who is indigenous shall not be denied the right, in community with other members of his or her group, to enjoy his or her own culture, to profess and practice his or her own religion, or to use his or her own language. Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 881

II. CouNCIL OF EuROPE

A. EuROPEAN CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND FUNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS (1950)1

ARTICLE 8

l. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. 2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

ARTICLE9

l. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance. 2. Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

ARTICLE 10

l. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. This article shall not prevent States from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises. 2. The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibili• ties, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection ofhealth or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others, for preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, or for maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary.

ARTICLE 11

l. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and to freedom of association with others, including the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.

7 Opened for Signature by the Council of Europe on 4 November 1950. E.T.S. No.5, entered into force September 3, 1953. 882 • Appendix A

2. No restrictions shall be placed on the exercise of these rights other than such as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. This Article shall not prevent the imposition of lawful restrictions on the exercise of these rights by members of the armed forces, of the police or of the administration of the State.

ARTICLE 14

The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a na• tional minority, property, birth or other status.

B. PROTOCOL No.1 TO THE EuROPEAN CoNVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF HuMAN RIGHTS AND FuNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS (1952)8

ARTICLE2

No person shall be denied the right to education. In the exercise of any functions which it assumes in relation to education and to teaching, the State shall respect the right of parents to ensure such education and teaching in conformity with their own religious and philosophical convictions.

C. EuROPEAN SociAL CHARTER (1961)9

PREAMBLE

( 00 0) Considering that the enjoyment of social rights should be secured without dis• crimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national ex• traction or social origin; ( 000)

D. FRAMEWORK CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF NATIONAL MINORITIES (1995)10

ARTICLE 5

l. The Parties undertake to promote the conditions necessary for persons belong• ing to national minorities to maintain and develop their culture, and to preserve the essen• tial elements oftheir identity, namely their religion, language, traditions and cultural heritage. ( 00 0)

8 Opened for Signature by the Council ofEurope on November4, 1950. E.T.S. No.9, entered into force 3 September 3, 1953. Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 883

ARTICLE 6

l. The Parties shall encourage a spirit of tolerance and intercultural dialogue and take effective measures to promote mutual respect and understanding and co• operation among all persons living on their territory, irrespective of those persons' ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious identity, in particular in the fields of education, culture and the media. 2. The Parties undertake to take appropriate measures to protect persons who may be subject to threats or acts of discrimination, hostility or violence as a result of their ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious identity.

ARTICLE 7

The Parties shall ensure respect for the right of every person belonging to ana• tional minority to freedom of peaceful assembly, freedom of association, freedom of expression, and freedom of thought, conscience and religion.

ARTICLE 8

The Parties undertake to recognise that every person belonging to a national minority has the right to manifest his or her religion or belief and to establish religious institutions, organizations and associations.

ARTICLE 17

l. The Parties undertake not to interfere with the right of persons belonging to national minorities to establish and maintain free and peaceful contacts across frontiers with persons lawfully staying in other States, in particular those with whom they share an ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious identity, or a common cultural heritage. 2. The Parties undertake not to interfere with the right of persons belonging to national minorities to participate in the activities of non-governmental organizations, both at the national and international levels.

Ill. EUROPEAN UNION

A. TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION (1992, CONSOLIDATED VERSION 1997)11

ARTICLE 6

( ... ) 2 The Union shall respect fundamental rights, as guaranteed by the European Convention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms signed

9 Signed Oct. 18, 1961, Eur. Consult Assembly, E.T.S. No. 035. 10 Opened for Signature by the Council ofEurope on February 1,1995. E. T. S. No. 157, entered into force February 1, 1998. 884 • Appendix A

in Rome on 4 November 1950 and as they result from the constitutional traditions common to the Member States, as general principles of Community law.

B. TREATY EsTABLISHING THE EuROPEAN CoMMUNITY (1997)12

ARTICLE 13

Without prejudice to the other provisions of this Treaty and within the limits of the powers conferred upon it by the Community, the Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the European Parliament, may take appropriate action to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation. ( ... )

c. PROTOCOL 33 ON PROTECTION AND WELFARE OF ANIMALS (ANNEXED To THE TREATY oF THE EuROPEAN CoMMUNITY) (2 OcT. 1997)13

The Protocol on protection and welfare of animals annexed to the Treaty re• quires that in formulating and implementing the Community's agriculture policy, the Community and the Member States shall pay full regard to the welfare requirements of animals, while respecting the legislative or administrative provisions and customs of the Member States relating in particular to religious rites, cultural traditions and re• gional heritage.

D. DECLARATION oN THE STATus oF CHURCHES AND NoN• CoNFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (1997, DECLARATION No. ll TO THE LAsT AcT oF THE TREATY oF AMsTERDAM)14

The European Union respects and does not prejudice the status under national law of churches and religious associations or communities in the Member States. The European Union equally respects the status of philosophical and non-con• fessional organizations.

11 TEU, adopted 7 February 1992, OJ 1992 C191, p.1 (Treaty of Maastricht), as amended by the Treaty of Amsterdam, OJ 1997 C 340, p. 0145·0172 (10 Nov. 1997). 12 Treaty of Rome of25 March 1957, as amended by the Treaty of Amsterdam of2 Nov. 1997, OJ 1997 C 340 p. 0185 (10 Nov. 1997). 13 Protocol33 annexed to the Treaty of the European Community of2 Oct. 1997, OJ 1997 C 340, p. 0110 (10 Nov. 1997). 14 Declaration No. ll to the Last Act of the Treaty of Amsterdam (Declarations adopted by the Confer• ence), OJ 1997 C 340, p. 0133 (10 Nov. 1997). Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 885

E. DEClARATION BY GREECE CONCERNING THE DEClARATION ON THE STATUS OF CHURCHES AND NoN-CoNFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONs (1997, DEClARATION No. 59 To THE LAsT AcT oF THE TREATY OF AMsTERDAM )1 5

With reference to the Declaration on the status of churches and non-confessional organizations, Greece recalls the Joint Declaration on Mount Athos annexed to the Final Act of the Treaty of Accession of Greece to the European Communities.

F. CHARTER OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION (2000)16

PREAMBLE

The peoples of Europe, in creating an ever closer union among them, are re• solved to share a peaceful future based on common values. Conscious of its spiritual and moral heritage, the Union is founded on the indi• visible, universal values of human dignity, freedom, equality and solidarity; it is based on the principles of democracy and the rule oflaw. It places the individual at the heart of its activities, by establishing the citizenship of the Union and by creating an area of freedom, security and justice.

ARTICLE 10 - FREEDOM OF THOUGHT, CONSCIENCE AND RELIGION

l. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right includes freedom to change religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or in private, to manifest religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance. 2. The right to conscientious objection is recognized, in accordance with the national laws governing the exercise of this right.

ARTICLE 14 - RIGHT TO EDUCATION

( ... ) l. The freedom to found educational establishments with due respect for demo• cratic principles and the right of parents to ensure the education and teaching of their children in conformity with their religious, philosophical and pedagogical convictions shall be respected, in accordance with the national laws governing the exercise of such freedom and right.

15 Declaration No. 8 to the Last Act ofthe Treaty ofAmsterdam (Declarations ofwhich the Conference took note), OJ 1997 C 340, p. 0144 (10 Nov. 1997). 16 OJ 2000 C 364, p. 1-22 (18 Dec. 2000). 886 • Appendix A

ARTicLE 21 -NoN-DISCRIMINATION

l. Any discrimination based on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opin• ion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orien• tation shall be prohibited. ( 00 0)

ARTICLE 22 - CULTURAL, RELIGIOUS AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

The Union shall respect cultural, religious and linguistic diversity.

IV. ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES

A. AMERICAN DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS AND DuTIES OF MAN (1948)17

ARTICLE II - RIGHT TO EQUALITY BEFORE LAW

All persons are equal before the law and have the rights and duties established in this Declaration, without distinction as to race, sex, language, creed or any other factor.

ARTICLE III - RIGHT TO RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND WORSHIP

Every person has the right freely to profess a religious faith, and to manifest and practice it both in public and in private.

ARTICLE XXII - RIGHT OF ASSOCIATION

Every person has the right to associate with others to promote, exercise and pro• tect his legitimate interests of a political, economic, religious, social, cultural, profes• sional, labor union or other nature.

B. AMERICAN CONVENTION ON HuMAN RIGHTS (1969)18

ARTicLE 1 - OBLIGATION To REsPECT RIGHTS

l. The States Parties to this Convention undertake to respect the rights and freedoms recognized herein and to ensure to all persons subject to their jurisdiction the free and full exercise of those rights and freedoms, without any discrimination for

17 OAS Resolution XXX, Final Act of the Ninth International Conference of American States, 48 (March 30-May 2, 1948). 18 Signed by the Organization ofAmerican States on 22 November 1969. Entered into Force July 18, 1978. Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 887 reasons of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, economic status, birth, or any other social condition. ( ... )

ARTICLE 12 - FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE AND RELIGION

l. Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience and of religion. This right includes freedom to maintain or to change one's religion or beliefs, and freedom to profess or disseminate one's religion or beliefs, either individually or together with others, in public or in private. 2. No one shall be subject to restrictions that might impair his freedom to maintain or to change his religion or beliefs. 3. Freedom to manifest one's religion and beliefs may be subject only to the limitations prescribed by law that are necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals, or the rights· or freedoms of others. 4. Parents or guardians, as the case may be, have the right to provide for the religious and moral education of their children or wards that is in accord with their own convictions.

ARTICLE 13 - FREEDOM OF THOUGHT AND EXPRESSION

( ... ) 5. Any propaganda for war and any advocacy of national, racial, or religious hatred that constitute incitements to lawless violence or any other similar illegal action against any person or group of persons on any grounds including those of race, color, religion, language, or national origin shall be considered as offenses punish• able by law.

ARTICLE 16- FREEDOM OF AssoCIATION

l. Everyone has the right to associate freely for ideological, religious, political, economic, labor, social, cultural, sports or other purposes. ( ... )

ARTICLE 27 - SUSPENSION OF GUARANTEES

l. In time of war, public danger, or other emergency that threatens the indepen• dence or security of a State Party, it may take measures derogating from its obligations under the present Convention to the extent and for the period of time stricdy required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with its other obligations under international law and do not involve discrimination on the ground of race, color, sex, language, religion, or social origin. 2. The foregoing provision does not authorize any suspension of the following articles: Article 3 (Right to Juridical Personality), Article 4 (Right to Life), Article 5 (Right to Humane Treatment), Article 6 (Freedom from Slavery), Article 9 (Freedom 888 • Appendix A from Ex Post Facto Laws), Article 12 (Freedom of Conscience and Religion), Article 17 (Rights of the Family), Article 18 (Right to a Name), Article 19 (Rights of the Child), Article 20 (Right to Nationality), and Article 23 (Right to Participate in Gov• ernment), or of the judicial guarantees essential for the protection of such rights.

c. ADDITIONAL PROTOCOL TO THE AMERICAN CONVENTION ON HuMAN RIGHTS IN THE AREA oF EcoNOMIC, SociAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS ( 1988 )19

ARTICLE 3- OBLIGATION oF NoN-DiscRIMINATION

The States Parties to this Protocol undertake to guarantee the exercise of the rights set forth herein without discrimination of any kind for reasons related to race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, economic status, birth or any other social condition.

ARTICLE 13 - RIGHT TO EDUCATION

( 00 0) 2. The States Parties to this Protocol agree that education should be directed towards the full development of the human personality and human dignity and should strengthen respect for human rights, ideological pluralism, fundamental freedoms, justice and peace. They further agree that education ought to enable everyone to participate effectively in a democratic and pluralistic society and achieve a decent exist• ence and should foster understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups and promote activities for the maintenance of peace.

ARTICLE 15- RIGHT TO THE FORMATION AND THE PROTECTION OF FAMILIES

1. The family is the natural and fundamental element of society and ought to be protected by the State, which should see to the improvement of its spiritual and material conditions. ( 00 0) 3. The States Parties hereby undertake to accord adequate protection to the family unit and in particular: ( 00 0) (c) To adopt special measures for the protection of adolescents in order to ensure the full development of their physical, intellectual and moral capacities; ( 00 0)

19 Adopted at San Salvador, El Salvador, OAS General Assembly, 18th Regular Sess., November 17, 1988, OAS Treaty Series No. 69 (Protocol of San Salvador). Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 889

V. ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY

A. OAU CONVENTION GOVERNING THE SPECIFIC AsPECTS OF REFUGEE PROBLEMS IN AFRICA ( 1969 )20

ARTICLE I- DEFINITION OF THE TERM "REFUGEE"

l. For the purposes of this Convention, the term "refugee" shall mean every person who, owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, reli• gion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country, or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.

ARTICLE IV- NoN-DisCRIMINATION

Member States undertake to apply the provisions of this Convention to all refu• gees without discrimination as to race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions.

B. AFRICAN CHARTER ON HuMAN AND PEOPLES' RIGHTS (1981)21

ARTICLE 2

Every individual shall be entitled to the enjoyment of the rights and freedoms recognized and guaranteed in the present Charter without distinction of any kind such as race, ethnic group, colour, sex, language, religion, political or any other opin• ion, national and social origin, fortune, birth or other status.

ARTICLE 8

Freedom of conscience, the profession and free practice of religion shall be guar• anteed. No one may, subject to law and order, be submitted to measures restricting the exercise of these freedoms.

ARTICLE 12

( ... ) 5. The mass expulsion of non-nationals shall be prohibited. Mass expulsion shall be that which is aimed at national, racial, ethnic or religious groups.

20 Organization OfMrican Unity, Convention Governing Specific Aspects OfThe Problem Of Refugees In Africa, 1001 UNTS 45 (Sept. 10, 1969), entered into force June 20, 1974. 21 Adopted by the Organization ofAfrican Unity on June 17,1981. O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 Rev. 5 (1981), entered into force 21 October 1986. 890 • Appendix A

C. CONSTITUTIVE AcT OF THE AFRICAN UNION (2000)22

( ... ) 3(h) Promote and protect human and peoples' rights in accordance with the Mrican Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and other relevant human rights instruments; ( ... ) 4(m) Respect for democratic principles, human rights, the rule of law and good governance; ( ... )

VI. CSCE/OSCE23

A. FINAL AcT OF THE CoNFERENCE oN SECURITY AND Co-oPERATION IN EuROPE (HELSINKI, 1975)

QuEsTioNs RELATING TO SECURITY IN EuROPE CHAPTER l(A)- DECLARATION ON PRINCIPLES GUIDING RELATIONS BETWEEN pARTICIPATING STATES PRINCIPLE VII- REsPECT FOR HuMAN RIGHTs AND FuNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS, INCLUDING THE FREEDOM OF THOUGHT, CONSCIENCE, RELIGION OR BELIEF

The participating States will respect human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief, for all without dis• tinction as to race, sex, language or religion. ( ... ) Within this framework the participating States will recognize and respect the free• dom of the individual to profess and practise, alone or in community with others, religion or belief acting in accordance with the dictates of his own conscience. ( ... )

CO-OPERATION IN HUMANITARIAN AND OTHER FIELDS CHAPTER l - HUMAN CONTACTS SECTION D - TRAVEL FOR PERSONAL OR PROFESSIONAL REASONS

( ... ) They [the participating States] confirm that religious faiths, institutions and or·· ganizations, practising within the constitutional framework of the participating States, and their representatives can, in the field of their activities, have contacts and meetings among themselves and exchange information.

22 Entered into force May 26, 2001. 23 CSCE and OSCE documents can be found at the OSCE website, . Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 891

B. CoNCLUDING DocuMENT OF THE MADRID MEETING OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE pARTICIPATING STATES OF THE CONFERENCE ON SECURITY AND CO-OPERATION IN EUROPE ( 1983)

QuESTIONS RELATING TO SECURITY IN EuROPE

The participating States reaffirm that they will recognize, respect and further• more agree to take the action necessary to ensure the freedom of the individual to profess and practise, alone or in community with others, religion or belief acting in accordance with the dictates of his own conscience. In this context, they [the participating States] will consult, whenever necessary, the religious faiths, institutions and organizations, which act within the constitutional framework of their respective countries. They [the participating States] will favorably consider applications by religious communities of believers practicing or prepared to practice their faith within the con• stitutional framework of their States, to be granted the status provided for in their respective countries for religious faiths, institutions and organizations.

Co-OPERATION IN HuMANITARIAN AND OTHER FIELDS HuMAN CoNTAcTs

They [the participating States] will further implement the relevant provisions of the Final Act, so that religious faiths, institutions, organizations and their representa• tives can, in the field of their activity, develop contacts and meetings among them• selves and exchange information.

C. CoNCLUDING DocuMENT oF THE VIENNA MEETING oF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE pARTICIPATING STATES OF THE CONFERENCE ON SECURITY AND CO-OPERATION IN EUROPE (1989)24

QuEsTIONS RELATING To SECURITY IN EuROPE- PRINCIPLE 11

11. They [the participating States] confirm that they will respect human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief, for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion. They also confirm the universal significance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, respect for which is an essential factor for the peace, justice and security necessary to ensure the develop• ment of friendly relations and co-operation among themselves, as among all States.

QuESTIONS RELATING TO SECURITY IN EuROPE - PRINCIPLE 13

13. In this context they [the participating States] will ( ... ) 13g. ensure human rights and fundamental freedoms to everyone within their territory and subject to their jurisdiction, without distinction of any kind

24 Adopted in Vienna on January 17, 1989. 892 • Appendix A such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status; ( ... )

QUESTIONS RELATING TO SECURI1Y IN EUROPE- PRINCIPLE 16

16. In order to ensure the freedom of the individual to profess and practice religion or belief the participating States will, inter alia, 16a. take effective measures to prevent and eliminate discrimination against individuals or communities on the grounds of religion or belief in the recognition, exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms in all fields of civil, political, economic, social and cultural life, and ensure the effective equality be• tween believers and non-believers; 16b. foster a climate of mutual tolerance and respect between believers of different communities as well as between believers and non-believers; 16c. grant upon their request to communities of believers, practising or pre- pared to practise their faith within the constitutional framework of their states, recog• nition of the status provided for them in their respective countries; 16d. respect the right of religious communities to - establish and maintain freely accessible places ofworship or assembly, - organize themselves according to their own hierarchical and institu- tional structure, - select, appoint and replace their personnel in accordance with their respective requirements and standards as well as with any freely accepted arrangement between them and their State, - solicit and receive voluntary financial and other contributions; 16e. engage in consultations with religions faiths, institutions and organiza- tions in order to achieve a better understanding of the requirements of religious freedom; 16f. respect the right of everyone to give and receive religious education in the language of his choice, individually or in association with others; 16g. in this context respect, inter alia, the liberty of parents to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions; 16h. allow the training of religious personnel in appropriate institutions; 16i. respect the right of individual believers and communities of believers to ac• quire, posses, and use sacred books, religious publications in the language of their choice and other articles and materials related to the practice of religion or belief; 16j. allow religious faiths, institutions and organizations to produce and import and disseminate religious publications and materials; 16k. favorably consider the interest of religious communities in participating in public dialogue, inter alia, through the mass media.

QUESTIONS RELATING TO SECURI1Y IN EuROPE - PRINCIPLE 17

17. The participating States recognize that the exercise of the above-mentioned rights relating to the freedom of religion or belief may be subject only to such limitations Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 893 as are provided by law and consistent with their obligations under international law and with their international commitments. They will ensure in their laws and regula• tions and in their application the full and effective exercise of the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief.

QuESTIONS RELATING TO SECURITY IN EuROPE- PRINCIPLE 19

19. They [the participating States] will protect and create conditions for the promotion of the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of national minori• ties on their territory. They will respect the free exercise of rights by persons belonging to such minorities and ensure their full equality with others.

QuESTIONS RELATING TO SECURITY IN EuROPE- PRINCIPLE 21

21. The participating States will ensure that the exercise of the above-mentioned rights will not be subject to any restrictions except those which are provided by law and are consistent with their obligations under international law, in particular the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and with their international com• mitments, in particular the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights. These restrictions have the character of exceptions. The participating States will ensure that these restric• tions are not abused and are not applied in an arbitrary manner, but in such a way that the effective exercise of these rights is ensured.

Co-oPERATION IN HuMANITARIAN AND OTHER FIELDS HUMAN CONTACTS- PARAGRAPH 32

They [the participating States] will allow believers, religious faiths and their representatives, in groups or on an individual basis, to establish and maintain di• rect personal contacts and communication with each other, in their own and other countries, inter alia through travel, pilgrimages and participation in assemblies and other religious events. In this context and commensurate with such contacts and events, those concerned will be allowed to acquire, receive and carry with them religious publications and objects related to the practice of their religion or belief.

