The Journal of Archaeomythology Summer, 2005 Volume 1, Number 1

Marija Gimbutas’ Kurgan Hypothesis and Indo-European Studies

Edgar C. Polomé

It is difficult to measure how extensive an actively all her life). Here again, she coordinates impact any one scholar has had on a specific linguistic data with the results of archaeological field. Not only are her or his publications findings, displaying a sound scepticism versus relevant, but more important is the response of the Balto-Slavic hypothesis: other researchers within the discipline. Sometimes, the influence of particular views is The question of unity or parallelism. . . even made deeper by the dissenting opinions is mainly a matter of terminology and they have triggered or the continued chronology. Judging from archaeological investigations they have inspired. Nowhere are evidence, the period of convergence these considerations more valid than in the case must have ended in the first half of the of Marija Gimbutas. second millennium BC, and in the long history of relationships between the The earlier work of Marija Gimbutas, on the Baltic and Slavic languages there were Balts and the Slavs, led to the two brilliant periods of complete independence and monographs in the series Ancient Peoples and parallelism (Gimbutas 1971:25-6). Places (1963 and 1971). Beside rich archaeological and prehistorical data, The Balts Her position is comparable to that of G. Devoto contain a remarkable synthesis of her views on versus the alleged unity of Latino-Faliscan and Baltic religion, which she later expanded in Osco-Umbrian. several contributions drawing, with independent thoughts, on the works of Biezais. It also An outstanding synthesis of her views on Proto- exemplifies her mastery of Baltic linguistics and Indo-European (PIE) was given in a paper to the toponymics, nourished by the best sources Third Indo-European Conference in (Buga, Gerullis, Vasmer, Todorov, Trubachev, Philadelphia in April 1966 in which she spoke and others). of the existence of a fairly homogenous culture in the Pontic and Volga steppes during the fifth Similarly, her work on the Slavs takes into and fourth millennia BC, from which all the account the best of prior research (e.g., later manifestations of the so-called Kurgan Niederle, Kostrzewski, Lehr-Splavinski, and culture emerged. Archaeological data were not Jadzewski) when she investigates the origin of yet clear on its formation, but there seemed to the Slavs and situates them in the framework of be a Mesolithic group in an originally limited her thoroughly elaborated Kurgan hypothesis area between the Don and the southern Urals. (perhaps best represented in the series of papers As early as the fifth millennium BC, it is published in the Journal of Indo-European supposed to have had domesticated horses at its Studies, which she co-founded and supported disposal, and in the following millennium, it is

deemed to have introduced wheeled vehicles in While a number of scholars, especially in this the steppe area. country, took over Marija Gimbutas' views lock, stock and barrel, she was less fortunate in Resorting to linguistic paleontology, Marija Europe, where British archaeologists were Gimbutas tried to reconstruct the economy, strongly reluctant to subscribe to the “Kurgan habitation pattern, social organization and Hypothesis.” Some echoes were found in religion of these Proto-Indo-Europeans; she Germany and France. Nevertheless, the showed that the faunal and floral remains (in opposition had to cope with her ideas, and much particular, the nomenclature of trees and wild of the discussion that ensued has been rooted in animals) point to the forested conditions and them. milder climate of the Pontic steppe area at that time. The principal activity of the Proto-Indo- There has been quite a bit written since the Europeans was apparently cattle and horse- sixties on the wheeled vehicles, and the main raising; agriculture was coupled with stock issue remains the date of their introduction. breeding. These people entered the metallic age David Anthony has thrown new light on the with copper in the fourth millennium BC. It can domestication of the horse and has located it as be surmised that they acquired the skill of well in the Pontic steppes. A Symposium in navigation earlier, using boats on the Black Sea, Berlin (1992) reexamined the whole issue on as well as later in Mediterranean, Aegean and which the late Hungarian paleozoologist Sandór Adriatic waters. The dwelling quarters of the Bokonyi also made major contributions. The ruling elite of their basically caste society grew question of kinship was reexamined by scholars from hillforts to elaborate palaces; the rest of the like Emile Benveniste and Paul Friedrich who population lived in small villages. Kinship showed that it followed the Omaha system of terminology points to patriarchal, patrilocal, cross-cousin marriage. The issue of PIE trees exogamous families who worshiped their gods which Friedrich had tackled at the same Third in the open. Elements of their religion included Indo-European Conference (1966), was frequently practiced sacrifices, a particularly reexamined and expanded by him in a later book strong belief in an afterlife, reverence of (1970). The disputed question of PIE zoomorphic deities and homage to the divinized pastoralism, studied by the anthropologist Ward sun, thunder and fire. Goudenough at the same Conference, received a lot of attention, the gist of which was to With increased mobility, growing herds and strengthen the argument in favor of a strong co- population, the Kurgan warrior nobility strove existing agricultural element, which was for expansion, hence a series of movements took confirmed by the pioneering work Daniel place towards the Balkano-Danubian area Zohary and Maria Hopf (1988). during the first half of fourth millennium BC, whence they conquered northern Europe. In 1984, the monumental work of Thomas During the second half of fourth millennium Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov brought BC, they moved towards Transcaucasia, Iran the whole question of Indo-European migrations and Anatolia and, ultimately, to the Aegean and back into the frontline of the discussions; they Adriatic areas, Syro-Palestine and possibly had already presented the main ideas of their Egypt (c. 2500-2000 BC). The penetration of theory in a series of journal articles which were Indo-European peoples was an infiltration in strongly attacked by their St. Petersburg which they subsequently became the dominating colleague I. Diakonoff and by Marija Gimbutas. superstratum of large, overwhelmed territories. The essence of the whole debate was the hardly

