A Cross Cultural Comparison of Common Themes and Derived Functions of Insects Exploited for Entomophagy Dustin Reuther Redacted Dustin Reuther Entomophagy Abstract Insects represent a vast resource for human beings around the world. Comparative to their use, little research has been done on the subject. This article looked to determine comparative functions of insects in human societies based upon their physiological and behavioral characteristics. Using primarily secondary sources and to a smaller extent personal experience and interviews the researcher develops common principles that relate universally to the practice of entomophagy. Then the research lists major insects orders used for exploitation and develops common features and key differences found in entomophagous practices of each order. 2 Dustin Reuther Entomophagy Table of Contents Introduction 4 Principles 5 Data and Analysis 11 Coleoptera 12 Hymenoptera 17 Isoptera 30 Lepidoptera 35 Orthoptera 41 Others 45 Conclusion 49 Notes 50 Acknowledged 51 Works Cited 52 Appendix 57 3 Dustin Reuther Entomophagy Introduction Insecta is the most populous animal class on Earth with estimates of over 90% of life on Earth falling under it. Though in the Western world we ignore or actively annihilate this class of animals, in many other parts of the world they hold vast importance as primary food sources, snacks and medicine. The ways in which people around the world interact with and acquire these insects gives us an extensive look at indigenous knowledge pathways. To successfully harvest insects one must be extremely familiar with their surrounding environment and the life cycle of the insects. For example, if one is unprepared for a particular swarming season then a bounty of food may be lost for that year. By looking at how populations the world over manipulate their environment for the collection of insects, we can gain a better understanding not only of food collecting strategies but also of the insects themselves. The objective of this article is to highlight different techniques and uses of insects around the world and to examine common functions of insects (in a society) based upon their inherent biological structure and behavioral patterns. To do this a large number of secondary sources1 are used for their data, and to a lesser extent interviews and personal experiences are also used. This data provides a broad overview of many heavily exploited species across different insect orders. By using this data we can determine how, why, when and where the exploitation of these insects occurs. Understanding basic principles and functions of insects, as well as the myriad of differences between each species will help to lay the foundation for serious study of entomophagy and more generally, ethnoentomology. 4 Dustin Reuther Entomophagy For the scope of this article entomophagy will refer to the consumption of insects and not their related cousins that are often included in entomology: annelids (earthworms, leaches) and arachnids (spiders, scorpions). It will also refer to the consumption of their products (honey, nests, etc.). Through the study of entomophagy one learns how insects and their products are prepared for use, and the reasons behind their use. In areas with vastly different cultures, but similar insects, their uses oft stay consistent. For example, an indigenous person of Africa and an indigenous person of South America will both see the termite as a food source (Bodenheimer 1951: 140-158; 305), and may also both see its mound as an important source of iron (Nonaka 1996). Principles Understanding the basic functions of insects in different societies can lead to an enhanced appreciation of their utilization and contribution. An absence of the insects could have a crippling effect on cultures that use these insects for dietary and medical purposes; therefore this dialogue between the environment, insects and people cannot be ignored. This dialogue looked at as a universal event shows us several common principles of entomophagy. These themes build a foundation from which the myriads of similarities and dissimilarities between cultures can best be comprehended. The eight principles are as follows: 1. Insects and their products can be highly nutritious. 2. Aggregating insects offer better yields than non aggregating insects. 5 Dustin Reuther Entomophagy 3. Seasonality dictates when insects are caught. 4. Seasonality does not dictate insect use. 5. Humans see the many insect orders as distinctive entities and the collection of each represents a unique problem. 6. Insects are delicious. 7. Insects are medicinal. 