Co-oPERATION IN HuMANITARIAN AND OTHER FIELDS Co-oPERATION AND ExcHANGES IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION - PARAGRAPH 68

They [the participating States] will ensure that persons belonging to national minorities or regional cultures on their territories can give and receive instruction on their own culture, including instruction through parental transmission of language, religion and cultural identity to their children. 894 • Appendix A

D. DOCUMENT OF THE COPENHAGEN MEETING OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE PARTICIPATING STATES OF THE CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN DIMENSION oF THE CoNFERENCE oN SECURITY AND Co-oPERATION IN EUROPE ( 1990 )25

CHAPTER II - PRINCIPLE 9

(9) The participating States reaffirm that (9 .1) everyone will have the right to freedom of expression including the right to communication. This right will include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and re• gardless of frontiers. The exercise of this right may be subject only to such restrictions as are prescribed by law and are consistent with international standards. In particular, no limitation will be imposed on access to, and use of, means of reproducing docu• ments of any kind, while respecting, however, rights relating to intellectual property, including copyright; (9.2) everyone will have the right of peaceful assembly and demonstration. Any restrictions which may be placed on the exercise of these rights will be prescribed by law and consistent with international standards; (9.3) the right of association will be guaranteed. The right to form and- subject to the general right of a trade union to determine its own membership-freely to join a trade union will be guaranteed. These rights will exclude any prior control. Freedom of association for workers, including the freedom to strike, will be guaranteed, subject to limitations prescribed by law and consistent with international standards. (9.4) everyone will have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right includes freedom to change one's religion or belief and freedom to manifest one's religion or belief, either alone or in community with others, in public or in private, through worship, teaching, practice and observance. The exercise of these rights may be subject only to such restrictions as are prescribed by law and are consistent with international standards; ( ... )

CHAPTER II - PRINCIPLE 18

( 18) The participating States (18.1) note that the United Nations Commission on Human Rights has rec• ognized the right of everyone to have conscientious objections to military service; ( 18.2) note recent measures taken by a number of participating States to permit exemption from compulsory military service on the basis of conscientious objections; (18.3) note the activities of several non-governmental organizations on the question of conscientious objections to compulsory military service; (18.4) agree to consider introducing, where this has not yet been done, various forms of alternative service, which are compatible with the reasons for conscientious

25 Adopted in Copenhagen on June 29, 1990. Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 895 objection, such forms of alternative service being in principle of a non-combatant or civilian nature, in the public interest and of a non-punitive nature; (18.5) will make available to the public information on this issue; (18.6) will keep under consideration, within the framework of the Conference on the Human Dimension, the relevant questions related to the exemption from com• pulsory military service, where it exists, of individuals on the basis of conscientious objections to armed service, and will exchange information on these questions.

CHAPTER II - PRINCIPLE 24

( 24) The participating States will ensure that the exercise of all human rights and fundamental freedoms set out above will not be subject to any restrictions except those which are provided by law and are consistent with their obligations under inter• national law, in particular the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and with their international commitments, in particular the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These restrictions have the character of exceptions. The participating States will ensure that these restrictions are not abused and are not applied in an arbitrary manner, but in such a way that the effective exercise of these rights is ensured. Any restriction on rights and freedoms must, in a democratic society, relate to one of the objectives of the applicable law and be strictly proportionate to the aim of that law.

CHAPTER II- PRINCIPLE 25

(25) The participating States confirm that any derogations from obligations relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms during a state of public emer• gency must remain strictly within the limits provided for by international law, in particular the relevant international instruments by which they are bound, especially with respect to rights from which there can be no derogation. They also reaffirm that (25.1) measures derogating from such obligations must be taken in strict con• formity with the procedural requirements laid down in those instruments; (25.2) the imposition of a state of public emergency must be proclaimed offi• cially, publicly, and in accordance with the provisions laid down by law; (25.3) measures derogating from obligations will be limited to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation; (25 .4) such measures will not discriminate solely on the grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, social origin or of belonging to a minority.

CHAPTER IV- PRINCIPLE 30

( ... ) (30) They also recognize the important role of non-governmental organi- zations, including political parties, trade unions, human rights organizations and religious groups, in the promotion of tolerance, cultural diversity and the resolution of questions relating to national minorities. ( ... ) 896 • Appendix A

CHAPTER IV- PRINCIPLE 32

(32) To belong to a national minority is a matter of a person's individual choice and no disadvantage may arise from the exercise of such choice. Persons belonging to national minorities have the right freely to ex• press, preserve and develop their ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious identity and to maintain and develop their culture in all its aspects, free of any attempts at assimilation against their will. In particular, they have the right. ( ... ) ( 32.2) to establish and maintain their own educational, cultural and religious institutions, organizations or associations, which can seek voluntary financial and other contributions as well as public assistance, in conformity with national legislation; (32.3) to profess and practice their religion, including the acquisition, posses• sion and use of religious materials, and to conduct religious educational activities in their mother tongue; (32.4) to establish and maintain unimpeded contacts among themselves within their country as well as contacts across frontiers with citizens of other States with whom they share a common ethnic or national origin, cultural heritage or religious beliefs; ( ... ) ( 32.6) to establish and maintain organizations or associations within their coun• try and to participate in international non-governmental organizations. Persons belonging to national minorities can exercise and enjoy their rights individually as well as in community with other members of their group. No disadvantage may arise for a person belonging to a national minority on account of the exercise or non-exercise of any such rights.

Chapter IV - Principle 33

(33) The participating States will protect the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of national minorities on their territory and create conditions for the promotion of that identity. They will take the necessary measures to that effect after due consultations, including contacts with organizations or associations of such mi• norities, in accordance with the decision-making procedures of each State. Any such measures will be in conformity with the principles of equality and non-discrimination with respect to the other citizens of the participating State concerned.

CHAPTER IV- PRINCIPLE 35

( 35) The participating States will respect the right of persons belonging to national minorities to effective participation in public affairs, including participation in the affairs relating to the protection and promotion of the identity of such minorities. The participating States note the efforts undertaken to protect and cre• ate conditions for the promotion of the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of certain national minorities by establishing, as one of the possible means to achieve Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 897 these aims, appropriate local or autonomous administrations corresponding to the specific historical and territorial circumstances of such minorities and in accordance with the policies of the State concerned.

CHAPTER IV - PRINCIPLE 36

( 36) The participating States recognize the particular importance of increas- ing constructive co-operation among themselves on questions relating to national minorities. Such co-operation seeks to promote mutual understanding and confidence, friendly and good-neighborly relations, international peace, security and justice. Every participating State will promote a climate of mutual respect, un• derstanding, co-operation and solidarity among all persons living on its territory, without distinction as to ethnic or national origin or religion, and will encourage the solution of problems through dialogue based on the principles of the rule of law.

CHAPTER IV - PRINCIPLE 40

( 40) The participating States clearly and unequivocally condemn totalitari- anism, racial and ethnic hatred, anti-semitism, xenophobia and discrimination against anyone as well as persecution on religious and ideological grounds. In this context, they also recognize the particular problems ofRoma (gypsies). They declare their firm intention to intensifY the efforts to combat these phenomena in all their forms and therefore will ( 40 .l) take effective measures, including the adoption, in conformity with their constitutional systems and their international obligations, of such laws as may be nec• essary, to provide protection against any acts that constitute incitement to violence against persons or groups based on national, racial, ethnic or religious discrimination, hostility or hatred, including anti-semitism; (40.2) commit themselves to take appropriate and proportionate measures to protect persons or groups who may be subject to threats or acts of discrimination, hostility or violence as a result of their racial, ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious identity, and to protect their property; ( 00 0)

E. CHARTER OF PARIS FORA NEW EUROPE (1990)

A NEW ERA OF DEMOCRACY, PEACE AND UNITY HuMAN RIGHTs, DEMOCRACY AND RuLE OF LAw- PARAGRAPH 6

We [the participating states] affirm that, without discrimination, every individual has the right to: freedom of thought, conscience and religion or belief, ( 00 0) 898 • Appendix A

A NEW ERA OF DEMOCRACY, PEACE AND UNITY HuMAN RIGHTS, DEMOCRACY AND RuLE OF LAw - PARAGRAPH 7

We affirm that the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of national minorities will be protected and that persons belonging to national minorities have the right freely to express, preserve and develop that identity without any discrimina• tion and in full equality before the law.

GUIDELINES FOR THE FUTURE HuMAN DIMENSION - PARAGRAPH 3

Determined to foster the rich contribution of national minorities to the life of our societies, we undertake further to improve their situation. We reaffirm our deep conviction that friendly relations among our peoples, as well as peace, justice, stability and democracy, require that the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of national minorities be protected and conditions for the promotion of that identity be created. We declare that questions related to national minorities can only be satisfacto• rily resolved in a democratic political framework. We further acknowledge that the rights of persons belonging to national minorities must be fully respected as part of universal human rights. Being aware of the urgent need for increased co-operation on, as well as better protection of, national minorities, we decide to convene a meeting of experts on national minorities to be held in Geneva from 1 to 19 July 1991.

GUIDELINES FOR THE FUTURE HuMAN DIMENSION- PARAGRAPH 4

We express our determination to combat all forms of racial and ethnic hatred, anti-semitism, xenophobia and discrimination against anyone as well as persecution on religious and ideological grounds.

F. DOCUMENT OF THE MOSCOW MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN DIMENSION OF THE CONFERENCE ON SECURITY AND Co-OPERATION IN EUROPE (1991)

CHAPTER II- PARAGRAPH 28

(28) The participating States consider it important to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms during a state of public emergency, to take into account the relevant provisions of the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting, and to observe the international conventions to which they are parties. ( ... ) (28.6) The participating States confirm that any derogation from obligations relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms during a state of public emergency must remain strictly within the limits provided for by international law, in particular the relevant international instruments by which they are bound, especially with re• spect to rights from which there can be no derogation. Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 899

(28.7) The participating States will endeavor to refrain from making deroga• tions from those obligations from which, according to international conventions to which they are parties, derogation is possible under a state of public emergency. Mea• sures derogating from such obligations must be taken in strict conformity with the procedural requirements laid down in those instruments. Such measures will neither go further nor remain in force longer than strictly required by the exigencies of the situation; they are by nature exceptional and should be interpreted and applied with restraint. Such measures will not discriminate solely on the grounds of race, color, sex, language, religion, social origin or of belonging to a minority. ( ... )

CHAPTER III - PARAGRAPH 38

( 38) The participating States recognize the need to ensure that the rights of migrant workers and their families lawfully residing in the participating States are re• spected and underline their right to express freely their ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic characteristics. The exercise of such rights may be subject to such restric• tions as are prescribed by law and are consistent with international standards. ( 38 .l) They condemn all acts of discrimination on the ground of race, color and ethnic origin, intolerance and xenophobia against migrant workers. They will, in conformity with domestic law and international obligations, take effective measures to promote tolerance, understanding, equality of opportunity and respect for the funda• mental human rights of migrant workers and adopt, if they have not alreadydone so, measures that would prohibit acts that constitute incitement to violence based on national, racial, ethnic or religious discrimination, hostility or hatred. ( ... )

CHAPTER III - PARAGRAPH 42

( 42) The participating States ( 42 .l) affirm that human rights education is fundamental and that it is therefore essential that their citizens are educated on human rights and fundamental freedoms and the commitment to respect such rights and freedoms in domestic legislation and international instruments to which they may be parties; ( 42.2) recognize that effective human rights education contributes to combat• ing intolerance, religious, racial and ethnic prejudice and hatred, including against Roma, xenophobia and anti-semitism; (42.3) will encourage their competent authorities responsible for education programmes to design effective human rights relates curricula and courses for stu• dents at all levels, particularly students oflaw, administration and social sciences as well as those attending military, police and public service schools; (42.4) will make information on all CSCE human dimension provisions avail• able to their educators; (42.5) will encourage organizations and educational establishments to co-op• erate in drawing up and exchanging human rights programmes at the national as well as the international level; 900 • Appendix A

(42.6) will seek to ensure that activities undertaken with a view to promoting human rights education in the broader sense take into account experience, programmes and forms of co-operation within existing international governmental and non-gov• ernmental bodies, such as the United Nations and the Council of Europe.

G. BuDAPEST DocuMENT TowARD A GENUINE PARTNERSHIP IN A NEw ERA (1994)

CHAPTER N. CODE OF CONDUCT ON POLITICO-MILITARY AsPECTS OF SECURITY SECTION VIII- PARAGRAPH 37

37. The participating States will not use armed forces to limit the peaceful and lawful exercise of their human and civil rights by persons as individuals or as represen• tatives of groups nor to deprive them of their national, religious, cultural, linguistic or ethnic identity.

CHAPTER VIII. THE HuMAN DIMENSION CoMMITMENTs AND Co-oPERATION ToLERANCE AND NoN-DisCRIMINATION- PARAGRAPH 27

27. Reaffirming their commitment to ensure freedom of conscience and religion and to foster a climate of mutual tolerance and respect between believers of different communities as well as between believers and non-believers, they expressed their con• cern about the exploitation of religion for aggressive nationalist ends.

CHAPTER VIII. THE HuMAN DIMENSION CoMMITMENTS AND Co-oPERATION MIGRANT WoRKERS- PARAGRAPH 28

28. The participating States reconfirm that human rights are universal and indi• visible. They recognized that the protection and promotion of the rights of migrant workers have their human dimension. They underline the right of migrant workers to express freely their ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic characteristics. The exer• cise of such rights may be subject to such restrictions as are prescribed by law and consistent with international standards.

H. CHARTER FOR EuROPEAN SECURITY (IsTANBUL, 1999)

CHAPTER III. OuR CoMMON REsPONSE THE HuMAN DIMENSION- PARAGRAPH 19

19. We [the participating States] reaffirm that respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, democracy and the rule of law is at the core of the OSCE's comprehensive concept of security. We commit ourselves to counter such threats to Major International Provisions on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 901 security as violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief and manifestations of intolerance, aggressive nationalism, racism, chauvinism, xenophobia and anti-semitism. The protection and promotion of the rights of persons belonging to national minorities are essential factors for democracy, peace, justice and stability within, and between, participating States. In this respect we reaffirm our commitments, in par• ticular under the relevant provisions of the Copenhagen 1990 Human Dimension Document, and recall the Report of the Geneva 1991 Meeting ofExperts on National Minorities. Full respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to national minorities, besides being an end in itself, may not undermine, but strengthen territorial integrity and sovereignty. Various concepts of autonomy as well as other approaches outlined in the above-mentioned documents, which are in line with OSCE principles, constitute ways to preserve and promote the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of national minorities within an existing State. We condemn violence against any minority. We pledge to take measures to promote tolerance and to build pluralistic societies where all, regardless of their ethnic origin, enjoy full equality of opportunity. We emphasize that questions relating to national minorities can only be satisfactorily resolved in a democratic political framework based on the rule of law.

CHAPTER IV. OUR COMMON INSTRUMENTS OPERATION CENTER- PARAGRAPH 44

44. We will work to enhance the OSCE's role in civilian police-related activities as an integral part of the Organization's efforts in conflict prevention, crisis manage• ment and post-conflict rehabilitation. Such activities may comprise: Police monitoring, including with the aim of preventing police from carry- ing out such activities as discrimination based on religious and ethnic identity; Police training, which could, inter alia, include the following tasks: ( ... ) Creating a police service with a multi-ethnic and/or multi-religious compo• sition that can enjoy the confidence of the entire population; ( ... ) APPENDIX B

DECLARATION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FoRMS OF INTOLERANCE AND DISCRIMINATION BASED ON RELIGION OR BELIEF.

The General Assembly,

Considering that one of the basic principles of the Charter of the United Nations is that of the dignity and equality inherent in all human beings, and that all Member States have pledged themselves to take joint and separate action in co-operation with the Organization to promote and encourage universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion,

Considering that the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights and the International Covenants on Human Rights proclaim the principles of nondiscrimination and equality before the law and the right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion and belief,

Considering that the disregard and infringement of human rights and fundamen• tal freedoms, in particular of the right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion or whatever belief, have brought, directly or indirectly, wars and great suffering to man• kind, especially where they serve as a means of foreign interference in the internal affairs of other States and amount to kindling hatred between peoples and nations,

Considering that religion or belief, for anyone who professes either, is one of the fundamental elements in his conception of life and that freedom of religion or belief should be fully respected and guaranteed,

Considering that it is essential to promote understanding, tolerance and respect in matters relating to freedom of religion and belief and to ensure that the use of religion or belief for ends inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations, other relevant instruments of the United Nations and the purposes and principles of the present Declaration is inadmissible,

·Proclaimed by United Nations the General Assembly on 25 November 1981. GA Res. 36/55, UN GAOR, 36th Sess. (1981). 904 • Appendix B

Convinced that freedom of religion and belief should also contribute to the at• tainment of the goals of world peace, social justice and friendship among peoples and to the elimination of ideologies or practices of colonialism and racial discrimination,

Noting with satisfaction the adoption of several, and the coming into force of some, conventions, under the aegis of the United Nations and of the specialized agen• cies, for the elimination of various forms of discrimination,

Concerned by manifestations of intolerance and by the existence of discrimination in matters of religion or belief still in evidence in some areas of the world,

Resolved to adopt all necessary measures for the speedy elimination of such intol• erance in all its forms and manifestations and to prevent and combat discrimination on the ground of religion or belief,

Proclaims this Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms oflntolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief:

Article 1

l. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and reli• gion. This right shall include freedom to have a religion or whatever belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching.

2. No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have a religion or belief of his choice.

3. Freedom to manifest one's religion or belief may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.

Article 2

l. No one shall be subject to discrimination by any State, institution, group of persons, or person on the grounds of religion or other belief.

2. For the purposes of the present Declaration, the expression "intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief'' means any distinction, exclusion, restric• tion or preference based on religion or belief and having as its purpose or as its effect nullification or impairment of the recognition, enjoyment or exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis. 1981 Declaration • 905

Article 3

Discrimination between human being on the grounds of religion or belief consti• tutes an affront to human dignity and a disavowal of the principles of the Charter of the United Nations, and shall be condemned as a violation of the human rights and fundamental freedoms proclaimed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and enunciated in detail in the International Covenants on Human Rights, and as an ob• stacle to friendly and peaceful relations between nations.

Article 4

l. All States shall take effective measures to prevent and eliminate discrimina• tion on the grounds of religion or belief in the recognition, exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms in all fields of civil, economic, political, social and cultural life.

2. All States shall make all efforts to enact or rescind legislation where necessary to prohibit any such discrimination, and to take all appropriate measures to combat intolerance on the grounds of religion or other beliefs in this matter.

Article 5

1. The parents or, as the case may be, the legal guardians of the child have the right to organize the life within the family in accordance with their religion or belief and bearing in mind the moral education in which they believe the child should be brought up.

2. Every child shall enjoy the right to have access to education in the matter of religion or belief in accordance with the wishes of his parents or, as the case may be, legal guardians, and shall not be compelled to receive teaching on religion or belief against the wishes ofhis parents or legal guardians, the best interests of the child being the guiding principle.

3. The child shall be protected from any form of discrimination on the ground of religion or belief. He shall be brought up in a spirit of understanding, tolerance, friendship among peoples, peace and universal brotherhood, respect for freedom of religion or belief of others, and in full consciousness that his energy and talents should be devoted to the service of his fellow men.

4. In the case of a child who is not under the care either of his parents or of legal guardians, due account shall be taken of their expressed wishes or of any other proof of their wishes in the matter of religion or belief, the best interests of the child being the guiding principle. 906 • Appendix B

5. Practices of a religion or belief in which a child is brought up must not be injurious to his physical or mental health or to his full development, taking into ac• count article l, paragraph 3, of the present Declaration.

Article 6

In accordance with article I of the present Declaration, and subject to the provi• sions of article l, paragraph 3, the right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief shall include, inter alia, the following freedoms:

(a) To worship or assemble in connection with a religion or belief, and to estab• lish and maintain places for these purposes;

(b) To establish and maintain appropriate charitable or humanitarian institutions;

(c) To make, acquire and use to an adequate extent the necessary articles and materials related to the rites or customs of a religion or belief;

(d) To write, issue and disseminate relevant publications in these areas;

(e) To teach a religion or belief in places suitable for these purposes;

(f) To solicit and receive voluntary financial and other contributions from indi• viduals and institutions;

(g) To train, appoint, elect or designate by succession appropriate leaders called for by the requirements and standards of any religion or belief;

(h) To observe days of rest and to celebrate holidays and ceremonies in accor• dance with the precepts of one's religion or belief;

(i) To establish and maintain communications with individuals and communi• ties in matters of religion and belief at the national and international levels.

Article 7

The rights and freedoms set forth in the present Declaration shall be accorded in national legislation in such a manner that everyone shall be able to avail himself of such rights and freedoms in practice.

Article 8

Nothing in the present Declaration shall be construed as restricting or derogat• ing from any right defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenants on Human Rights. APPENDIX c

LIST OF RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL TREATIES

Prepared by Bahia Tahzib-Lie

The list below gives the titles of all relevant global and regional treaties as well as the references to the provisions governing freedom of religion or belief The treaties are presented in chronological order oftheir adoption. Note that the focus on treaties results in exclusion ofa number ofkey documents dealing with freedom of religion or belief, either because they are "declarations» or because they are "politically binding» rather than "le• gally binding,» as in the case of OSCE commitments. Key documents and provisions in these categories are included in other appendices.

1945 Charter of the United Nations: Articles 1(3), 13(1)(b), 55(c) and 76(c).

1947 ILO Convention No. 82 concerning Social Policy in Non• Metropolitan Territories: Article 18(1) and (2).

1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide: Article II.

1949 ILO Convention No. 97 concerning Migration for Employment (Revised): Article 6( 1).

1950 European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: Articles 9 and 14.

1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees: Articles 1(A)(2), 3, 4 and 33(1). 908 • Appendix C

1952 Protocol No. I to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: Article 2.

1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons: Articles 3 and 4.

1957 ILO Convention No. 105 concerning the Abolition of Forced Labor: Article I( e).

ILO Convention No. 106 concerning Weekly Rest in Commerce and Offices: Article 6(4).

ILO Convention No. 107 concerning the Protection and Integration of Indigenous and Other Tribal and Semi-Tribal Populations in Independent Countries: Article 4(a).

European Convention on Extradition: Article 3(2 ).

1958 ILO Convention No. IIO concerning Conditions of Employment of Plantation Workers: Article 2.

ILO Convention No. Ill concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation: Article l(l)(a).

1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education: Articles 1(1), 2(b) and 5(l)(a) and (b).

1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness: Article 9.

1962 ILO Convention No. ll7 concerning Basic Aims and Standards of Social Policy: Article 14(1) and (2).

1964 ILO Convention No. 122 concerning Employment Policy: Article l(2)(c).

1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: Article 5( d)(vii). List of Relevant International Treaties • 909

1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Articles 2(1), 4, 18, 20(2), 24(1), 26 and 27.

1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Articles 2(2), and 13(1) and (3).

1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa: Articles I( 1) and IV.

American Convention on Human Rights: Articles 1(1), 12, 13(5), 16(1) and 27.