acceptable roundabout routes the authors tenets of PIE civilization, as Benveniste and the postulated for the diffusion of the Indo- French school (Dumézil, Sergent, Haudry, and European tribes from a minor Middle Eastern others) have demonstrated; linguistic homeland. But the most unfair attack against the paleontology provides reliable clues on the views of Marija Gimbutas was indirectly ecology of its homeland; 4) the Pontic steppe launched by Colin Renfew in his book area is a quite plausible location for the original Archaeology and Language (1987), in which he core of the Indo-Europeans. promulgated that the PIE diffusion went on a par with the expansion of agriculture from the Much remains to be done, for sure, but with the “fertile crescent” in the Middle East. Arrogantly research and publications of Marija Gimbutas, rejecting all the data of linguistic paleontology Indo-European studies have taken a gigantic and comparative religion, he advanced absurd step forward. To promote progress in this area, theories on such items as the Hellenization of she also took it upon herself to organize several the Greek peninsula or the constitution of the significant Indo-European Conferences like the Celtic ethnic community. There were also one in Dublin, Ireland (1989), whose pro- debates on the location of the PIE “Urheimat,” ceedings appeared under her special editorship with some echoes of the old Nazi hypothesis of in a set of issues of The Journal of Indo- a European origin. But after all the dust settled, European Studies. Until her last days, she the main tenets of Marija Gimbutas’ theory worked on setting up the 1994 Vilnius remained valid: 1) the Proto-Indo-European Conference in her dear Lithuania. Fate did not culture, essentially patrilinear and patrilocal, allow her to see its brilliant conclusion, but such spread from humble beginnings, at least four enterprises will remain a permanent testimony millennia BC, all over Europe, the Middle East, of her devotion to the field of Indo-European the South-Asian subcontinent and even Chinese studies. Turkestan in steady waves of diffusion; 2) the domestication of the horse and, secondarily, the To summarize: In all respects, Marija Gimbutas’ introduction of wheeled vehicles facilitated this work constitutes a durable, major milestone in diffusion; 3) it is possible to capture, through Indo-European studies. artifacts as well as the archaic lexicon, the main

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Linguistic Problem. Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man. Zahary, Daniel, and Mary Hopf. 1988. Domestication of The late Edgar C. Polomé was, for three Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread decades, Professor of Germanic, Oriental of Cultural Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the and African languages at the University of Nile Valley. Oxford: Claredon Press. ______1992. “Indo-European and Substrate Languages Texas, Austin. In 1973, he co-founded the in the West.” Archivio Glottologico Italiano Journal of Indo-European Studies with 67:66-83. Marija Gimbutas and Roger Pearson and ______1993. “Prehistoric Linguistic Contacts in dedicated his life to the promotion of Indo- Northern Europe and their Reflexes in the European scholarship. His numerous Lexicon.” In Lingue e Culture in Contatto nel Mondo Antico e Zalto-medievale, Atti dell’VIII publications include Swahili Language Convengo Internazionale di Lintologico Handbook (1967), Language in Tanzania Milanese, 25-58. Brescia: Paideia Editrice. (1980), Language, Society and Polomé, Edgar C., ed. 1982 . The Indo-Europeans in the Paleoculture: Essays (1982), and Essays Fourth and Third Millennia. Ann Arbor: on Germanic Religion (1989). He was the Karoma Publishers. editor of Old Norse Literature and Mythology (1969), The Indo-Europeans in the Fourth and Third Millennia (1982), and Reconstructing Languages and Cultures (1992). He co-edited Varia on the Indo- European Past: Memorial for Marija Gimbutas (1996).