8. Proximity is helpful but not necessary. These principles define commonalities inherent in all heavily exploited insects around the world and throughout time. In the later section it will become apparent where these principles arise. A deeper examination of each principle further explains their significance. Each one of these principles draws attention as to why many of the following insects have been found important for consumption by human cultures. Insects and their products can be highly nutritious. Many insects are high in protein, fat, and essential fatty acids and minerals (Ramos-Elorduy 1990; DeFoliart 1990; Schabel 2010). Meyer-Rochow and Changkija (1996) point out that Australian witchuty grubs can have 38% protein and nearly 40% fat. Illgner and Nel (2000) calculated that 100 dried grams of mophane caterpillars has 56.8 grams of protein. DeFoliart (1990) says certain caterpillars can give us 76% of our daily protein requirement and 100% of essential minerals such as iron, copper, zinc and thiamine per 100 grams. Dufour (1987) mentions that ants, termites and caterpillars are higher in protein than fish and goes on to point out that in the northwestern Amazon insects are eaten at a point in their life cycle when they have the most nutritional value. Most times this point is extremely clear. 6 Dustin Reuther Entomophagy Compare the size of a caterpillar to a butterfly, or a female termite sexual bulging with eggs compared to other castes of termites. Sub adult stages also typically have less chitin than other stages, which make them easier for the digestive system to process. Insect aggregation often times correlates to a mating season. In these instances the sheer amount of insects available necessitate the collection of adult stages, such as with Bugong moths in Australia (Bodenheimer 1951). Aggregating insects offer better yields than non aggregating insects. This includes insects that swarm, those that aggregate in pupae stages and those that live in colonies. As will be shown clearly later in this article most food insects are exploited while in an aggregation stage. This gives the collector the maximum energy output for the smallest energy input. It also makes locating the insects easier. In some areas increased aggregation can mean a greater dependence on insects is necessary, as with crop pests. The more crop pests present, the more can be caught, but also the more crop will be destroyed. Seasonality dictates when insects are caught. For swarming insects this is essential to their mating strategy. Swarming allows these insects to find mates easier. Mass aggregations can also be a predator defense strategy in sub adult stages, as with caterpillars, and it can also be a mix between the two as with the migratory locust. For their strategies to be successful these insects must time their aggregation precisely. Even insects that aren’t collected during an aggregation have a life cycle that is closely tied to dry and wet seasons. Evolution has directed these insects to start their cycle when they will have the best chance of survival, which can be tied to how much food is available. This can clearly be seen in Table 1. In times of low productivity of typical resources, 7 Dustin Reuther Entomophagy insects are caught and eaten until fish and game return. This occurs with many insects in the northwestern Amazon wet season (Dufour 1987), among other areas. Because insects must time their swarms to a precise time, this allows humans to predict when and where these swarms will occur. Seasonality does not dictate insect use. Insects such as caterpillars and locust are preserved when they are caught in their aggregation seasons and again eaten in leaner times (Illgner and Nel 2000; Raffles 2010). Because of their ability to be stored these insects remain as important food sources, even when their living counterparts are no longer relative in the environment. For storage, insects are usually dried in the sun and preserved whole, mashed into a powder or made into a cake. Certain insect products are used in medicine which can be collected anytime of the year include termite mounds (personal experience) and wasp nests (Costa-Neto 2002). Humans see the many insect orders as distinctive entities and the collection of each represents a unique problem. This can be seen from the fact that many different cultures use specialized tools and strategies for specific insects. In Japan buckets are placed downstream in rivers while someone upstream kicks over rocks and disturbs the sediments with wire shoes. Displaced aquatic larvae are then collected from the buckets downstream (Mitsuhashi 2003). In the Amazon (and other places around the world) long brushes are used to extract honey from nests (Bodenheimer 1951). Each insect responds to the environment in specific and unique ways. Because of this humans have developed highly specialized strategies when dealing with these specialized animals. This article will go into great detail on the different strategies employed by humans around the world. 8 Dustin Reuther Entomophagy Insects are delicious. Many people seek out specific insects because of their taste. In areas in Asia where the giant water bug lives (such as Thailand) it is highly prized for the making of certain dishes (Hanboonsong 2010). Insects are not eaten solely for supplying specific nutrients, but also for pleasure. In fact few insects are eaten purely for nutrition and in many societies insects make up a small part of the diet.