1970 ILO Convention No. 133 concerning Crew Accommodation on Board Ship (Supplementary Provisions): Article 12.

1974 ILO Convention No. 140 concerning Paid Educational Leave: Article 8.

1977 European Convention on the Legal Status of Migrant Workers: Articles 6(1) and 10(3).

1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Articles 2, 5 and 16.

1981 African Charter on Human Rights and Peoples' Rights: Articles 2, 8 and 12(5).

European Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data: Article 6.

1982 ILO Convention No. 158 concerning Termination of Employment at the Initiative of the Employer: Article 5( d).

1985 International Convention against Apartheid in Sports: Article 1(c).

1987 ILO Convention No. 163 concerning Seafarers' Welfare at Sea and in Port: Article 3(1). 910 • Appendix C

1988 ILO Convention No. 168 concerning Employment Promotion and Protection against Unemployment: Article 6( 1).

Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Articles 3 and 13(2).

1989 Convention No. 169 concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries: Articles 5(a), 7(1) and 32.

Convention on the Rights of the Child: Articles 2, 14, 20(3), 29(1)(d), and 30.

1990 Mrican Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child: Articles 1(3), 3, 9, ll(2)(d) and (4), 25(3) and 26(2).

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families: Articles 1(1), 7, 12 and 13(3)(d).

1992 Treaty on European Union: Article 6(2).

1994 Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication ofViolence against Women "Convention ofBelem do Para": Article 4(i).

1995 European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities: Articles 5(1), 6, 7, 8, 12(1) and 17(1).

1996 European Social Charter (revised): Article E (part V).

1997 ILO Convention No. 181 Concerning Private Employment Agencies: Article 5.

Treaty Establishing the European Community: Article 13.

2000 Constitutive Act of the Mrican Union: Articles 3(h) and 4(m).

Charter ofFundamental Rights of the European Union: Articles 10, 14,21 and 22. APPENDIX D

UNITED NATIONS HuMAN RIGHTS CoMMITTEE GENERAL CoMMENT No. 22 (48)*

The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion (Article 18) (Forty-Eighth Session, 1993)

1. The right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (which includes the freedom to hold beliefs) in article 18(1) is far-reaching and profound; it encom• passes freedom of thought on all matters, personal conviction and the commitment to religion or belief, whether manifested individually or in community with others. The Committee draws the attention of States parties to the fact that the freedom of thought and the freedom of conscience are protected equally with the freedom of religion and belief. The fundamental character of these freedoms is also reflected in the fact that this provision cannot be derogated from, even in time of public emergency, as stated in article 4(2) of the Covenant.

2. Article 18 protects theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs, as well as the right not to profess any religion or belief. The terms "belief' and "religion" are to be broadly construed. Article 18 is not limited in its application to traditional religions or to religions and beliefs with institutional characteristics or practices analogous to those of traditional religions. The Committee therefore views with concern any tendency to discriminate against any religion or belief for any reason, including the fact that they are newly established, or represent religious minorities that may be the subject of hostility on the part of a predominant religious community.

3. Article 18 distinguishes the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or be• lief from the freedom to manifest religion or belief. It does not permit any limitations whatsoever on the freedom of thought and conscience or on the freedom to have or adopt a religion or belief of one's choice. These freedoms are protected uncondition• ally, as is the right of everyone to hold opinions without interference in article 19(1 ). In accordance with articles 18(2) and 17, no one can be compelled to reveal his thoughts or adherence to a religion or belief.

·Adopted by the UN Human Rights Committee on 20 July 1993. UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/ Add.4 (1993), reprinted in UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 at 35 (1994). 912 • Appendix D

4. The freedom to manifest religion or belief may be exercised "either individu• ally or in community with others and in public or private." The freedom to manifest religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching encompasses a broad range of acts. The concept of worship extends to ritual and ceremonial acts giving direct expression to belief, as well as various practices integral to such acts, including the building of places of worship, the use of ritual formulae and objects, the display of symbols, and the observance of holidays and days of rest. The observance and practice of religion or belief may include not only ceremonial acts but also such customs as the observance ofdietary regulations, the wearing of distinctive clothing or headcoverings, participation in rituals associated with certain stages oflife, and the use of a particular language customarily spoken by a group. In addition, the practice and teaching of religion or belief includes acts integral to the conduct by religious groups of their basic affairs, such as the freedom to choose their religious leaders, priests and teachers, the freedom to establish seminaries or religious schools and the freedom to prepare and distribute religious texts or publications.

5. The Committee observes that the freedom to "have or to adopt" a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views, as well as the right to retain one's religion or belief. Article 18(2) bars coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or belief or to convert. Policies or practices having the same intention or effect, such as, for ex• ample, those restricting access to education, medical care, employment or the rights guaranteed by article 25 and other provisions of the Covenant, are similarly inconsis• tent with article 18(2). The same protection is enjoyed by holders of all beliefs of a non-religious nature.

6. The Committee is of the view that article 18( 4) permits public school in• struction in subjects such as the general history of religions and ethics if it is given in a neutral and objective way. The liberty of parents or legal guardians to ensure that their children receive a religious and moral education in conformity with their own convic• tions, set forth in article 18(4), is related to the guarantees of the freedom to teach a religion or belief stated in article 18(1). The Committee notes that public education that includes instruction in a particular religion or belief is inconsistent with article 18.4 unless provision is made for non-discriminatory exemptions or alternatives that would accommodate the wishes of parents and guardians.

7. In accordance with article 20, no manifestation of religion or belief may amount to propaganda for war or advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence. As stated by the Com• mittee in its General Comment 11 [19], States parties are under the obligation to enact laws to prohibit such acts. UN Human Rights Committee General Comment No. 22 • 913

8. Article 18(3) permits restrictions on the freedom to manifest religion or belief only if limitations are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals, or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others. The freedom from coercion to have or to adopt a religion or belief and the liberty of parents and guardians to ensure religious and moral education cannot be restricted. In interpreting the scope of permissible limitation clauses, States parties should proceed from the need to protect the rights guaranteed under the Covenant, including the right to equality and non-discrimination on all grounds specified in articles 2, 3 and 26. Limitations imposed must be established by law and must not be applied in a manner that would vitiate the rights guaranteed in article 18. The Committee ob• serves that paragraph 3 of article 18 is to be strictly interpreted: restrictions are not allowed on grounds not specified there, even if they would be allowed as restrictions to other rights protected in the Covenant, such as national security. Limitations may be applied only for those purposes for which they were prescribed and must be directly related and proportionate to the specific need on which they are predicated. Restric• tions may not be imposed for discriminatory purposes or applied in a discriminatory manner. The Committee observes that the concept of morals derives from many so• cial, philosophical and religious traditions; consequently, limitations on the freedom to manifest a religion or belief for the purpose of protecting morals must be based on principles not deriving exclusively from a single tradition. Persons already subject to certain legitimate constraints, such as prisoners, continue to enjoy their rights to manifest their religion or belief to the fullest extent compatible with the specific nature of the constraint. States parties' reports should provide information on the full scope and effects oflimitations under article 18(3), both as a matter oflaw and of their applica• tion in specific circumstances.

9. The fact that a religion is recognized as a state religion or that it is estab• lished as official or traditional or that its followers comprise the majority of the population, shall not result in any impairment of the enjoyment of any of the rights under the Covenant, including articles 18 and 27, nor in any discrimination against adherents to other religions or non-believers. In particular, certain measures discrimi• nating against the latter, such as measures restricting eligibility for government service to members of the predominant religion or giving economic privileges to them or imposing special restrictions on the practice of other faiths, are not in accordance with the prohibition of discrimination based on religion or belief and the guarantee of equal protection under article 26. The measures contemplated by article 20, para• graph 2 of the Covenant constitute important safeguards against infringement of the rights of religious minorities and of other religious groups to exercise the rights guar• anteed by articles 18 and 27, and against acts of violence or persecution directed towards those groups. The Committee wishes to be informed of measures taken by States parties concerned to protect the practices of all religions or beliefs from in• fringement and to protect their followers from discrimination. Similarly, information as to respect for the rights of religious minorities under article 27 is necessary for the Committee to assess the extent to which the right to freedom of thought, conscience, 9I4 • Appendix D religion and belief has been implemented by States parties. States parties concerned should also include in their reports information relating to practices considered by their laws and jurisprudence to be punishable as blasphemous.

IO. If a set of beliefs is treated as official ideology in constitutions, statutes, proclamations of ruling parties, etc., or in actual practice, this shall not result in any impairment of the freedoms under article I8 or any other rights recognized under the Covenant nor in any discrimination against persons who do not accept the official ideology or who oppose it.

II. Many individuals have claimed the right to refuse to perform military service (conscientious objection) on the basis that such right derives from their freedoms under article I8. In response to such claims, a growing number of States have in their laws exempted from compulsory military service citizens who genuinely hold religious or other beliefs that forbid the performance of military service and replaced it with alternative national service. The Covenant does not explicitly refer to a right to consci• entious objection, but the Committee believes that such a right can be derived from article I8, inasmuch as the obligation to use lethal force may seriously conflict with the freedom of conscience and the right to manifest one's religion or belief. When this right is recognized by law or practice, there shall be no differentiation among consci• entious objectors on the basis of the nature of their particular beliefs; likewise, there shall be no discrimination against conscientious objectors because they have failed to perform military service. The Committee invites States parties to report on the condi• tions under which persons can be exempted from military service on the basis of their rights under article I8 and on the nature and length of alternative national service. APPENDIX E

UNITED NATIONS HuMAN RIGHTS CoMMITTEE GENERAL CoMMENT No. 23 (50)*

The Rights ofMinorities (Article 27) (Fiftieth Session, 1994)

l. Article 27 of the Covenant provides that, in those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to these minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, or to use their own language. The Committee observes that this article establishes and recognizes a right which is conferred on individuals belonging to minority groups and which is distinct from, and additional to, all the other rights which, as individuals in common with everyone else, they are already entitled to enjoy under the Covenant.

2. In some communications submitted to the Committee under the Optional Protocol, the right protected under article 27 has been confused with the right of peoples to self-determination proclaimed in article 1 of the Covenant. Further, in reports submitted by States parties under article 40 of the Covenant, the obligations placed upon States parties under article 27 have sometimes been confused with their duty under article 2.1 to ensure the enjoyment of the rights guaranteed under the Covenant without discrimination and also with equality before the law and equal pro• tection of the law under article 26.

3.1. The Covenant draws a distinction between the right to self-determination and the rights protected under article 27. The former is expressed to be a right belonging to peoples and is dealt with in a separate part (Part I) of the Covenant. Self-determination is not a right cognizable under the Optional Protocol. Article 27, on the other hand, relates to rights conferred on individuals as such and is included, like the articles relating to other personal rights conferred on individuals, in Part III of the Covenant and is cognizable under the Optional Protocol. lL

"Adopted by the UN Human Rights Committee on 6April1994. UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5 (1994), reprinted in UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 at 38 (1994). 916 • Appendix E

3.2. The enjoyment of the rights to which article 27 relates does not prejudice the sovereignty and territorial integrity of a State party. At the same time, one or other aspect of the rights of individuals protected under that article - for example, to enjoy a particular culture - may consist in a way of life which is closely associated with territory and use of its resources. U This may particularly be true of members of indigenous communities constituting a minority.

4. The Covenant also distinguishes the rights protected under article 27 from the guarantees under articles 2.1 and 26. The entitlement, under article 2.1, to enjoy the rights under the Covenant without discrimination applies to all individuals within the territory or under the jurisdiction of the State whether or not those persons be• long to a minority. In addition, there is a distinct right provided under article 26 for equality before the law, equal protection of the law, and non-discrimination in respect of rights granted and obligations imposed by the States. It governs the exercise of all rights, whether protected under the Covenant or not, which the State party confers by law on individuals within its territory or under its jurisdiction, irrespective of whether they belong to the minorities specified in article 27 or not. U Some States parties who claim that they do not discriminate on grounds of ethnicity, language or religion, wrongly contend, on that basis alone, that they have no minorities.

5.1. The terms used in article 27 indicate that the persons designed to be pro• tected are those who belong to a group and who share in common a culture, a religion and/or a language. Those terms also indicate that the individuals designed to be pro• tected need not be citizens of the State party. In this regard, the obligations deriving from article 2.1 are also relevant, since a State party is required under that article to ensure that the rights protected under the Covenant are available to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction, except rights which are expressly made to apply to citizens, for example, political rights under article 25. A State party may not, therefore, restrict the rights under article 27 to its citizens alone.

5.2. Article 27 confers rights on persons belonging to minorities which "exist" in a State party. Given the nature and scope of the rights envisaged under that article, it is not relevant to determine the degree of permanence that the term "exist" connotes. Those rights simply are that individuals belonging to those minorities should not be denied the right, in community with members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to practise their religion and speak their language. Just as they need not be nationals or citizens, they need not be permanent residents. Thus, migrant workers or even visitors in a State party constituting such minorities are entitled not to be denied the exercise of those rights. As any other individual in the territory of the State party, they would, also for this purpose, have the general rights, for example, to freedom of association, of assembly, and of expression. The existence of an ethnic, religious or linguistic minority in a given State party does not depend upon a decision by that State party but requires to be established by objective criteria.

5.3. The right of individuals belonging to a linguistic minority to use their lan• guage among themselves, in private or in public, is distinct from other language rights protected under the Covenant. In particular, it should be distinguished from the gen- UN Human Rights Committee General Comment No. 23 • 917 eral right to freedom of expression protected under article 19. The latter right is avail• able to all persons, irrespective of whether they belong to minorities or not. Further, the right protected under article 27 should be distinguished from the particular right which article 14.3 (f) of the Covenant confers on accused persons to interpretation where they cannot understand or speak the language used in the courts. Article 14.3 (f) does not, in any other circumstances, confer on accused persons the right to use or speak the language of their choice in court proceedings. U

6.1. Although article 27 is expressed in negative terms, that article, nevertheless, does recognize the existence of a "right" and requires that it shall not be denied. Consequently, a State party is under an obligation to ensure that the existence and the exercise of this right are protected against their denial or violation. Positive measures of protection are, therefore, required not only against the acts of the State party itself, whether through its legislative, judicial or administrative authorities, but also against the acts of other persons within the State party.

6.2. Although the rights protected under article 27 are individual rights, they depend in turn on the ability of the minority group to maintain its culture, language or religion. Accordingly, positive measures by States may also be necessary to protect the identity of a minority and the rights of its members to enjoy and develop their culture and language and to practise their religion, in community with the other mem• bers of the group. In this connection, it has to be observed that such positive measures must respect the provisions of articles 2.1 and 26 of the Covenant both as regards the treatment between different minorities and the treatment between the persons be• longing to them and the remaining part of the population. However, as long as those measures are aimed at correcting conditions which prevent or impair the enjoyment of the rights guaranteed under article 27, they may constitute a legitimate differentiation under the Covenant, provided that they are based on reasonable and objective criteria.

7. With regard to the exercise of the cultural rights protected under article 27, the Committee observes that culture manifests itself in many forms, including a par• ticular way of life associated with the use of land resources, especially in the case of indigenous peoples. That right may include such traditional activities as fishing or hunting and the right to live in reserves protected by law. .5.L The enjoyment of those rights may require positive legal measures of protection and measures to ensure the effective participation of members of minority communities in decisions which affect them.

8. The Committee observes that none of the rights protected under article 27 of the Covenant may be legitimately exercised in a manner or to an extent inconsistent with the other provisions of the Covenant.

9. The Committee concludes that article 27 relates to rights whose protection imposes specific obligations on States parties. The protection of these rights is di• rected towards ensuring the survival and continued development of the cultural, religious and social identity of the minorities concerned, thus enriching the fabric of society as a whole. Accordingly, the Committee observes that these rights must be 918 • Appendix E protected as such and should not be confused with other personal rights conferred on one and all under the Covenant. States parties, therefore, have an obligation to ensure that the exercise of these rights is fully protected and they should indicate in their reports the measures they have adopted to this end.

Notes l/ See Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/39/40), annex VI, General Comment No. 12 (21) (article 1), also issued in document CCPR/C/21/Rev.1; ibid., Forty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 40, (A/45/ 40), vol. II, annex IX, sect. A, Communication No. 167/1984 (Bernard Ominayak, Chiefofthe Lubicon Lake Band v. Canada), views adopted on 26 March 1990. y See ibid., Forty-third Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/43/40), annex VII, sect. G, Communication No. 197/1985 (Kitok v. Sweden), views adopted on 27 July 1988.

V See ibid., Forty-second Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/42/40), annex VIII, sect. D, Communication No. 182/1984 (F.H. Zwaan-de Vriesv. the Netherlands), views adopted on 9 April1987; ibid., sect. C, Communication No. 180/1984 (L.G. Danningv. the Netherlands), views adopted on 9 April1987.

Y See ibid., Forty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 40, (A/45/40), vol. II, annex X, sect. A, Communication No. 220/1987 ( T.K. v. France), decision of 8 November 1989; ibid., sect. B, Communication No. 222/1987 (M.K. v. France), decision of8 Novem• ber 1989 .

.5/ See notes 1 and 2 above, Communication No. 167/1984 (Bernard Ominayak, Chiefofthe Lubicon Lake Band v. Canada), views adopted on 26 March 1990, and Communication No. 197/1985 (Kitok v. Sweden), views adopted on 27 July 1988. APPENDIX F

THE OSLO DECLARATION ON FREEDOM OF RELIGION OR BELIEF

Whereas the Oslo Conference on Freedom of Religion or Belief, meeting in celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, reaffirms that every person has the right to freedom of religion or belief;

And whereas participants in the Oslo Conference have accepted the challenge to build an international coalition and to develop a strategic plan of action to achieve substantial progress in and give practical support to the implementation of Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the 1981 United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief;

Therefore, we the participants in the Oslo Conference:

Recognise that religions and beliefs teach peace and good will;

Recognise that religions and beliefs may be misused to cause intolerance, discrimi• nation and prejudice, and have all to often been used to deny the rights and freedoms of others;

Affirm that every human being has a responsibility to condemn discrimination and intolerance based on religions and belief, and to apply religion or belief in support of human dignity and peace;

Consider the founding of the United Nations and the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be watershed events, in which the world community recognised for the first time that the existence of human rights transcends the laws of sovereign states; 920 • Appendix F

Confirm that Article 18 of both of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights together with other in• struments create both a mandate for freedom of religion or belief and a universal standard around which we wish to rally;

Recognise that the U.N. has made significant accomplishments in strengthening this universal standard by passage of the 1981 U.N. Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, by the appointment of a Special Rapporteur to monitor its implementation, and by further defining freedom of religion or belief in the General Comment on Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;

Recommend that the U.N. Commission on Human Rights change the title of the Rapporteur to Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief;

Ut;ge increased financial and personnel support to the U.N. to implement the work of the Special Rapporteur and his recommendations;

Request the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights to develop a co-ordinated plan to focus resources of the United Nations, including all specialised agencies and bodies such as UNESCO, ILO, UNDP, and UNHCR on problem involving freedom of religion or belief;

Call for UNESCO to expand its work for peace through religion and cultural dialogue and encourage intensified co-operation with UNESCO in this field;

Ut;ge scholars and teachers to study and apply the Universal Declaration of Hu• man Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1981 Declaration as universal standards on freedom of religion or belief and as a way to solve problems of intolerance and discrimination caused by competing beliefs;

Challenge governments, religious bodies, interfaith associations, humanist com• munities, non-governmental organisations and academic institutions to create educa• tional programs using the 1981 Declaration as a universal standard to build a culture of tolerance and understanding and respect between people of diverse beliefs;

Further ut;ge U.N. member states to use the 1981 Declaration and other relevant instruments to mediate, negotiate, and resolve intolerance, discrimination, injustice and violence in conflicts where religion or belief plays a role;

Support research and development of other informational resources and method• ologies for collecting information, monitoring compliance and initiating comparative country studies to strengthen the work of the United Nations and protect freedom of religion or belief; The Oslo Declaration on Freedom of Religion or Belief • 921

Ur,ge the organisers and sponsors of the Oslo Conference, in consultation with Conference participants: to review the discussions and recommendations of the Con• ference with the purpose of creating an "Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief'', inviting support and participation by governments, religious or belief com• munities, academic institutions and non-governmental organisations; and to develop a strategic plan of action and seek funding to carry out programs and projects based on its recommendations, in co-operation with the United Nations system. Appendix G List ofNGOs

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Abington Township School District v. aggiornamento, 53, 55 Schempp (US), 421 Agnes, Flavia, 532 abortion, xxix, lvi, 284,446,448, 557, agnosticism, 38, 65, 73, 82, 116, 118, 783 450,624 abrogation, 685 Agoy, N. I., 279n Abuza, Zachary, 386n Ahmad, Feroz, 506n accommodation, xxxi, xliv, lviii Ahmad, Hazrat Mirza Tahir, 682n Ackers, John, 736-737 Ahmadism, 179 ActaApostolicae Sedis, 559 Aiuto alla Chiesa che Soffre (Aid to the Adhar, Rex, 12n Church in Need), 835 Advisory and Monitoring Group, 264 Akbar, 32 Advisory Panel of Experts on Freedom Albania, 244,254,265-266,693-695 ofReligion or Belief, xxxv, lv, 747 al-Din, Nazira Zin, 484n Aetherius Society, 574 Alexander the Great, 25 Mghanistan, 180,489, 516,701-702, Alexander, Jeffrey C., 803n 743,747,770 Alfredsson, Gudmundur, 11n, 47n, 67n, Afkhami, Mahnaz, 484n 70n,360n,672n Mrica,270,634,651-668,702 Algeria,518,764 Mrica Council of Churches (ACC), 756 Alhabshi, Syed Othman, 764 African Charter on Human and Peoples' al-Hibri, Azizah, 489n Rights (1981), 77,467,663,677, Ali, Shaheen Sardar, 545n 889 Al-Marayati, Laila, 475n Mrican Commission of Human and Peoples' Rights, 833, 838 Al-Marzouqi, Ibrahim Abdulla, 686 Afro-Caribbean religion, 439 All Mrica Conference of Churches, 752 A&fa v. Greece (ECtHR), 225 Alsace-Moselle, 302, 315

Tore Lindholm, W. Cole Durham, Jr., Bahia G. Tahzib·Lie (eds.), Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook, 977-1017. ©2004 Koninklijke Brill NV. 978 • Index

Alston, Phillip, xlin, 69n, 350n, 686n, Annual Report on International Religious 829n,835n Freedom, lxx, 742-743 Alternative Network, 786 Ansay, Tugrul, 506n alternative service, 282-283,416-417 Anthony, Dick, 580n, 584n Althusius, John, 95 Anthroposophic Society, 603n, 612n, Amadou, Christine, 559n 614n AMAR -UNESCO Standing Conference: antidiscrimination, xxxviiin, 246, 248, European and Islamic Civilizations: 329,379-380,716 A Permanent Forum for Dialogue, See also discrimination; nondiscrimi- 207 nation Ambrosewicz-Jacobs, Jolanta, xxxii, xxxv, anti-Semitism, xlii,185 xlv, lxxii, 813 Anton LaVey's Church of Satan, 574 American Convention on Human Rights Anuario de Derecho Eclesiastico del Estado, (ACHR) ( 1969), xxxvii, xxxviiin, 213n 77,79,148-150,152,166,352, 366,565,628,676,679,722-723, Aoliin, Fionnuala Ni, 465n 832,886 apartheid, 120,657,749 American Court of Human Rights, apostasy, xlv, lx, lxvi-lxvii, 40, 463n, 494, 832-833 669---688 American Jewish Congress, 815 See also Islam, and apostasy American Revolution, 66,766 Appeal of Conscience Foundation, 754, 756 Amish, 99,288, 568 Appleby, R. Scott, xxxn, 20n, 54n, 541n, Amnesty International, 827,840 749n-751,753,756n Am or, Abdelfattah, 174, 461 n, 464n, Aquinas, Thomas, 2, 549, 552,769 474n,481n,490n,813 Argentina,167,180,346,433,713 Anabaptists, 26, 32-33, 763 Ariarajah, Wesley, 755, 756n Anan, Kofi, 813 Ariens, MichaelS., 431n, 435 Anastasios, Archbishop, xlv, lxvii, lxviii, 689,695n Arjomand, Amir, 682n See also Yannoulatos, Anastasios Armenia, 244,254,265, 354, 388, 393, Anderson, Nicholas, 684 397,399,588-589 Andersson, D. E., 21n Armstrong, J.D., 826n androcentrism, 552-554 Armstrong, Karen, 25n Angelini v. Sweden (EComHR), 76n, Arrowsmith v. United Kingdom 217n,566-567 (EComHR), 230n Anglicans, 33,294,295, 307, 553, 773 Arzt, Donna E., 518n, 683n, 687 animals, slaughter of, 152-153,159, asceticism, xxvii 220-221,439 Ashoka, 31,46 Ankumah, Evelyn A., 467n Askin, Kelly D., 457n, 467n,474n, 479n, An-Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed, 20n, 23n, 485n,489n,491n,533n,541n 39n,77n,467n,655n,656,657n, Assaad, Marie Bassili, ll8n 663n,674,682,684-686 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 979

«Assembly ofthe Church ofthe Universe)) v. Baku,244 Canada (UN Human Rights Balim, C., 43n Committee), 158 Balkans, 257,262,265,268-271 Assistance and Monitoring Group Baltic states, 265 (AMG),263 association, rights of, xxviii, 347, 366- Bamberger, Joan, 547n 370,372-374,377,392-393,398, Bangladesh, 180,680,711,713 402 Baptists, 267 Association for Communal Harmony in Barbieri, William, 482n Asia (ACHA), 771 Bardin, Livia, 580n associations Barker, Eileen, xlv, lxv, 452n, 571, 803n civil, 345, 349 nonprofit, 343 Barnette v. Rogers(VS), 409-411 atheism,26, 38,65, 73, 82, 99,116,118, Barragan, Javier Moctezuma, 344n 257,302,353,442,450,624,672, Barrow, Alfred Henry, 655n 689,702,709-710,719,765,817 Barry, Coleman J., 763n and Islam, 692 Barry, Robert, 262 and religious education, 197, 567 Basdevant-Gaudemet, Brigitte, 328n, Augsburg Treaty, 65 435n Augustine,2,547-550,558 Basova, Irana G., 103n Aum Shinrikyo, 591, 593 Bassett, William W., 324n Australia,180,481,553,711-712 Basu, Amrita, 541n Austria,165,217,267,276,316,329, Bauberot, Jean, xliv, lix, 441, 443n-445n, 343,436,551,596,711,799 452n,611n Austria-Hungary, 8 Bauer, Joanne R., 20n, 56n Austro-Hungarian Empire, 305 Bayer, Klaus Dieter, 165n Autio v. Finland (EComHR),l56n Bayt at-Hikma project, 207 autonomy Beardsley, James E., 371n of a child, lxiv, 562, 564, 569 religious, xxxviii, xliii, liv, lvi-lvii, 291- Beck, Leland E., 276n 319,355-357,372-374,390, Beckford, James A., 581n, 803n 398,403-404,437 Behtge, Herbert, 284 See also self-determination Belarus, 244, 264, 332, 353, 386, 397 reproductive, 546, 548-552, 557-558 Belgium, 221,267,283,302,305,433- Ayisi, Eric 0., 658n 434,551,717,797 Azerbaijan, 244,254,267, 398,788 and religious sects, 596--597, 602--604, Azoulay, Andre, 770 608,610--611,615--617 belief communities, xxviii, 324-325, 327, Baha'is, 179, 307,461n,483,489n, 571, 365 680,727n,732,734-735,782, 784,786--787 Bell, Daniel A., 20n, 56n, 819n Bainbridge, William Sims, 804n Bell, John, 370n 980 • Index

Bellah, Robert N., 804n Blum, Nikolaus, 215n Bellotti v. Baird (US), 357n Blume and Others v. Spain (ECtHR) Belyanin, V. P., 591n 219n ' Benanatcourt, Antonio, 579n Blustein, Paul, 731n Bencheikh, Soheib, 474n Board ofAirport Commissionersv. jews for jesus, Inc. (US), 647n Benecke, Gerhard, 4n-5n Bockenforde, 283 Bengal,530 Boerefijn, Ineke, 467n Benin, 663--664 Bohmer, Justus Henning, 295 Benito, Elizabeth Odio, 73n, 88n, 490n Bonaventura, 552 Bennoune, Karima, 487n Boniface VIII, 763 Berger, Maria, 106-107, 585n Book ofMormon, 34 Berger, MichaelS., 489n boomerang model, 823-824, 837 Berger, Peter L., 36n, 39 40n 43n 370n,581n ' ' ' Boothby, Lee, xliii, lviii, 407 Bergstrasser, Ludwig, 305n Borowik, Irena, 585n Berka, Walter, 153n B0rresen, Kari Elisabeth xliv lx lX1'1'1' 489n,545 ' ' ' ' Berkes, Niyazi, 504n Bosco, Joseph A., 586n Besier, Gerhard, 6lln Bosnia-Herzegovina, 8, 151,168-170, Bettenson, Henry, 2n 244,252,254,256,261-262,266, Bexell, G., 21n 269-270,725,747,756-757 Bhagavadgita, 528 Bossuyt, Marc J., 12n bhakti movement, 528 Bouma, Gary D., 474n Bharatiya janata Party (BJP), 540-541 Bourdeaux, Michael, 486n Bhargava, G. S., 534n Boy Scouts of America, 716 Bhargava, Rajeev, 443n Boy Scouts ofAmerica v. Dale (US), 370n Bhinderv. Canada (UN Human Rights Boyd, Jeffrey H., 335n Committee), 151, 172n, 196, 47ln,475n Boyer, William J., Jr., 337n Bhutan,680 Boyle, Kevin, xliv, 78n, 328n, 484n 488n 518n-520n,546n,726n,835' ' Biddulph, Howard L., 637n, 792n Brahma Kumaris, 574 Bilder, Richard, xlin, 350n brainwashing, 1, 579, 580n, 582-585n biomedicine, 453 591 ' Birtek,Faruk,505-506,507n Branch Davidians, 574,578, 595 Blackstone, Wtlliam, 338n, 629n Brandon, Thomas S., 580n blasphemy, 161-163,165,172,186,217, Braunfeld v. Brown (US), 286-287 631--633,636,647,702,711-712 Brazil,277,345,578 Blaustein, Albert P., 629n Brekke, Torkel, 43n Bloed, Arie, 77n, 256n-259n, 264n- 265n,830n,832n Brethren, 278 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 981

Brewer, John D., 753 Burma, 725, 743 Brinkhofv. the Netherlands(VN Human Burrows, Noreen, 546n Rights Committee), 167-168, Buscariniv. SanMarino(ECtHR), 167, 17ln, 199 229,231 Britsch, R. Lanier, 386n Buss, Doris E., 557n Broeksv. The Netherlands(VN Human Butalia, Urvashi, 541n Rights Committee), 624n-625n Byrnes, Andrew, 490n Broglio, Francesco Margiotta, 215n Brolmann, Catherine, 66n C. v. United Kingdom (EComHR) 229n- Bromley, David G., 573n, 580n-581n 230n Brown, Andrew, 555n Callahan, Daniel, 550n Brown, Stephen, 589n Calvinists, 5, 33, 95-96 Brownlie, Ian, 17n, 78n,461n Campbell, Piers, 841n Broyde, Michael J ., 670n Campbell, Tom, 546n Bruce, Steve, 43n Canada,119,166,196-198,240,346, Buchanan v. Warley (US), 639n 551,590,593 Budapest Summit Declaration ( 1994 ), Canas, Vitalino, 434n 252 Canea Catholic Churchv. Greece (ECtHR), Buddhism, 31, 44, 117, 179-181,433, xln, 154n, 219-220, 311n, 317n, 446-447,482,520,533,547,574, 325n-326n,343n,357n,384, 661,707,782 391n,393n and beards, 153, 155 canon law, 344 in France, 449-450 Cantle report, xxix and interreligious dialogue, 775, 784- Cantwellv. Connecticut(VS ), 359n 787 Cape Verde Islands, 277 Theravada, 116 Capotorti, Francesco, 66n Tibetan, 732, 734-735 Cappelletti,Mauro,426n Buergenthal, Thomas, 70n, 77n, 256n, 257-258,836n Carlson, Darin W., 429 Biihl, Walter, 821n Carlson, Eric, 353n, 386n Bulgaria,8,94,98-99,106,224-225, Carmichael, William D., 840n 266,268,312-313,372,376,392, Carnegie Commission on Preventing 394,439,578 Deadly Conflict, 7 48 Bulgarian Orthodox Church, 94, 398 Casanova, Jose, 37n, 39-40,43, 345n, Bulutv. Turkey(EComHR),227n 498,511n Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights Casey, James, 431n and Labor, 725 Cassel, Douglas, 457n, 480n Bureau of Prisons Program Statement, Cassese, Antonio, 73n 413-415 caste,lxii, 528,534,536,537,540 Burgerman, Susan, 822n, 824n, 825n Castellan, Georges, 9n Burkholder, Mark A., 344n Casti connubii, 549, 559 982 • Index

Cathars, 578 children, rights of, xxxviii, lx, lxiii-lxv, Catholic Encyclopedia, 669-670 564-569,561-569,680,715-716 Catholicism, xln, xliv, lx, lxiii-lxiv, 4-5, Chile,346,396,586 15-16,25-27,29-30,32,90,105, China,180,347,353,386,393,398,429, 111,160,262,278,329,337-338, 578,586,636-637,642-643,703, 341,344-345,380,410,433,482, 704,725,732-733,741-743,765- 583,601,607,618,681,707,713, 766,776,789,838 734,747,752-754,761,772,782, Chinkin, Christine, 458n, 484n, 514- 784,786,806 515,520 andautonomy,293-296, 301-302, Chopko, Mark E., 300n 305-308,315,317-318,763 and blasphemy, 161-162 Choudhury v. UK (EComHR), 162 and education, 165-166,195,198,567 Christian Action for the Abolition of and France, 442-449, 45 3 Torture, 449 and Israel, 78 Christian Coalition, 731 and parent's rights, 164, 565 Christian Democratic Movement (KDH), and proselytism, 621, 651, 660 591 and secularism, 36, 38, 41,44 and sphere sovereignty, 96 Christian Education South Africa v. and tolerance, 54-56,61 Minister ofEducation (SA), 86n, and women's rights, 545-559 88n,568 workmen's societies of, 98 Christian Federation ofJehovah's Center for Studies on New Religions, 835 Witnesses. See Jehovah's Witnesses Chambers, John Whiteclay, II, 278n-279n Christian Legal Society, 815 Champion, Franc;:oise, 452n, 611n Christianity, 2, 6-7,25-26, 29-30, 32, 58, 113,117,162,165,167,176,179, Chan, Joseph, 20n, 56 181,202,205,217,236,293,444, Chan, Kim-Kwong, 353n, 386n, 398n 449-450,468,482-483,518,520, Chang, P. C., 56 526-527,530,567,574,591,596, changing religion, xxviin, xxviii, lxv-lxvii, 669,682,725,747,749,751-753, 457,459n,462-64,494,619-50, 761-767,770-771,774-776,778, 669-687 781-782,785,787,789,800-803, See also freedom of religion or belief; 806-807 forum internum African Coptic, 118 chaplains, 131,134,137-138,140-145, and autonomy, 293, 301, 312 413-415,418-419,421-422 and Humanism, 701-702,707,709, 711,713-714,718 Charter, David, 472n and the IRFA, 722-723 Charter for European Security, 252, 900 and Islam, xxix Charter ofParis (1978), 79 persecution of, 578, 680, 727, 730- Charter ofParis for a New Europe ( 1990), 732,734-735,740-741,746 240,244,256,259,264,897 and proselytism, 3, 149,621-622,633, 635,646,652-668 Chechnya, 244 and secularism, 689-693,695-697 Cheikh, Ben, 682 and tolerance, 41-42, 44-45 Chester,AbbieJ., 118 and women's rights, 524, 530, 545-559 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 983

Christiansen, Drew, 735 coercion, xxxviii, lxi, lxii, lxiii, lxvii,70, 72, Church of Constantinople, 314 87-89,136,184,186,189,194, 459-462,493,641-642,645-646, Church ofEngland, 106,302,315,447- 648-649,653,667-668,671,674- 448,709 676,679 Church ofJesus Christ ofl.atter-day Saints See also noncoercion (LDS Church), 34, 286, 438-439, Coeriel and Aurik v. the Netherlands 585 (EComHR), 153, 154n, 196 Church of the Last Testament, 436 Cohen, Emil, 386n Church ofthe Lukumi BabaluAye, Inc. v. Cohen, Martine, 452n, 611n CityofHialeah(VS),439 Cohen-Almagor, Raphael, 78n Church ofNorway, 304,777-789, 807 Cole, Elizabeth A., 724n Church ofScientology, 116,179,438- 439,451,574,579,590,597,608 Coleman, Lee, 580n, 584n Church ofScientology and Another v. collective rights. See group rights Sweden(EComHR), 356, 641n Colombia, 157, 195-196,317 Church ofX v. United Kingdom Colomy, Paul, 803n (EComHR), 355n colonial influence, lxii Cicero, 2 common law jurisdictions, 333 Cingranelli, David L., 835n Commonwealth oflndependent States, CityofBoernev. Flores(VS), 413, 828n 257 Civil Constitution ofthe Clergy, 301 Communita di Sant'Egidio, 269-270 Civil Rights Act (1964), 96 communities civil society, xxviii, 717, 819-20, 822n, belief, xxviii, 52,324-329, 347n, 365, 830n,839n 402-405 confessional, 343-344 Clark, Elizabeth A., 547n religious, 107-111,689-697 Clark, Ian, 3n Company X v. Switzerland (EComHR), clash ofcivilizations, xxviii 355n Claude, Richard, 77n compelling state interest, lvi, lviii, 411- Clement ofAlexandria, 547, 549 12 See also proportionality Clement Boodoo v. Trinidad and Tobago (UN Human Rights Committee), concordats,307-309,315,317,319 197 Conde, H. Victor, xliii, 1, 125 clergy Conference ofEuropean Churches sexual abuse scandals, xxix (CEC), 756-757 Cliteur, Paul B., 476n Conference on the Human Dimension ( CHD). See Copenhagen Confer• clothing, religious, 473-487 ence on the Human Dimension See also head covers; headscarves; hijab Conference on Security and Co-operation Cobo, Jose R. Martinez, 635n in Europe (CSCE), 74,239-240, Coco, Elvira Martinez, 354n 245,256-257,672,675-677 Codex Juris Canonici, 553 See also Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe ( OSCE) 984 • Index

Confidence and Security Building 672,680-681 Measures, 240, 242 See also proselytism conflict, xxviii, xlv-1, lvi, lix, lxiii-lxiv, lxx• Cook, Rebecca J., 489n, 546n lxxi Coomaraswamy, Radhika, 461n, 469n, conflict resolution, xx, xxiii, xxxv, lvi, 747- 542-543 760 Cooper, John C., 275n Confucianism, 56, 444, 771 cooperation, xxix, xli, xlix, liv, lxxi-lxxiii, Congar, Yves, 550 328-330,341n,397n,402-403 Congressional Human Rights Caucus, Copelon, Rhonda, 489n 725,726 Copenhagen Concluding Document, Congressional Religious Land Use and 251,677,894 Institutionalized Persons Act of Copenhagen Conference on the Human 2000,lviii Dimension (1990), 257,264,677 conscience, freedom of, 356 Copts,xxix Conscience et Liberte, 837 Corley, Felix, 321n, 588n conscientious objection, xliii, lvi, 77, 82, corporate religious freedom, xxxviii 155-156,179,232,586 See also autonomy, religious andabortion,284-285 Corporation ofthe Presiding Bishop ofthe and European constitutions, 276-277 Church ofjesus Christ ofLatter-day history of, 274-2 79 Saintsv. Amos(US), 97, 300n, 316n internal boundaries of, 280-289 corporations and international law, 279-280 charitable, 334-336 and military service, 103-104,116, membership, 337-338 167-168,171,174,198-200,212, nonprofit,339-340,349,394,401 281-284,321,452-454 religious, 331, 341 and school attendance, 288 sole, 338, 341 and United States Constitution, 275- trustee, 337 276 Cosmonomic Ideas, 96 consensus, overlapping, 159 Cossio, H., 586n Conservative Amish Mennonite Church, 99 Cottrell, Richard, 585n Constantine, 2, 761-762 Council of Europe, xl, xliii, liii, lxiv, 101, 209-238,392,495,584,593,608, contractual obligations, 156-15 7 618,748,830-832,834,838 Convention on the Elimination ofAll Forms Council ofEuropean Churches, 827 of Discrimination Against Women (1979) (CEDAW), 75,513-514, Council ofEurope's Parliamentary Assem• 519-520,533,722,879 bly and Committee of Ministers, liii Convention on the Rights of the Child Council on Islamic Education, 815 (CRC), 71, 76,114,173,561-566, Council for Religious and Life Stance 569,678,715,722,795,814,879 Communities, xxxi, lxxi, 786-788, conversion, xlviii, 577, 580, 621n, 623, 8ll 634-636,638-639,644-645,648, Country Reports on Human Rights 652n,654,655n,656n,667,670, Practices, 742-743 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 985

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Danish Sex Education case. See Kjeldsen, (1966),67-68,73-74,78-79,82, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v. 152,200,702 Denmark Covenant on Economic, Social and Darbyv. Sweden (EComHR), 217n, 229n, Cultural Rights, 67, 722 464n Critical-Thinking. See Deep-Dialogue Das Liebeskonzil, 161,633 Croatia,102,244,262-263,277,309, Davidson, Basil, 660 317,380,390,399,757 Davidson, Scott, 77n, 167n Cromartie, Michael, 731n, 733n Davis, Derek, xlin, 349n crusades, 25, 763 Davisv. Beason (US), 286n Cruz v. Beto (US), 410-411 Dawkins v. Crown Suppliers (PSA) Ltd. Cuba,344-345,703,725,742 (England), 587 cuiusregio, eiusreligio, 4-5,27, 29,65 Dayton Peace Agreement ( 1995 ), 169, 261-262 cults, 106-107,120,267,301,354, 396-397,407,433-434,571-593, de Agar, Jose T. Martin, 308n-309n, 595-618 315n,317n-318n See also new religious movements de Baecque, Antoine, 443n culture, xxviii de Beauvoir, Simone, 556 Cumper, Peter, 459n, 587n de Clermont, Jean-Arnold, 601n Curran, Charles E., 550n-551n de Codes, Rosa Maria Martinez, 78n, customary law, xlin, 349n 329n,435n,836n Cyprus, 169 Delndis(Vitoria), 3 Cyprusv. Turkey(ECtHR), 168-169, De lure Belli (Vitoria), 3 222n de Jong, Comelis D., 152n, 456n-458n, Cyrus the Great, 25 468n,471n,478n,483n,679,682n Czech Republic, 277,388,393,397 de Jouvenel, B., 442n Czechoslovakia, 9, 554,578 de la Hera, Alberto, 78n, 329n, 435, 836n Czempiel, Ernst-Otto, 820n de Sousa e Brito, Jose, xliii, lvi, 273 de Vitoria, Francisco, 3 Daftary, F., 264n Deane, Hebert A., 2n-3n Dahlab v. Switzerland (ECtHR), 227n, Debrunner, Hans, 655n, 659n 231,235n-236n,473n,475n, decisions, arbitrary, 381-383 480n,482n Declaratio de libertate religiosa ( 1965 ), Dalacoura, Katerina, 687n 551 Dalit, 534 Declaration ofBarcelona (1994), 204 D'Amato,Alfonse, 578n Declaration and Convention on the Danchin, Peter G., 722,724 Elimination ofAll Forms of Racial Daniels, Eddy, 612n Discrimination, 13,75 Danish Folk Church, 304 986 • Index

Declaration on the Elimination ofAll Dharmasastras, 527 Forms oflntolerance and of dhimmis, 65 7, 691, 7 62 Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief(1981 Declaration), xxviii, dialogue, interreligious, xxxiii-vi, xliv-xlv, xxx,13,67-68,70-75,77,79-80, li, lvi, lxii, lxvii-lxviii, lxxi-lxxiv, 59- 82,88,132,134,138-139,173- 61,204-208,250,269,695-696, 188,310,357,379,401,486,497, 747,750-751,755-760,761-776, 513-514,521,564, 569,609,662, 777-789,807-811,842 671,676-678,703,724,794-795, Dickson, Brice, 13n 808,813-814,903 Diene, Doudou, xxxiv, xliii, Iii, 203 Declaration oflndependence ( 1812 ), 49, Diet of Speyer, 2 7 4 296 Diet ofWorms, 274 Declaration ofReligious Freedom, 308 Dietrich, Gabriele, 539-540 Declaration on the Right and Responsi• bility oflndividuals, Groups, and differentiation thesis, 39-40 Organs ofSociety to Promote and Dignitatis humanae personae, 55, 307 Protect Universally Recognized dignity, xxx, xlvii, 1, lxiii, 22, 41, 44,46- Human Rights and Fundamental 51,53-54,56-57,86,119,130, Freedoms, 819 133,444,691-692,701,783,808- Declaration of the Rights ofMan and of 810 the Citizen (1825), 301 Dinstein, Yoram, 66n decline-of-religion thesis, 39-40 discretion, 345, 351n, 360,381-383, Deep-Dialogue,767,769-770 394-397,425,426,429-430,432- del Pilar Bellosillo, Maria 553n 433,435-436,438-440 abuse of, lix del Russo, Alessandra Luini, 65n in granting approvals, xliv, xlix, lix Delgado Paez v. Colombia (UN Human discrimination, xxxviii, xli, xlii, xlviii-lii, Rights Committee), 157,195-196, lviii-lxii, lxv-lxvi, lxix-lxx, lxxii-lxxiii, 482n 7,8n,9-13,38,63,66-80,87-88, della Rocca, Robert Morozzo, 757n 100-101,103-107,112,114-115, Dengerink, J., 96n 118-120,123,127-128,130-131, Denli, Ozlem, xliv, lx-lxii, 497 147,150,154,156,160,163-173, See also Harvey, Ozlem Denli 175-187,190-191,194-199,201- 202,204,210-211,214,216-222, Denmark,105,166,232,278,282,303- 227,245-246,248,258,268,287, 304,314,442,567,799-803 300,306,310-311,325,329-330, DePaul Center for Church/State Studies, 337,351-353,357,360,362,364, 340 370,377-381,389-390,392-394, DePauw, Linda Grant, 275n 397,400-402,407,410,414-415, deprogramming, 579-580, 583 419,421,426,432,435-438,455- 457,459,464,476,479-481,484n, Dericquebourg, Regis, 452n 487-488,490-492,494,497,500- Desormeaux, Andrea, 586n 501,503n,509-510,513-516,520, Destro, RobertA., 300n, 431n, 435 525,533-534,542,546n,553n, dharma, 531-532 557n,564,569,571-573,577-581, Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 987

583,585-593,602n,613,616, Durham, Michael W., 369n 620-630n,634n-635,637,639n, Durham, W. Cole, Jr., xxxv, xxxixn, xliii, 643-644,656,658n,662,665, xlix, lvii, lviiin, 25n, 35n, 44n, 7 4n, 671,675-680,687,702-704,706- 77n,103n,316n,321,428n,431n, 712,716-718,722-725,727,743, 436 747,755,758-760,779-780,792- Dutch Platform for 797,805,807-808,812,813-818 Freedom ofReligion or Belief, 828 in education, 476n, 805,807-808, 812, 813-818 Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ. employment, 300, 321, 479n, See Greek Orthodox gender,75,123,463,470,475n,487- Church 488,490-492,494,503n,513- Eberly, Don E., 819n 516,520,525,533-534,542, Edict of Milan, 2 546n,553n,557n,722 Edict ofNantes, 26, 38, 45,442 See also gender Edict ofThessalonica, 2n and lack of citizenship, 351-352 racial, 1, 69, 75,78-80,131-135, Edict ofToleration, 2 138,185-186,191,671 education and state aid, 216,237,329-30 and Catholic Church, 165-166, 195, See also antidiscrimination; 198,567 nondiscrimination child-centered, 565-568 dissenting women, xliv, lxi-lxii discrimination in, 166-167 offemales, 530 divorce, 670,783 for tolerance, lxxi-lxxii talaq, 517-518 religious, xxxii, 139, 171,195,197, Dobbelaere, Karel, 803n 245,249-250,328,444 445,586, Doi, Abdur Rahman I., 682, 684 696,713-715,778,783,785,787, 789,791-812,813-818 Dominican Republic, 578 university, lxii Donnelly, Jack, 77n, 821n Efstratiou v. Greece(ECtHR), 233-234 Dooyeweerd, Herman, 95-96, 97n Egypt,517,519,670,680,725,764,776 dowry murders, 536-537 Eide,Asbj0m, l1n, 47n, 67n, 70n, 360n, Draft United Nations Declaration on the 481n, 672n Rights oflndigenous Peoples, 635 Eidsvag, Inge, xxxiii, xlv, lxxi, 777,810 Dreyfus affair, 444 El Salvador Baptist Church v. Spain Druze,202 (EComHR), 217n Dubeck, Inger, 431n El-Affendi, Abdelwahab, 38n due diligence, lxi, 460-461,463,493 Eliah, Elaine, 473n Duffar, Jean, 209n Elias, Norbert, 803n Duijzings, Ger, 752n, 756n Ellis, Stephen C., 334n, 336n-338n Dulack, Tom, 579n Elshtain, Jean Bethke, 489n Duman, Dogan, 504n Elton, Geoffrey R., 4n Duran, Khalid, 764n emigration, right of, 273 Durand, M. C., ll4n Emiliou, Nicholas, 479n 988 • Index

Employment Division, Department of Eriksson, Maja Kirilova, 489n Human Resources ofOregon v. Smith Eritrea, 269 (US), livn, 284n, 289, 300n, 360n, 412-413 Erlanger, Steven, 263n Ermacora, Felix, 66n Engel, N.P., xxxviin Esbeck, Carl, 297n England, 216-217,294, 314,333-336, 579,587,590-591,709,767,798, established church, liv 799-805,807,810,811 Estonia, 244, 318, 353, 399, 588 Enlightenment, 26,40-42,235,442, 555, Estrada, Alvaro Castro, 344n 616,701,763,765 Estrella, Hugo Daniel, 7l3n Enroth, Ronald, 581n Ethiopia, 269,578,725 equality, xxxviiin, xl, xlix-1, liv, lxii-lxiii, Ethiopian Jews. See Falasha lxvi, lxviii-lxix, lxxi, 4, 7n, 8, 35, ethnic cleansing, 67, 82 43n,46-47,52,57-58,68n,71n, 75,87-88,91n,101,103-07,112, ethnicity, xxix 114-115,117-120,123,132-134, European Commission on Human Rights, 143,162-164,166,168,170-171, liii, 77' 122, 148, 228-230, 232- 186,197n,198,202,211-212, 234,237 216-222, 227n, 237,240,248,253, European Convention on Human Rights 258,262,267,269,275,277,282- (ECHR). See European Convention 283,295,296,302,305-306,311, for the Protection ofHuman Rights 315-316,319,325,329,331n,347, and Fundamental Freedoms 351n, 354n, 378-379,400,410, European Conventio.n for the Protection 421,430,433-434,437,442,452, ofHuman Rights and Fundamental 455-457,459,464n,475n,479- Freedoms (1950), xxxviin, xxxviiin, 481,489-491,493-494,498-499, xxxixn, xlin, liii-liv, lxvii, 77, 79, 104- 501,504,508-509,514,516-521, 105,108-110,112,122,148-158, 524,526,529-533,540,542,545- 209-211,214-231,234-235,237, 547,564-565,569,575,586-588, 279-280,305,311-314,317,352, 591,609-611,624-625,635-638, 355,366,371,378,382-383,390, 657n,660,665,667,671,677, 394,399,436,565-568,610,614- 683,688n,697,700-712,716-717, 615,624-626,628,631,634,646, 723,735,739,749,752,759,774, 673,679,692,779-780,786,881 782-787,792-797,809-812,817 European Court ofHuman Rights, xxxixn, in employment, 97,479-481 xln, xliii, li, liii-liv, lvii, and gender, 7ln, 75, 87, 114, 227n, 77, 107-112, 455-457,459,475n,479-481, 148,154,157,160-164,166,193, 489-491,493-494,508,514- 210-211,214-217,220-238,267, 521,526,529-533,540,542, 311-314,343,356,362-363,370- 545-547,555-557,575,817 377,381-384,390-392,398-399, See also gender 427-429,432,439,467,482,485, of nations, 100 579,615,623-624,626,629-633, ofreligious bodies, 430, 433, 437, 759 646-648,785,791,807-808,832, and state cooperation, 216,237, 329- 838 330 European Journal for Church-State Ergec, R., 280n Research, The, 837 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 989

European Public Order, 36 530-532,535,538,539,540,546n, Evans, Carolyn, 209n, 358, 360n-361n 548,555-557 Evans, Malcolm D., xxxviin, xlili, xlvi, 1n, Ferrari, Silvio, 78n, 316n, 328n-330n, 25n,27-28,63n,65n,77n,148n- 332n,342n,400n,430n,433n,438 150n,155n-156n,161n-62n,209n, Ferry, Jules, 443 228n,356,359n-360n,466n,473n, Feyv.Austria(ECtHR),476n 628n,725n,833n Fides et Libertas, 83 7 Everett, William Johnson, 551n Finland,156,166,197-200,240,303, Evren, Kenan, 502-503 553,565,799 exclusivism, salvific, 46 Fishman, James J., 334n-335n exit counseling, 580 Fitzpatrick, Joan, 113n external freedom, xxxviii-xxxix, xlviii, I, flag ceremonies, lvi liv-lv, lviii-lix, lxi, lxiv, lxvi-lxvii, Flakk, Tommy, 56n 325,347,350,355,357-358,360, Flanz, Gisbert H., 629n 364-365,372,375-377,385,387, 390,398,458-459,462,464-469, Flynn, Gregory, 257n, 265n 473-483,485,492-493,499-501, Foblets, Marie-Claire S. F. G., 483n 509-510,518,671,759,792 Foin v. France (UN Human Rights See also freedom of religion or belief, Committee), 156n, 17ln, 199n external freedom; manifestation, of Ford Foundation, 840 religion forum internum, xlviii, I, 67, 147-150, extremism, xliv, 327, 353, 396, 397, 750, 176,359-360 758,759 See also changing religion; freedom of religion or belief; internal freedom faith-based initiatives, xxviii Forum for Security Cooperation, 241 Falasha (Ethiopian Jews), 118,468 Foster, John G., 585n Falun Gong, 578, 704, 741 foulard. See head covers; Islam, and head- Family, The, 574 cover controversy Faris, J. A., 334n, 346n Fouques-Duparc, Jacques, 9n Farrell, Henry, 257n, 265n Fowler, Alan, 840n-841n Fathalla, Mahmoud F., 489n Fox, Leslie M., 839n, 841n Fautre, Willy, xlv, lxv, 585n, 595 Fox, Matthew, 656n Fawcett, James E. C., 151n Framework Convention fur the Protection Fefferman, Dan, 579n ofNational Minorities (1995), 101, Feinberg, Joel, 160n 882 Feinburg, Nathan, 9n France, xxvii, 26, 156,200,220-221,237, 267,301,318,325,328,361,442- Feldman, Noah, 26n, 34n 453,518-519,551,553,554,556, female genital mutilation (FGM), 118-120, 579,584,587,590,799-801 158,466,468-473,519-520,659, and religious sects, 396, 596-599, 606, 703,826 608,610-611,613-614,616-617 feminists, lx, lxiii, 513,518, 520n, 523, and Islamic veil, xxvii 990 • Index

Francis Hopu and Tepoaitu Bessert v. funerals, 144-145,447,783 France (UN Human Rights Com• Furseth, Inger, 804n mittee), 200 Fraser, Arvonne S., 555n Gabon,309,318 Fraser, Donald M., 585n Gaer, Felice, 735, 737 Freedman, Lynn P., 489n Gaffuey, Edward McGlynn, Jr., 342n Freedom and Democracy Party (OZDEP) Gaillard,]. M., 443n v. Turkey(ECtHR), xln, liOn, Galerius, 2 224n-225n,235n,311n,325n, 343n,372,391n,393n Gales, Joseph, 275n Freedom House, 727,827,835 Galey, Margaret E., 546n freedom of religion or belief Galilei, Galileo, 552 external freedom, xxxviii-ix, lxi, 466- Galli can Principles, 301 487,492 Galtung, Johan, 751n See also external freedom; Gampl, Inge, 836n manifestation, ofreligion a fundamental right, xxx, xxxv, xxxvii, Gandhi, Mahatma, 531 xli,63-64,70,72,210n,234- Garay, Alain, xlv, lxv, 452n, 580n-581n, 235 595 history of, xlvi-xlvii, 1-18 Gardinerv. Whitaker(SA), ll8n internal freedom, xxxvii-xxxviii, Ixi, 488, 492 Gasparro, Giulia Sfameni, 548n See also changing religion;forum Gaudium et Spes, 55, 307 internum; internal freedom GayNewscaseofXLtd. andYv. United noncoercion, xxxviii, lxvi-lxvii, 460- Kingdom (EComHR), 162n, 172n, 461 632n normative core of, xxxvi-xlii, lvii universality disputed, xxviii Gearty, Conor, 490n universally applicable, xxxi, xxxvii, xlin, Gedicks, Frederick Mark, 296n-297n, xlvii-xlviii, lxix, 43-46 357n Freeman, Michael, 19n, 22n, 470n Gellner, Ernst, 804n French Revolution, 66,442-443,761, gender, xliv, lx-lxiii, 455,456-457,463, 766 477,480,481,487,488,490,491, Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, 494,513,516,517,519,521n,524, 574 525,532n,533,540,541n,542, Frostating Code, 778 546,547,548,552,554,555,556, 557 Frowein, Jochen A., 149n, 151n, 280n See also discrimination, gender; Fuchs, Josef, 550 equality, and gender Fukuyama, Francis, 203n General Comment No. 22, xxxvii, xxxviiin, Fulbright, J. William, 721 xxxixn, xlin, xlviii, Iii, 149n, 150n, Fundamental Law on Basic Rights of 156,158,159,164,166n,167- Citizens (1867), 305 168,192n,193-195,353,358n, 361,362,364,380-381,387,911 fundamentalism, 750-751 secular, 2 3 5 Geneva Conventions, 125-131, 134-146 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 991 genocide,xxvii,xlii, 126,128-129,133, Goldenberg, Suzanne, 516n 135-136,138-139,147 Goldman v. Weinber.tJer(US), 419, 475n, Genocide Convention. See International 477n Convention on the Prevention and Gole, Niliifer, 502n-503n, 507n-508n Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Gonzalez v. Roman Catholic Archbishop of Manila (US), 299n Gentili,Alberico,3-4 Gorzelik v. Poland (ECtHR), 37ln George, Henry, 98n Gosudarstvo, religia, tserkov, 837 George Soros's Open Society Institute, 840 Granbath case, 280n Georgia, 239n, 244 Grandrathv. Germany(EComHR), 17ln, 625n German Weimar Constitution ofl919, 306 Great Britain, 278,294,302,438-439, Germany, 119,121,165,180,185,276- 448-449,452,553,763 277,282-283,309,316,318,329, 343,370,579,596-597,708,711, Greece, 8, 106,107-112,149,154, 160- 757,767,797,799-800,806,808, 161,165,168,180,216,222-225, 810 231,233-234,267,303,311,314- Gerstenblith, Patty, 322n, 331n, 337n- 315,371,381-382,394,427-429, 339n 437,623-624,630-631,644,646, 709,741 Gest-Guyard Report, 598,614 Greek Orthodox Church, 99,106,108, Ghadially, Rehana, 527n, 535n 160,217,223,293-294,314,373, Ghana,109,399,520 382,437,709,784 Ghanea, Nazila, xlv, lx, lxvi, lxvii, 463n, Greenberg, Blu, 517n 669,688n Greer, Steven, 465n Giambalvo, Carol, 580n Gregorian Reform, 295 Gibbon, Edward, 1 Gregory, BradS., 29n Gibson, Urban, xxxv, xliii, lv, 239 Gregory of Nyssa, 548 Gillette v. United States(US), 284 Gregory VII, 763 Girouard v. United States(US), 286 Gregory XVI, 54-55 glasnost, 248,250 Greil, Arthur, 572n Gleditsch, N. P., 279n Grelle, Bruce, 46n Glendon, Mary Ann, 47n, 723n Gremillion, Joseph, 55n Global Dialogue Institute (GDI), 767, 771 Griffiths, Paul, 59-60 Global Ethics Declaration, 59 Grip, Lars, 584n, 586n Global Persecution of Christians 730 Grootaers, Jan, 550n ' Glodenis, Donatas, 588n Gross, Brian, 327n, 397n Goethals, Johan, 611n Gross, Oren, 465n Gogineni, Ramanadha Rajaji Babu, xlv, Gross, Walter, 18n lxviii, lxix, 699 Grotens, Chantal, 456n 470n 488n ' ' ' Goldberg, Jeffrey, 735n 495n 992 • Index group rights Harris, David J., 149n, 151n, 156n-157n, collective, xxxixn, xl, xlix, lvii, 90-91, 160n,162n-163n,167n,459n, 100,112 462n,465n,467n institutional, xxxviii, xxxixn, xl, xlix, lxvii, Hartikainen v. Finland (UN Human 100,112 Rights Committee), 166, 171n, Gryson, Roger, 553n 197,567 Guarantees ofFreedom ofConscience and Hartman P. Chairman, Board ofReligious Belief(Polish Law ofl989), 92, Objections(SA), 116 101-102 Harvey, Ozlem Denli, 509n Guelff, Richard, 128n See also Denli, Ozlem Gule, Lars, xlv, lxviii, lxix, 699 Hasan and Chaush P. Bulgaria (ECtHR), Gunasekara, Victor, 703 xln, 92n, 95n, 155n, 224-225, 230n,234,311n-312n,312-313, Gunn, T. Jeremy, xxxv, xlv, lxix, lxx, 107n, 316n-317n,325n,343n,360n, 223n,316n,352n,464n,486n, 372,374,377n-378n,383n,391n, 721,829 393n,399n-400n,436,439,467n, Gunning, Isabelle R., 466n-467n, 469n 473n Gustafson, Carrie, 517n, 525n Hasan, Fikri Sali, 94 Gustafsson, Goran, 803n Hassan, Riffat, 489n, 516n Guyana, 277, 590 Hassan, Steven, 581n Guzman, Jull, 457n, 480n Hassan, Yasmeen, 485n Hastings, Alcee, 736 Haakedal, Elisabeth, 802 hate speech, 115,119 Haan, Wim, 580n Hauge, Hans Nielsen, 778 Haas, Peter, 828n, 836n Hawley, John Stratton, 537n-538n, 541n Habermas, Jiirgen, 425n, 803n Haynes, Charles C., 815n Hackett, Rosalind I. J., 722n, 729n, Hazewinkel, Harm J., 725n 738n,742n head covers, 231,473-483,497-511 Hadden, Jeffrey K, 581n-582n See also clothing, religious; headscarves Hadith, 682-683, 685 headscarves, 153, 172,414,718 Halim, Asma M. Abdel, 489n See also clothing, religious; head covers Hamas, 710 Heffron v. Internal Society for Krishna Hamilton, Malcolm B., 804n Conscioumess, Inc. (US), 647n Hamman, K G., 106 Hefner, Robert W., 43n Hammer, Leonard M., 209n hegemonic religion, 45-46, 61 Handyside P. U. K. (ECtHR), 465n, 478n Heikkila, Markku, 430n-431n Hannum, Hurst, xlin, 350n Heinz, Timmerman, 264n Hansmann, Henry, 333n-334n, 369n Heinze, Eric, 472n Hansteen, Aasta, 548 Held, Gottfried, 329n, 343n Hare Krishna, 179 Hellman, Eva, 540n Haring, Bernhard, 550 Helmholz, R. H., 333n Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 993

Helsinki Commission, 348, 725, 726-727 Holmes, Stephen, 45n Helsinki Committee, 266 holocaust, xxvii Helsinki Final Act, 256-258, 724 Holwerda, David E., 96n Helsinki Process. See Conference on HolyMonasteriesv. Greece(ECtHR), Ill, Security and Co-operation in 217n Europe; Organization for Security Holy See, 78,296,301, 307-309,317- and Co-operation in Europe 318,545-546,552,556-557. Helsinki Process Commitments, 245-246, See also Popes; Vatican 248 Home ofMacedonian Civilization, ll 0- Henkin, Louis, xlin, 65n, l49n, l52n, 111 349n,359n,478n,564n Homer, Lauren B., l03n, 316n, 332n, Henn, Harry G., 334n-335n 385n,43ln,437n-439n Henriksen, Jan-Olav, 797 Hoover, Dennis, 722n, 729n, 738n heresy, 669-670 Horowitz, Michael, 730-732, 735 Heringa, Aalt Willem, l68n hospitals, xliv, 408, 422 See also medical facilities Hernandez-Forcada, Ricardo, 344n House Church, 741 Herzegovina, 150,168-170,244,266 Houtart, Fran'):ois, 75ln, 753 Hesiod,548 Howe, Mark DeWolfe, 92n, 297n High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM), 264-265 Howland, Courtney W., 458n, 463n, 483n,495n,514,516,517n-519n, hijab, xxvii 54ln,546n See also head covers; headscarves; Islam, and veil Hubmaier, Balthasar, 32,46 Hill, Daniel G., 584n Hudson Institute, 730 Hindu Mahasahba, 540 Hiifuer, Klaus, 826n Hindu Right, 540-541 Huguenots, 26, 45 Hinduism, 44, 60,181,482,574,661, human rights 702,706,714,734-735,766,771, universality of, xxviii, xxxi, 7 6, 351-52 782,786-787 Human Rights Watch, 266, 534 and apostasy, 680 Human Rights Without Frontiers, 835 and interreligious dialogue, 774-77 6 and surname changes, 196 Humanae vitae, 550-551, 554,559 and women's rights, 519,523-543, Humanism, lxviii, 691-692,781,784- 547,701 787,815 Hindutva, 540 beliefs of, 699-700 and ceremonies, 716-717 Hizb ut Tahrir, 574 and children's rights, 715-716 Hizbollah,750 andeducation,713-715,801,807 Hoffinanv.Austria(ECtHR), l58n, 164- and Islam, 701-702,704,707,709- l65,170n,219 711,714,717-718 Hoibraaten, Helge, 37, 39n, 499n andJudaism,70l-702,707,710,714, 718 Holborn, Hajo, 275n 994 • Index

Humanism (continued) INFORM,592 and media, 717 Ingebritsen, Christine, 259 and religion, 700-702 Ingles, Jose D., 79n and taxes, 712 Ingvardsson, Margo, 584n, 586n Humanist Association, 782 Innocent X, 30 humanitarian law, xliii, 75 Insight, 574 Humphrey, John P., xxxviin, xlin, 65n, 350n,366n Institute ofFrench Priestsv. Turkey (ECtHR), 112 Hungary, 117,268,354,400,588,725 Institute oflslamic Understanding, 764 Hunt, John, 585n Institute ofSelf Actualization 574 Hunter, Alan, 398n ' institutional rights, xxxviii xxxixn xl xlix Huntington, Samuel P., xxviiin, 15n, 64n, lxvii, 91 ' ' ' ' 732,751 institutional power, and women's rights Hyde v. State (India), 638n, 644n, 647n 515 ' Hylland-Eriksen, Thomas, 802 Integral Study ofthe Silk Road, 205 Iban, Ivan C., 328n Inter insigniores, 553, 559 Iceland, 105,433,565,799,801-802 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights,832-833,838 identity, xxviii, xxix, 330, 362n, 443,450, 474n,484n,486,657,662,667, Inter-American Court ofHuman Rights, 726,736,750-753,756n 460,467 Ignaccolo-Zenide v. Rumania (ECtHR), Inter-European Commission on Church 219n and School, 802 Ignatius ofLoyola, 583 Interministerial Mission to Combat Sects (MILS),396,599-600,614,617 ijtihad, 685 internal freedom, 148-150, 190, 358, 360, Ilmari Liinsman et al. v. Finland (UN 457-463,485,492-493 499-501 Human Rights Committee), 200 509-510,518,671 ' ' Ilyasoglu, Aynur, 503n, 507n-508n See also changing religion;forum Imbert, Pierre-Henri, 280n internum; freedom of religion or inclusivism, salvific, 46 belief incorporation. See registration laws International Academy for Freedom of Independent Russian Region of the Religion and Belief, 828 Society ofJesus (Jesuits), 104 International Alert, 754 India, 31, 151, 180,519,680,711,713, International Association for Religious 747,750,760,766 Freedom, 827 constitution of, 525, 534-535, 542 International Bill ofHuman Rights, 173 and proselytism, 638-639 International Churches of Christ, 574 women's movement in, 530-531 International Conference on Population indigenous religions, 661-664 and Development ( 1994 ), 489 Indonesia, 180,680,704,711,713,725, international criminal law, l 736,747,750,771,789 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 995

International Consultative Conference on "countries ofparticular concern" School Education in Relation with under, 743-745 Freedom of Religion and Belief, International Religious liberty Association, Tolerance and Non-discrimination 814,827 (Madrid Conference), 794, 812, International Society for Krishna Conscious• 813-818 nessv. Lee(US), 647n International Convention on the Elimi• International Year ofthe Culture ofPeace, nation ofAll Forms of Racial 106 Discrimination, 671 International Year ofTolerance, 206 International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the intervention, 261 Crime of Genocide (Genocide Introvigne, Massimo, 582n, 585n, 611n Convention), 67, 75, 78, 80,723 Invitation ala Vie Intense (lVI), 452n International Court ofJustice, 80-81 Iran,112-113,179-180,429,516,680, International Covenant on Economic, 708,725,742,743,762,764,770 Social and Cultural Rights Iraq, 516,680,725,742,743 (ICESCR) (1966), 69, 189,723, Ireland, 182-183, 302, 307 780,878 Irfan, Hwaa, 481n International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966), Isaacson, Scott E., 346n xxxvii, xxxviiin, xxxixn, xlix, 1, li, liv, Isensee, Josef, 284n lxiv, lxvii, 12,67-69,70,73-74,78- Ishaq, Muhammad Ibn, xxviin 79,82,87-88,100,105,117,119, ISKCON,574 127-128,131,133,148-153,166- 167,173,189-202,228,246-247, Islam xxvii- xxviii, 6, 8, 11, 30, 32, 38, 279-280,309-310,352,361,378- 43-44,58,94-95,97,112-113, 380,383,435,494,497,499,514, 117-118,149,152-155,157,159- 516,520-521,564-565,567,596, 160,162,165,170,172,179-181, 609,614,624-625,628-630,637, 185-186,202,205,207,224-227, 647,654,661,664-665,671,673- 236,238,262,267,312-313,333, 675,702,723,780,814,817,831, 347,372,396,398-399,409-412, 876 414,429,436,439,445,449-450, 474,477,481-482,525,574,628- international criminal law, 80-81 629,636,646,672,674,678,689- International Helsinki Foundation for 697,725,732,734-735,741,747, Human Rights, 827 749-753,761,765,770-771,776, International Humanist and Ethical Union 782,784-787,789,801,807 (IHEU), 700,708,711,714-716 and apostasy, 681-688 international humanitarian law, xliii See also apostasy and children's rights, 562, 564-565, International Labor Organization 680,715 Convention (1958), 76,479 and Christianity, 781-782 International Law Commission, 129 and head -cover controversy, xxvii• International Religious Freedom Act of xxviii, xliv, lix, 153, 172, 227n, 231, 1998 (IRFA), xxxv, xlv, lxix, lxx, 267,414,450-451,473-483,497- 721-723,728-730,733,735-745 511 996 • Index

Islam ( continuetf) Jehovah's Witnesses, lix, 107, 112, 118, and history, xxvii 147,154,156,158,160,163-165, and Humanism, 701-702,704,707, 167-168,170,179,199,222-223, 709-711,714,717-718 231,233-234,278,283,285,287, and proselytism, 653--654,656-657, 306,327,381-382,396,399,427- 660,663,666--668,715 429,432,436-437,452,571,579, and reform, xxxiii 589,591,615,631,647,741 Shiite, 468, 505 Jehovah's Witnesses v. France (ECtHR), and state churches, 762-766 l07n Sururi,468,504-505,509,710 Jekewitz, Jiirgen, 175n and veil, xxvii and women's rights, 517-519, 524, Jenkins, Pamela J., 580n 530,532-533,536-539,541, Jesuits, 442, 585, 701, 778-779 545-547, 555, 558 . Jesus Christ, 114,690-691,709 Islam and Muslim-Christian Relations, Jewish Consistorial Association ofParis, 837 220-221 Islamic Community v. Republika Sypska Jewish Litur;gical Association Cha'are (Human Rights Chamber), 169-170 Shalom~ Tsedek v. France (ECtHR), Israel, 78, 180,202,317-318,517,680, 153n,216n,220-221,356n 703,709-710 Jews. See Judaism Istanbul Charter (1999), 252 Jews for Jesus, 574 Italy, 3, 218,233,277,282,284, 307- jihad,227,749,762-763 308,316,317,337,433,553,556, 565,799 Jimmy Swa!i!fart Ministries v. Board of Equalization (US), 647n Italy v. Commission (ECJ), 480n John, Cindi, 481n Iyer, V. R. Krishna, 542n John Paul II, 308, 551-552, 554, 558, Jackson, Vicki C., 370n 651 Jackson-VanikAmendment, 724 John XXIII, 55, 61,549 Jacobs, Francis G., 148n, 155n-156n, Johnson, Eskil, 750n 158n,160n,280n Johnson,Hilde,456n,488n,492n,748 Jacobson, Harold, 821n Johnson, Lyman L., 344n Jacobson v. Massachusetts(US), 359n Johnston, Douglas, 7 48n Jains, 533, 574 Johnstone, E. H., xxviin Jans, Jan, 551n Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of J ansenism, 442 Justification, 15-16 Japan,213,346,580,767 Jones, Heidi, 469n Jarvinen v. Finland (UN Human Rights Jonesv. Wolf(US), 299n Committee), 282 Jorstad, Guri, 806n Jayawickrama, Nihal, 379n Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilron (US), 634n Jefferson, Thomas, 49 Joseph, Sarah, 459n Jeffery, Patricia, 541n Joubert, W. A., 334n, 346n Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 997 journal ofChurch and State, The, 837 Kauper, Paul G., 334n, 336n-338n Judmsm,2,9-10,30,38,44,58,117- Kaushal, Rachana, 524 118,157,162,179,202,205,302, Kavakci, Merve, 518-519 376,419,444,447,449-450,468, Kazakhstan, 244,254,267, 309,386, 533,562,567,657,661,669,747, 389,395-396,397,399,433,436 762,782,784-787 and animal slaughter, 220-221 Keck, Margaret E., 822n, 824n, 826n, and Humanism, 701-702,707,710, 835n-840n 714,718 Kedroffv. St. NicholasCathedral(US), 90- and interreligious dialogue, 181,766, 92,297n,299 770-771,774 Keller, Ron, 488n persecution of, 724-725,730-731, Kelsay, John, 33n 735,778-779 and prisoners' rights, 410-412 Kemalists,497,505-508,510 and religious clothing, 414, 482-483 Kennedy, Dominic, 472n and religious education, 197-198 Kenya,520,659,663 and women's rights, 517-518, 547 Kenyatta, Jomo, 659 Julian ofNorwich, 548 Keohane, Robert 0., 820n-821n juscogens, 80, 82 Keppel, Gilles, 450n justification, 20-21 Keston News Service, 835 overlapping, 44-5 7 Keyder, Caglar, 505n, 508n Juviler, Peter, 517n, 525n Khadduri, Majid, 681--683 Kadish, Sanford H., 327n Khan, Muhammad Zafrullah, 683n Kahane v. Carlson (US), 411 Khomeyni, Ayatollah, 450 Kahn, Ellison, 121n Killian, Johnny H., 276n Kaiser, Karl, 820n King, Ursula, xliv, lx, lxii, lxiiin, 523, 556n Kalac v. Turkey (ECtHR), 230n Kinzer, Stephen, 518n Kalb, Herbert, 329n, 343n, 391n-392n Kirchhof, Paul, 284n Kalin, Walter, 153n, 165n, 172n KirschHiger, R., 695n Kamalipour, Yahya R., 688n Kishwar, Madhu, 523n, 534-535 Kamaras, Istvan, 590n Kiss, Alexandre Charles, 70n, 471n Kandiyoti, 508 Kissling, Frances, 489n Kant, Immanuel, 556 Kiteme, Kamuti, 658n Kantianism, 444 Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v. Kanwar, Roop, 537-538 Denmark (ECtHR), 76n, 166n, 171n,215n,229,232-233,567- Kapur, Ratna, 483n, 519n 568 Karaduman v. Turkey(EComHR), 153n, Klein, Eckart, 48n 172n, 227n, 473n Klostermaier, Klaus K, 526n-527n, 531- Karl, Wolfgang, 148n 532,537 Katcoffv. Marsh(US), 418n Kniola, Franz-Josef, 585n 998 • Index

Knuutila, Jyrki, 430n-431n Kuschel, Karl-Josef, 749n, 754n Koenig, Dorean M., 457n, 467n, 474n, Kuwait,680 479n,485n,489n,491n,533n, Kuyper, Abraham, 96 541n Kyrgyz Republic, 267 J. H., 96n Kok, Kyrgyzstan, 244, 254 Kokkinakisv. Greece(ECtHR), 14n, 107- 108,149n,160-161,171n,215n, Labuschagne, J. M. T., ll8n 217,223,226,229n,231,235n,3 laicism, xli, xliv, lxii, 26, 54,236, 328,445- 54n,360n,362n,434n,464n,623, 452,497-Sll 627n,629n,630-631,641,644- history of, 442-445 647,648n strident, 45-46 Kontakt Information Therapie and Hagen laicite, xli, lix, 226,231,236 v. Austria (EComHR), 356n Lakeland, Mary Jo, 474n Kopcsay, Marius, 591n Lalich, J anja, 581n Korea, 396 Lallemand, Alain, 603n, 611n Korey, William, 725n, 829n Lammers, J. G., 460n Kosovo,244,256,261,752 Lamphere, Louise, 547n Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM), 263 Land, Richard, 732 Kothari, Rajni, 822n Langbein, John, 333n Kothari, Smitu, 822n Lao People's Democratic Republic, 681 Kraakman, Reinier, 369n Laos, 386,578 Krasner, Stephen D., 821n Larissisv. Greece(ECtHR), 107-108, Kratochwil, Friedrich, 821n 149n,160-161,171n,223-224, Kraut,Richard, 501n 642n,646 Kretzmer, David, 48n Larkin, Maurice, 444n Kriele, Martin, 26n Larkin v. Grendel's Den (US), 437n Krishna, 5 78 Larminaux, Gail, 205n Krishnaswami, Arcot, 66n, 68-69, 163n, Larsen, Lena, 785n, 810n 280n,462n,499,621n,626-627, Larson v. Valente (US), 421 649,670 Lateran Treaty, 307 Krishnaswami Report, 12, 68-69, 35 8, Latvia, 244, 387 500,678n Lauren, Paul Gordon, 724n Kroll-Smith, Steve, 580n Law on Freedom of Conscience and 153n Kucsko-Stadlmayer, Gabriele, Religious Associations (Russia), Kulikov, A., 584n 92n,103-104,316 Kumar, Radha, 529, 538n LawsofManu, 527-528 Kung,Hans59,749n,754n,810n Lawson, Linda, 732n Kunz, Josef, 545n Laycock, Douglas, 297n, 300n Kunz v. New York (US), 645n Le Goff, Jacques, 442n Kurdi, Abdulrahman Abdulkadir, 68 3n League ofNations, 10-ll, 30,66 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 999

Lebanon,726 Lithuania, 434, 588 Leclerc, Joseph, 27n Little, David, 20n, 23n, 33, 478n, 485n, Lederach, John Paul, 749n-750, 757n 726 Lee v. International Society for Krishna Livingstone, Stephen, 167n, 467n Consciousness(US), 647n Locke,John,21n,42,44-45 Lee v. Weisman (US), 642n, 646n Lockwood, Bert B., 152n, 47ln, 478n legal entity status, xxxviii-xxxix, xl, xlviii• Loenen, Titia, 480n xlix, lvii-lviii, 321-337, 340-349, Lord, Karen, xxxv, xliii, lvn, 239 352,356-358,363-366,370-377, 383-385,389-395,399-404 Love, Janice, 489n dissolution of, 396-397, 400 L. TK. v. Finland (UN Human Rights legislation Committee), 156n, 198-199,281n French, regarding Islamic veil, xxvii Luckmann, Thomas, 581n Lehnhoff, Lance, 322n, 325n, 367n, Luhmann, Niklas, 37n, 39n, 283n, 803n 369n,377n Lunden, Kare Leirvik, Oddbjorn, 782, 784n Lusage, Michel, 277n Leo XIII, 55,97 Luther, Martin, 15,274,551 Lerner, Natan, xxxiv, xliii, xlviii, 13n, 63, Lutherans, 4-5, 15-16,26-27,53,95, 107n-108n,223n,357n 105-106,294,295,301,303-304, Lesky, Erna, 549n 305,315,553,580,700,773,778, Llewellyn, David, xliii, 1, 125 784 Evangelical,202,303-304,433,707, N. L., 578n Lheureux, 709,713,778-779,807 56 liangxin, Luxembourg, 302 Liechtenstein, 105 Life and Peace Institute, 754 M.A. v. Italy(UN Human Rights Lillich, Richard B., xxxviin, xlin, 67n-76n, Committee), 151 78n-80n,350n,460n M.A.B., WA. T and JA. Y.T v. Canada limitations on freedom of religion or (UN Human Rights Committee), belief, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii, xxxix, xl, 158n,196 xliii, xlviii, 1-lii, liv-lv, lviii-lix, lxvi• Macdonald, R. St. J., 351n, 356n, 366n, lxvii,147-172,211,215-217,220, 378n McCarthy, Kate, 46n 222n-224,226-236,321,326, Macedonia,244,265,393,694,756-757 334n,345,351-352,359,361- Madison, James, lxxivn 366,369,375,377-379,381-382, 387n,388n,389-396,400,402- Madrid Concluding Document (1983), 404,620,622-624,626-645,648, 246-249,258,348,891 671-673,676,682 Maguire, Daniel C., 555n Lindholm, Tore, xxxiii, xliii, xlv, xlvii, lxixn, Mahmoud, Mahgoub el-Tigani, 683n lxiin, 19, 499n, 777 Mahmutovic v. the Republika Srpska Lipstadt, Deborah E., 489n (Human Rights Chamber), 169-170 Listl, Joseph, 324n, 329n, 343n,836n Mahoney, Kathleen E., 75n 1000 • Index

Mahoney, Paul, 75n, 46Sn Mardin, Serif, 504n Maille v. France (UN Human Rights Maresca, John J., 256n Committee), 199n margin of appreciation, li, liii, 216,220, Maitland, Frederic William, 333n 221,226,230n,465 Malaysia, 629,636,646,681,764 marginalization thesis, 39-41 Maldives, 681 Markham, Ian S., 20n Malherbe, E. F. J., 92 Marks, S., ll9n Malinervi, G., 280n Marshall, Paul, 835n Malone v. United Kingdom (ECtHR), Martin, David, l4n, l7n, 34Sn 428n Martin, J. Paul, 63n, 457n, 499n, 533n, Maloney, John, SSln 62ln,636n,702n Malta, lOS, 277, 556 Martin v. CityofStruthers(VS), 630n, Malta Declaration, 207 647n Mani, Lata, 537n Martinez-Torr6n, Javier, xliii, liii, livn, lvin, lxvin, 209, 467n, 479n, 482n, Manichees, 549 586n manifestation, of religion, 28, 45,63-74, Marty, Martin E., 541n 87-90,10l,l04-llO,ll2,ll5, ll9,12l-l23,128,133,l36-l37, Marxism, 771,773-774, 776 139,147-172,176,180,189-190, Mashagatova Svetlana Pavlovna and l94-l95,197-200,211,222n, Others v. Urdmurt Republic State 227-236,246,251,267,279-281, Council (Russian Federation), l 09n 293n,309,312-313,325,329,348, mas/aha, 685 350-352,355-360,362,364-365, Massad, John, 340n 372,374-375,385,387,390,392, 398,430n,453,458,462,464, Masyarakat Dialog An tar Agama 466-471,478,481,484,486,488, (MADIA), 771 491,497,499-503,509-510,515, Matlary, J anne Haaland, xxxiv, xliii, lvn, 518,564,566,579,588,609,619, lvi, 255 622,624,626-632,637,643,645, Matscher, Franz, l48n, 35ln, 356n, 366n, 653,661,665,671-679,702,718, 378n 759,791-793 Mattei, Hugo, 333n, 334n See also external freedom; freedom of religion or belief, external freedom; Matthews, Jessica, 822 observance, practice, teaching; Maunder, Chris, 2n worship Mauritius, 180 Mannheim, Karl, 768 Mauryan Dynasty, 31 Mano, Bishop, 737 Mayer, Ann Elizabeth, 489n, 49ln, Sl8n, Manoussakis & Others v. Greece (ECtHR), 545n-546n,636n,686n l08,154n,222-223,354n,362n, Mayer, Jean-Fran<;ois, 577n 364n,381,384,390n,394,395n, 400n,427-429,432,434n,436- Mayeur, Jean-Marie, 444n-445n 437,464n,473n McClean, David, 302n, 438 Manushi, 535 McClurev. SalvationArmy(VS), 300n Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 1001

McConnell, Michael, 276n Miner, Christopher J., 329n, 343n, 392n, McCormick, Christy Cutbill, 722n 436n McCormick, Richard A., 550n-55ln Minersville School Districtv. Gobitis(US), McDougall, Walter A., 721 273n,284n,285,359n McGoldrick, Dominic, 69n Mingoen, Harriette, 488n, 49ln, 494n McGuire, Meredith B., 572n Minister for Home Affairs v. Othman (Malaysia), 646 McKean, Warwick, 66n ministers, free appointment of, 315 media, lix, 717 Minnerath, Roland, xxxixn, xliii, xlix, lvi, medical facilities, lviii lvii, 98, 291 See also hospitals minorities, rights of, xli-xlii, xlvi, liv-lv, Melton, Gordon, 585n, 6lln J. lri,lxvii-lxviii,9-12,17,27-30,35, Mennonites, 278 43,52,60,64-66,68n,71-72,76, Mernissi, Fatima, 474n 77n,90-91,95,100-101,105,110, Meron, Theodor, xxxviin, 65n, 69n, 75n, 128,133,162-163,170,174,184- 350n, 366n, 49ln 185,189-l90,198,200-202,211n, 214,216,218-227,233,236-237, Merrills, J. G., xlin, 350n 241,243,263-265,267,270,273- Merryman, John Henry, 462n 274,285,318,329n,349n,353, Merton, Robert K., 442 358n,360,379-381,399n,407- Messianic Community, 574 408,434-435,438,446,448,456, 462,466,474,477,480-481,483n, Messner, Francis, 30ln, 355n, 36ln 484,486,488,490,492,497,505, Methodism, 296, 782 518-519,536,585n,587n,601- American, 701 602,608-610,613,617,623,625, Metropolitan Church ofBessarabia v. 634-635,639,643,648-649,661- Moldova (ECtHR), xxxixn, xln, 220, 662,665-666,675,687,690,697, 225n,234n,3ll-314,325n,356n, 702,704,713,719,725,727,733- 362n,363-364,368n,373-375, 734,736-737,741,745-46,752, 377n-378n,384,397n,400n 755,759-760,782,784-785,787, Metropolitan Church of Moldova, 314, 806-807,810-811 373 Minorities Treaties, 17, 30 Mexico, 344,346,681,390,397 Mirari vos(Gregory XVI), 55 Michael Aquino's Temple ofSet, 574 Mirza, Barbara Roblin, 474n, 483n Michalowski, Sabine, 370n Mitter, Sara S., 536n Midgley, Carol, 468n-469n Mnookin, Robert H., 562n Migne, Jacques-Paul, 7 62n modernity, 442,498-499, 517 military service, xliii-xliv, lvi, lviii, 167- Moe, Christian, 376n-377n 168,198-200,281,408,416-421 Moguls, 32 Militello, Cettina, 559 Moldova, 225,244, 314, 373-374, 376, Miller, David H., IOn 386,398 Milton, John, 33 Monaco, 105 1002 • Index money, worship of, 689-692 Myanmar, 681 Mongolia, 433 NAACPv. Alabama exrel. Patterson (US) Monshipouri, Mahmood, 685n, 687 98 , Montenegro, 8, 265-266 Naber, Jonneke M. M., 455n, 473n Montufar, Guillermo Garcia, 354n Nadalul Ulama, 771 Moon, Sun Myung, 591 Nagel, Ernest, 573n Moore, Thomas, 719 Nagorno-Karabakh, 244, 387 Morales, Horacio R., Jr., 841n Nairobi, 754 morals, 159-160, 195,478,485 Naldi, Gino J., 834n Moreno, Pedro C., ll5n, 670n Nanda, Ved P., 76n, 524 Mormons. See Church ofJesus Christ of NansenAcademy, 781-785 Latter-day Saints Narragansett Indians, 33 Morocco,517-518,564,681,770-771 Nasrin, Taslima, 680, 711 Morsink, Johannes, 47n, 366n-367n, 672n Nastase, Adrian, 585n, 618 Mosaic Community ofFaith, 782 Nastase Report, 601 Moscow mechanism, 266 Nation oflslam, 574 Mose, Erik, 809n National Association ofEvangelicals, 727 Moskos, Charles C., 278n-279n National Education Association , 815 Movement for the Restoration ofthe Ten National School Boards Association, 815 Commandments of God, 591 national security, 352, 361, 364-365, 377 Mozambique, 757 and religious discrimination, 70-71 and terrorism, xlii MSIA,574 Native American Church, 289 Mubarak, Fatheena, 474n NATO, 263, 278 Muhammad, 683, 711 naturalization oath, 286 Muhsin,Arnina Wadud, 558n Nauvoo Charter, 35 Mukherjee, Prabhati, 529n Navarro-Valls, Rafael, xliii liii liiin livn Mulierisdignitatem, 551,554,559 ' ' ' ) lvin, lxvin, 209, 467n, 479n, 482n Mullally, Siobhan, 490n necessary or necessary in a democratic Muller, Harald, 751n society, xxxviiin, xxxix, li, liv, 154- Miillerson, Rein, 820n 155,157-159,161,163,171,211- Murabitun, 574 212,225,231,233,235-236,351, 359-366,382,387-394, 399 , 401- Murdock v. Pennsylvania (US), 627n, 404 647n Neo-Pagans, 574 Murray, John Courtney, 55 Nepal,534,644,681 Murray, Rachel, 833n Netherlands,26, 168,199,276,278-279, Muslims. See Islam 282,302-303,318,349,435,551, Mutua, Makau, xlv, lxvi, lxvii, lxxi, 651, 580,585,587,590,593-594,717, 840n 726,763 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 1003 networking, xxxi-iii, xlvi, Ixxiii non-governmental organizations (NGOs ), Neuhaus, Richard J., 20n, 370n lxxii-lxxiii,191,252-254,260,266, 268-270,494-495,723,739,788, Neumann, lver B., 3n 814--815,819-842 Neussl, Peter, 169n Noonan, John T., Jr., lxxivn, 549n neutral laws, liv, 236-238 normative core offreedom of religion or neutrality, xli, li, lviii, lxviii, lxxi, 363-364, belief, xxxvi-xlii, lvii 374,399,403-404 North Korea, 180, 743, 766 New Acropolis, 579 Northern Ireland, 151,702,714,725, New Age, 574,784 747,752-753,757 New Jerusalem, 574 Norway, 105, 182,202,253,255,269, new religious movements (NRMs ), xxx, 278-279,282,303-304,314,442, xlii, xliv, liii, lxv, 106-107, 120,267, 553,556,565,701,707,709,712- 301,354,396-397,397-398,407, 713,777-789,799-803,806-807, 535-557,572-593 810-811 See also cults Norwegian Chairmanship ofOSCE, lvi New York State Club Association v. City of Norwegian government, xxxi New York(VS), 369n-370n Nowak, Manfred, xxxiv, xxxviin, xxxixn, New Zealand, 346, 553 xliii,l,lin,69n, 147, 358n, 359,367, 368n,370n,378n-379n,425n, Newman, Frank, 113n 432-433,467n,470n-471n,473n- Nickles bill, 729-730,736-737,739-740 475n,478n,819n Nicolet, Claude, 443 Nozick, Robert, 48-49 Nidegger, Yves, xlv, lxv, 595 Nuremberg trials, 80-81, 128 Niemotko v. Maryland (US), 619n Nussbaum, Arthur, 1n, 5n, 7n Nigeria, 151,660, 726 Nussbaum, Martha, 20n Nijhoff, Martin us, 673n Nye, JosephS., Jr., 259n, 260, 820n- Nolan, David, 545n 821n Noll, Rudiger, xxx, xxxiii, xxxv, xlv, lxx, 270,747 Oaks, Dallin H., 335n noncoercion, xxxviii, lxvi-lxvii, 460-461 oaths, religious, lvi, 167 nonconformists, 296, 302 O'Boyle, Michael, 149n, 151n, 156n- 157n,160n,162n-163n,462n, nonderogability offreedom ofreligion or 465n belief, xxxvii, xxxix, l O'Brien, William R., 736 nondiscrimination,~,10,12-13,66, 87,105,112,114-115,123,127, observance,67,69,74,87,104,122, 130-132,134,138,156,164-166, 150,293n,309,310,564,609 175-176,179-180,187,190,195, See also external freedom; freedom of 197,227,248,325,337,378-381, religion or belief, external freedom; 402,410,414-415,421,500,704, manifestation, of religion; practice; 710,747,759,779 teaching; worship See also antidiscrimination; discrimina• Odinkalu, Chidi Anselm, 467n tion 1004 • Index

Office ofDemocratic Institutions and Ortega, Martin C., 3n Human Rights ( ODIHR), 252- Orthodox Peace Fellowship, 754 254,264-270 Office oflntemational Religious Freedom, Ortizv. Guatemala(Inter-AmComHR), 739-740,744 627n Office ofReligious Persecution Osijeh Center ofPeace, Non-Violence, Monitoring, 733-734 and Human Rights, 757 Ohanj, Karen, 387n Oslo Coalition on Freedom ofReligion or Belief, xxxii-xxxiiv, xxxvi, lxvii, O'Hara, James B., 338n lxxii,178,748,788-789,811,828 O'Lone v. Estate ofShabazz (US), 412 Oslo Conference on Freedom ofReligion Olz, Martin A., 830n, 832n-834n or Belief, xxxi-xxxv, lxxviii Omkarananda and the Divine Light Oslo Declaration, xxxi-xxxii, xlvi, 919 Zentrum v. United Kingdom Osterreichisches Archivfor Recht und (EComHR), 356n Religion, 837 Omoto,574 Ostrander, Gilman Marston, 443n Onuf, Nicholas, 821n Ottoman Empire, 6-9, 504-505, 507- Oommen, Tharaileth Koshy, 753 508,517 Oosterveld, Valerie, ll8n Otto-Preminger-Institut v. Austria Open Skies Treaty, 240 (ECtHR), 161,165, 172n,217, Opus Dei, 585 218n,630n,633-634,646n-647n Order of the Solar Temple, 452, 590, overbreadth, xlv, 327,365,391,396 593,597,605 overlapping consensus, xlvii Ordinatio sacerdotalis, 554, 559 overlapping justification, xlvii ordre public, 152-153,172,235,361, Ozal, Turgut, 503, 507n 478. See also public order Ozbudun,Ergun,506n Organization ofMrican Unity ( OAU), 833 Pacem in terris(JohnXXIII), 55 Organization ofAmerican States ( OAS ), Packer, Corinne, 457n, 489n 832 PACS unions, 446, 453 Organization ofthe Islamic Conference, Padilla, David, 833n 185 Organization for Security and Co-opera Pagans, 574 tion in Europe (OSCE), xxxiv, xl, Paglia, Vicenzo, 269-270 xliii, lv, 77, 204, 239-271, 349, 388, Pakistan,180,185-186,517,520,646, 495,608,610,617,672,724,726, 702,703,711-712,725,736,750, 741-742,747-748,830,832,836 760,770,781 See also Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe ( CSCE) Pal, R. M., 534n original sin, 549 Palestine Liberation Organization, 318 Orlin, Theodore S., 163n Palestinian Authority (PA), 7l 0 Orme v. Associated Newspapers Group Ltd. Palestinians, 747 (UK),591n Palmore v. Sidoti (US), 639n Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 1005

Palomino, Rafael, 232n Peters, Julie, 546n Panikk~,Rallnundo,774-775 Peterson, V. Spike, 821n Pannenberg, Wolfhart, 40-42 Petschesky, Rosalind, 489n Papastathis, Charalambos, 303n Pettiti, Louis-Edmond, 280n P~aguay, 345 Petzold, H., 351n, 356n, 366n, 378n parents, rights of, xxxviii, lx, lxiii-lxv, 85- Peukert, Wolfgang, 149n 86,139,150,164,170,190,249, Pew Charitable Trusts, 840 565-569,579,703,713,795,805- Pfann, H., 655n 806,816-817 Pfeifer, Michael George, 334n Paris Peace Conference of1919, 9 Philippines, 747 Parliament of the World's Religions, 59, 754 Phillipson, Coleman, 2n Parsis, 530, 533 Philpott, Daniel, l30n P~ch, Karl Josef, xxxviin, 152n, 359n, Picard, Catherine, 586 378n,478n,564n Pienaar, Gerrit, 92 Patel, Vibhuti, 535n Pinkham, Mildred Worth, 528 patients, rights of, 421-422 Pirson, Dietrich, 324n, 329n, 343n, 836n Patrick, Ted, 579n Piscatori, James, 64n Paul VI, 550, 553 Pius VI, 54 Paxman, John M., 460n Pius XI, 549 PeaceofWestphalia,4-5, 10, 16,26,29, Pizarro, Jorge, 586n 66 Places ofWorship Registration Act of peaceful coexistence, xlvi, lxviii 1855,438 peacemaking, xxx, Iii, lxviii, lxx, 7 47-760 Plato, 21n, 547 Peach, Lucinda Joy, 520 Plesner, Ingvill T., xxxii, xlv, lxxii, 791, Peck, Laura, 486n 797n-798n,800n,803n Pelligrini, 218 pluralism, xxx, xlvii, 20, 39, 42-43, 46, Pentecostals, 107, 161,724,784 52,54,155,207,224,226,235, 253,269,312,314,369,374,405, Pentidisand Othersv. Greece(ECtHR), 442,451,479,481,485,525,782, l54n-155n,222-223 791,804,817 Peoples Temple, 574,590 pluralistic societies, 22-24, 58, 377, perestroika, 213,248,250 689-697,802,808-812 Perillo, Joseph M., 462n Podoprigora, Roman, xxxv, xliv, lix, 397n, Perry Education Association v. Perry liJcal 425 Educators' Association (US), 645n Pogge, Thomas W., 497n Perry, Michael J., 48n Poland,9,26,10l-102,308,317,703, Perry, Rich~d L., 275n 709 persuasion, religious. See proselytism polemics, interreligious, 59-60 Peru,346,354,390 Polish Minorities Treaty, 9-ll 1006 • Index politics, and religion, 43-44, 748, 765- and Catholic Church, 621,651,660 767 and Christians, 3,149-150,621-622, polygamy, 159,286,783 633,635,646,652-668 definition of, 620 Poncet, Charles, 607n improper,lxvi,149-150,223,641- Popes,3,29-30,78,294-295,301,307- 648, 718 308,317-318,442,444,545-546, in India, 638-639 549-550,552,556-558,702 and international human rights law, See also Holy See; Vatican 624-625 Portugal,174,274,276-278,295,309, and Islam, 653-654,656-657,660, 663,666-668,715 434 and missionary work, xxxiv, xlv, lxvi• practice, xli-xlii, xlvi, liv-lv, lxi, lxvii-lxviii, lxvii,635-636 67,69,74,87,104,122,150,293n, and religious persuasion, xxxv, xliv-xlv, 309,564,609 l,lxvi, 643 See also external freedom; freedom of religious views on, 620-622,715 religion or belief, external freedom; restrictions on, 622-624,626-641 manifestation, of religion; obser• See also conversion vance; teaching; worship Protestant Reformation, 4, 15-16,25, 32, Praisv. ECCouncil(ECJ), 157n 334,701,761,763,765 Prasad, B. Devi, 537n Protestants, 29-30,293,410,441-442, Presbyterian Church, 106,302 444,447,449,549,553-554,558, Scottish, 448 601,607,660,747,752-753,763, 772,779,786,806 Presbyterian Church v. Mary Elizabeth Evangelical, 43, 453, 546, 583, 734 Hull Memorial Presbyterian Church (US), 297n, 299n Protopopov, Andrei, 433n-434n Prince v. Commonwealth ofMassachusetts Provost, James H., 551n (US), 286-287, 563n, 359n Prowse, Michael, 476n prisoners Prussia, 443 religious, 723, 725, 739 publichealth,157-158,392,473-483 rights of, xliv, 155,408-416 public order,li, 152-157,172,235,361- privatization thesis, 39-41 362,365,382,392,405,478,473- Procunier v. Martinez (US), 411 483,485,638-639,685-687 Project on New Directions in Islamic See also ordre public Thought and Practice, xxxiii public safety, 150-152, 158, 361, 365, proportionality,li, 150-151,154,158, 392,473-483,485 161-164,171-172,324n,361- public square, lxix 362,372,382,388,392-393 publications, religious, 141,250-251 See also compelling state interest Publications Control Board v. Gallo (SA), proselytism, xxviii, xxxiv-xxxv, xlv, xlviii, ll6 liv, lxvi-lxvii, lxxi, 11,68-69,73- 74,82,87-88,99,107-109,120, Pufendorf, Samuel, 295 160-161,171,222-227,231,253, punishment 586,619-649,651-668,669-672, capital, 113-114 749 corporal, 85-86 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 1007

Punjab Religious Book Society v. State reconciliation,xxx, 748, 749n, 754-755, (Pakistan), 632n, 646 757,758-759 Puranas, 528 Refah Partisi (Ihe *lfare Party) v. Turkey Puritanism, 442 (ECtHR), 226-227, 236n, 325n, 327n,375-376,473n Putnam, Robert, 821-822,825 Reformed Church, 26-27, 303, 305 Puza, Richard, 306n Regehr, Ernie, 750 Qatar, 681 registration laws, xlii, lvii, lix, lxvi, 325, 327-333,345-346,349,364,381, Quakers, 33, 278, 296, 585, 754 385-388,396-397,399,403,430-- Quashigah, E. K., 395n, 401n 431 governmental discretion in, lix, 394- R. v. Big M. Drug Mart (Ltd.) (Canada), 397 88 requirements of, 388-394, 402 R. v. Keegstra(US), ll9n vagueness of, 397-398 R. v. Red Hot Video Ltd. (Canada), ll9n See also religious association laws Rabinove, Samuel, 475n reincarnation, 450 Racak massacre, 263 "Relating to Certain Aspects of the Laws on the Use ofLanguages in Educa• racism, 185-186 tion in Belgium" v. Belgium Raday, Frances, 475n, 517 (ECtHR), 76n, 480n, 625n Rader, Stanley R., 339n Religiina panorama, 837 Raelians, 574, 579 religion Rahman,Anika,466n,468n-470,472n- definition of, 352-353, 435 473n,545n and ethnicity, xxix Rahner, Karl, 550, 553-554 resurgence of, xxix Ramcharan, B. G., 67n Religion, State, and Society, 837 Ramet, Sabrina, 259n religious association laws, xxxixn, xliii, lvii• lviii, 321-406 Raming, Ida, 553n See also registration laws Ranade,530 religious autonomy. See autonomy, Rani Sati Sarva Sangh (RSSS ), 538-539 religious Raninen v. Finland (EComHR), 157n Religious Bodies Act ofl853, 303 Rao,Arati,525,540 Religious Freedom Restoration Act Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS ), (RFRA), 413,415 540--541 religious institutions, rights of, 90-99 Rasmussen v. Denmark (ECtHR), 465n Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Rastafarians, 587 Persons Act of2000, 415-416 rationalism, 65, 73, 82 Religious Liberty Committee, 827 Ratzinger, Joseph, 554 Religious Peace ofAugsburg, 4-5 Rawls, John, 20n, 159n, 500, 803n religious symbols, xxvii, lx Raz, Joseph, 286n Remond, Rene, 442n 1008 • Index ren, 56 Roca, Maria J., 213n Renaissance, 763, 765 Rock Edicts, 31 Report on Cults in the European Union, Rockefeller Brothers Fund, 840 106-107 RockerellerFoundation,840 Republika Srpska, 262, 266 Roden, Marie Louise, 559n Rerum novarum (Leo XIII), 55,97-98 Radley, Nigel, 829n respect, mutual, xxx, xxxi, 23,44-45, 51, Rodrigues, Peter R., 480n 53-54,57-58,61,404 Rolland, P., 446n Responsio, 559 Roman Catholic Church. See Catholicism restrictions on freedom of religion or Roman Empire, l-2, 4, 25 belief. See limitations on freedom of religion or belief Romania, 8, 268,314,349,374,394- 395, 725, 726 Revolutionary War, 418 Rome Statute of the International Reynolds, N. B., 25n Criminal Court, 129-130, 134, Reynoldsv. United States(VS), 286-287, 139,144-145 289,359n Ronchey, Alberto, 552 Ribeiro, Angelo Vidal d'Almeida, 174 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 723 Richard, Michel, 5 79n Roosevelt, Franklin D., ll, 13 Richards, David L., 835n Ropp, Stephen C., 46ln, 823n, 838n Richardson, James T., 580n-58ln, Rosaldo, Michelle Z., 547n 584n-585n,60ln Rosas, Allan, l63n Riffaut, H., 447n, 450n Rose, Susan D., 546n right to freedom of religion or belief. Rosenfeld, StephenS., 73ln See freedom ofreligion or belief Canada(UNHumanRightsCom• Risse-Kappen, Thomas, 6ln, 425n, 820n, Rossv. mittee), 162, 198 822n,823-825,838 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 25n, 273n, 442, rivalry, 58-60 556 Roads ofFaith, 207 "Routes ofal-Andalus, The," 205 Robbers, Gerhard, 292n, 300n, 302n- "Routes ofFaith," 205 303n,305n-306n,328n,342n, 430n-43ln,434n-435n,438n, Roy, M. N., 700n 586n Roy, Raja Rammohan, 537 Robbins, Thomas, 572n, 580n, 584n Rudolph, Susanne Haber, 64n Roberts, Adam, l28n Ruether, Rosemary R., 559n Robertson, A. H., xlin, 350n Ruggie, John Gerard, 82ln Robertson, Roland, 580n Rupesinghe, Kumar, 754 Robinson, Catherine A., 532n Rushdie, Salman, 162, 450 Robinson, Jacob, 66n Russell, Letty M., 558n Robinson, Mary, 813 Russell, Rosalind, 579n Robinson, Nehemiah, 67n Russell, Ruth B., l3n Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 1009

Russia, 8, 26, 103-104, 180,268,271, Schramm, Jiirgen, 826n 277,294,299,316-317,327,391, Schreiner, Peter, 797n-798, 801-802, 395,399-400,433-434,436-438, 805 588,725,788-789 Schrokkenbroek, Jeroen, 465n Russian Academy of State Service, xxxiii Schuler, MargaretA., 489n Russian Orthodox Church, 90, 268, 299, 489n 396,398,433,437,753 Schweiz, Martha L., Rwanda,126,128,747 Scotland,302,587 religious movements Ryan, Richard, 489n sects. See new secularism, xli, xlvii, lv, lix-lxi, lxiii-lxiv, Sachedina, Abdulaziz A., 33n lxviii, 24, 29,36-43,52,216,226, Sachs, Susan, 518n 235-237,497,689-697,803-804 theory, xxviii, 39-40 sacred, xxx, xxxi secularization Sahaja Yoga, 574 security, xxviii-xxx 416-417 Sajo, Andras, 377n Seegerv. United States(US), Sakti,532 Seekers, 33 740-742 Saladin, 32 Seiple, RobertA., salvation,46 Seiwert, Hubert, 611n xlix Salvation Army, 327,589 self-determination, See also autonomy, religious Sami,200 Seligman, Adam, 819n Sampson, Cynthia, 7 48n Selling, JosephA., 551n San Marino, 308 Senegal, 201 Sandjak, 261 separation ofreligion and state, xxixn, xli, Sangari, Kumkum, 537n liv, lviii-lix, lxviii, 328, 339n Sanskrit, 60 September 11,2001, xxvii, xxx Santa Maria, 0., 586n Serbia, 8, 262,266, 380, 725, 743 Saribay, Ali Yasar, SOSn Serbian Eastern Orthodox Diocese v. Sarkar, Tanika, 541n Milivojevich (US), 297n, 299-300, Satanic Verses(Rushdie), 162 357n sati, 526, 529, 531-532,536-539 Serifv. Greece(ECtHR), 111n, 154-155, Saudi Arabia, 451, 516, 672,681, 703, 224-225,235n,311,316n,362n- 711,725,745,764 363n,399n-400n,485n Schatzle, Ortrun, 584n Serritella, James A., 322n, 324n, 331n, 340n,352n Schechter, Danny, 5 78n Sethni, H., 822n Scheinin, Martin, xxxiv, xliii, lii, 11n, 67n, 70n,163n,189,360n,430n-431n, Seventh-Day Adventists, 278,287,411, 467n,672n 437, 585,827 Schinkele, Brigitte, 305n Sewell, Elizabeth A., xlv, lvi, lxxii, lxxiii, Schirazi, Asghar, 687 316n,352n,819 Schmale, Wolfgang, 443n sexual orientation, xxix, 1 1010 • Index

Shaaban, Bouthaina, 484n Sikkink,Kithryn,425n,822n,823-825, sharrling,838-839,842 826n,835n-840n Shannon, William H., 551n Silk, Mark, 722n, 729n, 738n Shapiro, Ian, 425n "Silk Route, The," 205 Shari'a,227,376,517,656-657,684- Simkin, Lev, 402n 685,752,766 Singer, Margaret, 581n Sharma, Arvind, 537n Singhv. Lyons Maid Ltd. (England), 587 Shaskolsky-Sheleff, Leon, 475n, 477n sites, religious, 139-140,142,169,184 Shaw, Ezel K, 7n Sjostedt, Gunnar, 829n Shaw, Malcolm N., 356n Skeie, Geir, 802 Shaw, Stanford J., 6n, 7n Slack, Alison T., ll8n Shea, Nina, 730-732, 735 Slovakia, 201,277, 388,591,704,717, Shearer, S. Bruce, 839n, 841n 725 Sheehan, James J., 6n Slovenia, 277 Sheen, Juliet, xliv, xlivn, lx, lxn, lxii, 78n, Smith, Anthony D., 804n 328n,481n,484n,488n,513, Smith, Hannah Clayson, 326n, 600n 726n,835 Smith, Joseph, 34-35,46 Sheleff, Leon, 71n Smith, S. B., 301n Shelton, Dinah, 491n Smith, Sidonie, 516n Sherbertv. Verner(VS), 287,289,409, Smith, Steven D., 297n 412 Smith, Wilfred Cantwell, 774 Shestack, Jerome J., 555n Snyder, Steven L., 732 Shils, Edward, 819n Socialist Party v. Turkey (ECtHR), 225n, Shinto, 574 235n Shipps, Jan, 34n Society for Interreligious Dialogue Shropshire, Denys W. T., 655n, 658n- (SIDA), 771 659n soft power, lv, 259-261,265, 271 Shterin, Marat, 581n Sohn, Louis B., xlin, 350n Shupe, Anson D., 580n-581n Soifer,Aviam, 71n Sidiropoulosv. Greece (ECtHR), xln, ll0-- Soka Gakkai, 574 111,225n,311,343n,371,377n, solicitation, religious, 142 391n,393n solidarity, 58-61, 444 Sieghart, Paul, 65n, 71n Solte, Ernst-Liider, 329n, 343n Siesly, Erik, 278n Somalia, 715 Sigmund, Paul E., 344n-345n Sood, Sushma, 537n Sigurjonsson, Sigurdur A., 368n Sorensen, Henning, 279n Sikhs,44, 151-153,155,158,171,196, Sousa e Brito, Jose de, xliii, lvi, 273 482,533,541,574,587,718,734, 753,782,784 SouthAJnca,86,101,113,115-116,119, 121,334,346,520,657,733,749 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • lOll

South Korea, 767 state churches, 303-304, 316,762-766, South Place Ethical Society, 438 778-780,785,807 sovereignty, sphere, 92,94-99, 106, 112, State v. A juvenile (Zimbabwe), 85n 120--121,123 Statev. F(Zimbabwe), 85n See also sphere sovereignty Statev. Lawrence(SA), 88n Soviet Union, 332 Statev. Negal(SA), 88n Spain,3,276,295,308-309,316-3l7, State v. Solber.g(SA), 88n 337,435,553,556,814 Statev. Williams(SA), 85n Spanish Inquisition, 669 Statement ofConscience ofthe National Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Association ofEvangelicals Religion or Belief, li-lii, lxvii, lxxii, Concerning Worldwide Religious 174-188,481,486,488-491,493- Pe~ecution,730--73l 495,670,674,677,679,686,724, Stege by, E. Kenneth, 294n, 303n 747,755,760,788,793-798,800-- 801,805-806,808-809,812,813- Steiner, Henry, 664-665, 686n, 829n, 815,831,835-836 835n Special Rapporteur on Religious Intoler• StepanakertjKhankendi, 244 ance. See Special Rapporteur on stereotypes, xliv-v, lxv, 592 Freedom of Religion or Belief Stiememann, A., 695n Special Rapporteur on Torture, xxxiv, 177 Stone, Alec, 370n Special Rapporteur on Violence against students, rights of, 450-451 Women,46ln,491, 542 Sudan,l79-180,201,516,646,660, sphere sovereignty, lvii, 94-99 681,686,701,725-726,732-734, See also sovereignty, sphere 743,749,752,756,764,770 spiral model, 823-827,829,834,837- Sufism, 574 839,842 Sullivan, DonnaJ., 13n, 7ln, 75n,49ln, "Spiritual Convergence and Intercultural 519n,724n Dialogue" Program, 206 Sunday Times v. the United Kingdom Spykman, Gordon J., 96n (ECtHR), 360n Sri Lanka, 726,747, 750 Supplementary Human Dimension Stafanov v. Bufearia (ECtHR), l56n Meeting on Freedom ofReligion or Stahl, Friedrich Julius, 95, 96n Belief(l999), 253 Stahnke, Tad, xxxv, xlv, lxvi, lxvii, 63n, Suriname, 277 223n,457n,459n,499n,533n, surnames, change of, 153-154,196 619,623n,702n Suwanna, Satha-Anand, 520n Stainislausv. State(India), 638n Sveen, Barbro, xxxiii, xlv, lxxi, 777 Stalsett, Gunnar, 788 Svensson, Jonas, 545n Stamatopolou, Elissavet, 546n sweat lodges, 413-414 standing ofreligious communities, xxxviii Sweden, 5, 279,282,303-304,315,553, Stanley, Alessandra, 65ln 565-567,585-586,611,704-705, Stark, Rodney, 804n 711-712,778,799-803 1012 • Index

Swidler, Leonard, xlv, lxxi, 674n, 761 terrorism, xlii, 327,408 Switzerland, 231,276, 316,482, 590, Tertullian, 762n 593,694 Teson, Fernando R., 77n and religious sects, 597, 604--608, Thailand, 520, 578 610--611,616--617 Thiemann, Ronald F., 26n Symonides, Janusz, 546n Thierstein, Joel, 688n Syria, 725 "Third Basket," 256 Tabory, Mala, 66n Thirty Years War, 4, 15 Tahzib, Bahiyyih G., xlin, 12n-l3n, 63n, Thlimmenos v. Greece (ECtHR), 222, 65n,88n,149n,151n,154n-158n, 464n,591n 168n,194n,209n,228n,349n, Thomas, Oliver, 815n 359n,457n,500n,518n,677n- Thomasv. Collins(VS), 287n 678n,726n,829n See also Tahzib-Lie, Bahia G. Thorat, Vimal, 534n Tahzib-Lie, Bahia G., xxxiv, xxxv, xliv, lx• Thornberry, Patrick, xlin, 66n, 349n lxi, 455, 456n Thurfjell, Susanne, 752 See also Tahzib, Bahiyyih G. Thurston, Patrick J., 344n Tajikistan, 244 Tibet, 725-726 Taliban, 180, 516,743,747 Tierney, Brian, 25n Tandem Project, 815 Tobago,197 Tanor, Biilent, 505n, 510n Toebes, Brigit C. A., 470n Tanzania, 663 tolerance, xxxii, xxxvi, xlii, xlv-xlvii, xlix, Taoism, 774 li-lii, lv-lvi, lviii, lxv-lxvix, lxxi-lxxiii, Tapper, Richard, 504n 42,44-46,54,57,61,106,133, 176,179,184-186,236,253,404, V. M., 701n Tarkunde, 690--692,718,747,750-751,782, Tashkent, 244 791-812,813--818 taxes Tolerance Act ofl725, 296 church,316,328,712 Tomasevski, Katrina, 541n, 546n exemption from, 324,341,346,391 Tomkins, Adam, 490n Taylor, Charles, 819n Tomuschat, Christian, 351n, 366n-369n Tblisi, 244 Toprak, Binnaz, 43n, 505-506, 507n teaching, 67, 69, 74, 87, 88, 104, 122, 149,150,157,293n,301,305,309, Torcasov. Watkins(VS), 167n,281n,286 564,566,567,609 Tor~,Rik,283n,302n,431n,434n external freedom; freedom of See also totalitarianism, 95, 98 religion or belief, external freedom; manifestation, of religion; obser• Toubia, Nahid, 466n, 468n-470n, 472n- vance; practice; worship 473n Teaching Tolerance Institute of the Toynbee, Arnold J., 764-765 Southern Poverty Law Center, 815 transnational relations, 820-822 Tenekides, G., 79n Treaty ofBerlin, 7-9 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 1013

Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces UNESCO Convention Against in Europe (CFE), 240 Discrimination in Education ( 1960 ), Treaty ofMiinster, 5 71,76,814 Treaty of Osnabrock, 5 UNESCO Declaration on Race and Treaty ofVienna, 66 Racial Prejudice (1978), 79 Trebilcock, Anne, 479n UNICEF, 771-772 Unification Trinidad, 197 Church, 574,578-579,583, 590 trusts, 340-341, 346, 349 private, 333-336 Union ofEvangelical Baptist churches, 588 truth,768-769,783 United Communist Party (TBKP), 109- Tsavachidisv. Greece(ECtHR), 154n, llO 219n United Communist Party ofTurkey v. Tsirlis and Kouloumpasv. Greece (ECtHR), Turkey(ECtHR), 109-ll0,235n, 168, 171n 311n,325n,343n,363n,367n, Tucker, St. George, 338n 371,391n,393n Tunisia, 174, 517 United Kingdom, 165,711,714,717 Turan, liter, 504n United Nations, 75, 88-89, 119, 129, turbans, 153,172,414,482,502-503, 132,173-188,258,358,545-546, 507 552,557,608-609,624-625,662, Turke~109-110,180,237,267,311, 672,723-724,788-789,819, 328,375-376,518-519,725,741, 830-831,834,838 781 Commission on Human Rights of, xxxii, Islamic Welfare Party of, 376, 503, xxxiv,xliii, 12,173-188,488, 507 489,491,513,678,723-724, Motherland Party of, 502-503, 507 742,748,751,786,795-796, National Salvation Party of, 506 831,835-836 Turkmenistan, 244 Economic and Social Council of Turnerv. Safley(US), 412 (ECOSOC), 830-831 Human Rights Committee of, xliii, xlvi, Tushner, Mark, 370n li,lli,li~lxvii,12,70-72,79,82, Tuttle, James, 350n 117,148,151,153-159,164- Tutu, Desmond, 757 168,189-202,280-282,353, Twiss, Sumner B., 46n 361-362,379-380,435,467, 485,487,493-494,514,517, Udmurt Republic, Law On Missionary 567,609,624,627-629,637, Activity on the Territory ofthe 648,661,674-675,678,702, Udmurt Republic, 109 710,759,808,831,838 General Comment No. 22, xxxvii, Uganda, 591, 593,660 xxxviiin, xxxixn, xlin, xlviii, Iii, Ukraine,268,636-637,643,725-726, 149n,150n,156,158,159,164, 788 166n,167-168,192n,193-195, Umozurike, U. Oji, 77n 353,358n,361,362,364,380- UNESCO, xxxiv, 203-208, 831 381,387 1014 • Index

United Nations (continued) and NGOs, 827, 829, 835-836, 839 Special Rapporteur of, li-lii, lxvii, lxxii, and religious autonomy, 318,437 174-188,481,486,488-491, andreligiouseducation,714,798-799 493-495,542,670,674,677, United States Commission on International 679,686,724,747,755,760, Religious Freedom, xxxv, lxx 788,793-798,800-801,805- 806,808-809,812,813-815, United States Institute ofPeace (USIP), 831,835-836 726 See also Special Rapporteur on United Statesv. Ballard (US), 234n, 64ln Freedom of Religion or Belief; United States v. Bland (US), 286n Special Rapporteur on Torture; Special Rapporteur on Violence United States v. Macintosh (US), 286n against Women United Statesv. Schwimmer(US), 286 United Nations Conference on Women, United States v. Seeger (US), 281 489 Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights United Nations Convention for the (UDHR) (1948),xxxi,xxxvii, Elimination ofAll Forms of Racial xxxviiin,xlin,xlv, ll-12, 19,47, 51, Discrimination ( 1965 Convention), 56m,67-68,70,73,75,80,82,87- 69,79-80,82 88,119,122,145,173,182,189, 209,259,279-280,350,358,387, United Nations Declaration on the 497,521,614,628,654,661,664, Elimination ofViolence Against 666,670,672-674,679,691-693, Women (DEVAW) (1993), ll8 702-703,711,723,788,814,873 United Nations Declaration on the Rights Universal Military Training and Service ofPersons Belonging to National or Act, 417 Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic University ofPristina, 270 ~orities(l992),71,76,100,174 untouchables. See Dalit United Nations International Consultative Conference on School Education in Uppsala, 754 Relation with Freedom ofReligion Uruguay, 277, 345 and Belief, Tolerance and Non-dis• US Commission on International Religious crimination (2001 ), xxxii Freedom,739,744-746,835 United Nations International Convention Uzbekistan, 244,267, 386-387 on the Protection of the Rights of Uzzell, Lawrence A., 321n,437n-439n All Migrant Workers and Their Families (1990), 76, 173-174 vaccinations, 157,563 UnitedStatesofAmerica, ll9, 177,180, Vaid, Sudesh, 537n 182, 237' 240,260, 267,407' 435, 554,657,721-746,788,815 Valsamis v. Greece (ECtHR), ll2n, 233- and conscientious objection, 278-279, 234 281,285-286 Valsecchi,Ambrogio, 550n Constitution of, 26, 34,275-276, Valticos, N., 76n 296-297,359,421,587,761,763 and humanism, 718 Van Bueren, Geraldine, xliv, lx, lxiv, lxxii, and laicism, 441-442, 452 561 legal entity status in, 328, 330, 332- van Bijsterveld, Sophie C., 302n, 435n, 334,336-342,396 79ln Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 1015 van Boven, Thea, xxxiv, xliii, li, Iii, 173, Vienna Concluding Document, xxxvii, lv, l75n,684n,836 248-251,258,348-349,402,404, van den Bosch, Laurens, 539 436-437,677,724 van der Meer, Haye, 553n Vienna mechanism, 266 Vander Molen, Gesina H. J., 3n Vienna World Conference on Human Rights, xxviii, 688,814,819 van der Stoel, Max, 265 Vienna Declaration and Program of van der Vyver, Johan D., xxxiv, xliii, xlviii, Action, xxviii xlix, 1, lvii, lvii, l2n, 44n, 63n, 65n- Vietnam, 180, 386, 725, 766 66n,85,223n,334n,346n,430n, Vincent, Fernand, 84ln 464n,489n,516n,55ln,670n,705, 726n Vincent, R. J., 826n van Dijk, Pieter, l48n, l52n-158n, l6ln, violence, xxix-xxx, 693-694,749,755 l68n,l7ln,356n,369n,378n, Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), 540-541 462n,465n,467n,478n,485n "Visions ofEcstasy," 162 van Prinsterer, Guillaume Groen, 95 Vivien, Alain, 584n, 586 van Hoof, Fried, l48n, l52n-l58n, l6ln, Vogt,Kari,37n,38n,499n,546n-547n, l68n,l7ln,356n,369n,378n, 55ln,554n 462n,465n,467n,478n,485n Vojvodina, 261 Van Hove, A., 669n Vollebxk, Knut, 255,270 van Veen, Frits, 48ln Voltaire, 442 VandeCreek, Larry, 458n von Baer, Karl Ernst, 549 Vanita, Ruth, 523n, 535n von Bingen, Hildegard, 548 Vasak, Karel, 76 von Campenhausen, Axel Freiherr, 292n Vatican, 181 Vospernik, Tanja, xxxixn, xliii, 1, li, 147, See also Holy See; Popes 433n,470n-47ln,473n-475n, Vedas, 528-529 478n veil. See head covers; headscarves; Islam, Vovelle, Michel, 443n and veil veiling, 450-451,501-504,507,510, Wadley, Susan, 526-529 518-519 Wahid, Abdurrahman, 771 Venezuela, 345 Waldman v. Canada (UN Human Rights Venier and Nicolas v. France (UN Human Committee), 166, l7ln, 197-198 Rights Committee), l99n Waldock, Humphrey, xlin, 350n Veritatis splendor, 5 51, 55 9 Wales, 302, 798 Vermeulen, Ben P., 277n Walkate, J. A., 70n Vernette, Jean, 452n Walker, William, 263 Verwilghen, Michel J., 55ln Wallace, Don, 506n Vestre Aker congregation, 781 Wallbom, Sonja, 584n, 586n Vidalv. Girard(VS), 334n Walters, Francis P., lln 1016 • Index

Waltzer, Michael, 819n Wingrove v. United Kingdom (ECtHR), Walz v. Tax Commission (US), 326n 162,165n,l72n,217,218n,362n, 633-634,646n-647n Warbrick,C~,l49n,l5ln,l56n-l57n, 160n,162n-163n,462n,465n Wrnston, Morton E., 822n-823n, 827n, 837n Warnink, Hildegard, 300n-302n, 306n war, xxvii, xxx Wisconsin v. Yoder(US), 52,99-100, crimes of, 129, 140 288-289,568 prisoners of, 135-136,140-141,143- Witchcraft, 574 145 Witte, John, Jr., l2n, 28, 44n, 63n, 65n, religious, l-4, 14-17,45-46,58,125, 66n, 223n, 430n, 464n, 486n, 489n, 132,748-753,762,789 516n,55ln,586n,670n,726n Warzazi, Halima Embarek, 468n, 470n Witteveen, Tobias A. M., 584n Watanabe, Manabu, 580n Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 768 Waters, Malcolm, 803n Wittmann v. Deutscher Schulverein, Watson v. City ofMemphis (US), 639n Pretoria(SA), ll6 Watsonv.]ones(US),297-299 Woehrling,Jean-Marie,355n Weissbrodt, David, ll3n Wojtyla, Karol (John Paul II), 550-551 Welch, Claude E., Jr., 820n, 834, 835n, Wolf-Specter bill, 729-740,743-745 837n,840n-84ln Wolper, Andrea, 546n "Welsh v. United States(US), 282,453 women Weltanschauungen, 176,182 in black, 757, 759 Wentworth, John, 35 dissenting, 455-495 rights of, xliv, lx-lxiv, lxvii, 513-521 Wernham, Richard B., 5n in Catholicism, 545-559 Wessinger, Catherine, 578n in Christianity, 524, 530, 545, 559 "West Vir;ginia State Board ofEducation v. in Hinduism, 523-543 Barnette(US), 285 in India, 530-531 Westerman v. the Netherlands(VN Human and institutional power, 515 Rights Committee), 156, l7ln, 199 in Islam, 517-519,524,530,532- Weston, Burns H., 77n 533,536-539,541,545-547, 555,558 White, Robin C. A., l48n, l55n-l56n, See also discrimination, gender; I58n,l60n equality, and gender. Whole Child Education Project, 771 Woods, Lorna, 370n Wicca,574 Woolhouse, Roger, 2ln Willems, Duquesne, 584n Woolman, Stuart, 92n Willems, Luc, 584n workplace, religious beliefs in, 287 Williams, Rhys H., 340n World Conference against Racism, Racial Williams, Roger, 33-34,46 Discrimination, Xenophobia and Williamson, Roger, 750-751 Related Intolerance, 183, 185 Wilson, Bryan R., 584n World Conference on Religion and Peace Wilson, Woodrow, I 0 (WCRP), 754, 756 Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook • 1017

World Conference for Religion and Peace Zambia, 277,664 in New York, 269 Ziliukaite, Riita, 588n World Council ofChurches (WCC), 621, Zoroastrians, 574,735 693,749,752,754,756-757,827 Ziircher, Erik J., 503n, 510n World Parliament ofReligions, 7 61 Zwinglians, 32 World War I, 9-ll, 278,452 World War il, 13-14, 344, 654 worship, 2, 5, 6n, 7-10,67,69, 73n, 74, 87,88,104,116,117,122,150, 154,165,168,293n,294,296,305, 307,308,309,310,311,564,574, 588,609, 6lln See also external freedom; freedom of religion or belief, external freedom; manifestation, ofreligion; obser• vance; practice; teaching; Wright, Stuart, 5 78n Wuerffel, Kristin N., 722n

X & Church ofScientology v. Sweden (EComHR), 122 Xv.Austria(EComHR), 151n, 153n, 155n X v. the Netherlands(EComHR), 157 Xv. UnitedKingdom(EComHR), 151, 155n,157n-158n,172n xenophobia, 185-186,262,781

Yannoulatos, Anastasios, xlv, lxvii, lxviii, 689,695n See also Anastasios Yelensky, Vlktor, 213n Yerevan, 244, 254 Young,]ames&Websterv. United Kingdom (ECtHR), 368n Young Women's Christian Association, 585 Youngman, Drew, 581n Yourow, Howard Charles, 465n Yugoslavia, 9, 126, 147,252,264,270, 726,749,757,759