Quasi-Static Nonlinear Seismic Assessment of a Fourth Century A.D
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heritage Article Quasi-Static Nonlinear Seismic Assessment of a Fourth Century A.D. Roman Aqueduct in Istanbul, Turkey Semih Gonen 1 , Bora Pulatsu 2,* , Ece Erdogmus 2, Engin Karaesmen 3 and Erhan Karaesmen 1,3 1 Civil Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul 34342, Turkey; [email protected] (S.G.); [email protected] (E.K.) 2 Architectural Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68182, USA; [email protected] 3 Civil Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Turkey; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: The majority of architectural heritage consists of load-bearing masonry components made up of stone units and relatively weak mortar joints, yielding potential weak planes for masonry structures where tension and shear failures are expected to occur. Advanced nonlinear analyses are required to simulate these phenomena and predict the corresponding nonlinear structural behavior of historic masonry constructions. In this context, this paper presents a model of a stone masonry Roman aqueduct (the Valens Aqueduct), constructed in the fourth century A.D. in Istanbul, Turkey, to explore the seismic capacity and behavior using the discrete element method (DEM). The employed modeling approach comprises distinct rigid blocks interacting along their boundaries based on the point-contact hypothesis. Thus, the discontinuous stone skeleton of the masonry aqueduct is represented explicitly in the computational model. First, a validation study was conducted on the laboratory experiment to demonstrate the capabilities of the adopted modeling approach. Then, a discontinuum model representing the Valens Aqueduct was used to assess the seismic capacity of the structure under gradually increasing lateral forces. The numerical simulations gave insight Citation: Gonen, S.; Pulatsu, B.; into the structural response of the aqueduct from the elastic range to total collapse. Additionally, Erdogmus, E.; Karaesmen, E.; parametric research was performed considering joint properties, namely the joint tensile strength, Karaesmen, E. Quasi-Static Nonlinear contact stiffness, joint friction angle, and compressive strength of the masonry, to quantify the effects Seismic Assessment of a Fourth of contact parameters on the displacement response of the DEM model. Further inferences were Century A.D. Roman Aqueduct in made regarding the modeling parameters, and practical conclusions were derived. Istanbul, Turkey. Heritage 2021, 4, 401–421. https://doi.org/ Keywords: discrete element modeling; stone masonry aqueducts; Valens Aqueduct; masonry; dis- 10.3390/heritage4010025 continuum analysis; nonlinear static analysis; pushover Received: 20 December 2020 Accepted: 16 February 2021 Published: 20 February 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Aqueducts are remarkable masonry infrastructures, as well as built architectural with regard to jurisdictional claims in heritage that dates back to Roman civilization. The Romans constructed massive aqueducts published maps and institutional affil- from Scotland to Iraq to supply water to their towns and cities. The water brought into the iations. cities from outside sources was used in various ways, from private households, latrines, fountains, and baths to irrigation purposes, nourishing the life in and around the cities. Roman engineers designed the aqueduct systems to carry the collected water with a slight descent to take advantage of the gravitational force in conduits made of stones, bricks, or concrete. These aqueducts supported the population growth and water-rich lifestyle across Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the Roman Empire, and soon enough, they became a public interest and the objects of civic This article is an open access article pride [1]. Readers are referred to [2] for an exhaustive review of the Roman and medieval distributed under the terms and aqueducts and aqueduct technologies. conditions of the Creative Commons Despite environmental effects and natural hazards, many aqueducts have survived Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// for centuries, and some are still operational. Famous examples of aqueduct architecture creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ include the Pont du Gard (France), Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain), and the Valens Aqueduct 4.0/). (Turkey). The last example stands as the focus of the present research, and is shown in Heritage 2021, 4, 401–421. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4010025 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 Heritage 2021, 4 402 (Turkey). The last example stands as the focus of the present research, and is shown in FigureFigure 1.1 .The The Valens Valens Aqueduct Aqueduct (or (or BozdoğanBozdo˘ganKemeri Kemeri inin Turkish) Turkish) was was a apart part of of the the longest longest RomanRoman waterline, waterline, with with a total a total length length of 240 of 240 km, km, and and it was it was completed completed during during the reign the reign of theof Roman the Roman Emperor Emperor Valens Valens (364–378), (364–378), i.e., the i.e., fourth the fourthcentury century A.D. [3]. A.D. The [ 3Valens]. The Aque- Valens ductAqueduct was operated was operated to supply to supplywater to water Constantinople to Constantinople (today’s (today’s Istanbul), Istanbul), the capital the of capital the Easternof the EasternRoman empire. Roman empire.Throughout Throughout the centuries, the centuries, the aqueduct the aqueduct has suffered has suffered from dam- from agesdamages and partial and partial collapses collapses due to due seve tore severe earthquakes earthquakes and attacks and attacks [4]. Furthermore, [4]. Furthermore, the in- the evitableinevitable aging aging of the of thematerial, material, lack lack of ofmaintenance, maintenance, and and inappropriate inappropriate interventions interventions are are thethe factors factors accelerating accelerating the the deterioration deterioration process process of of the the structure. structure. Although Although the the aqueduct aqueduct is isstill still functional functional and and an an important important part part of of Istanbul’s Istanbul’s water water transportation transportation network, network, its its safetysafety and and integrity integrity have have been been questioned questioned due due to to the expectation ofof aa severesevere earthquakeearthquake in inIstanbul Istanbul [ 5[5].]. (a) The Aqueduct of Valens (Bozdoğan Kemeri), Istanbul, Turkey (b) Location of the aqueduct Figure 1. RepresentationFigure 1.Representation of the Valens Aqueduct of the Valens (or theAqueduct Aqueduct (or ofthe Valens) Aqueduct and of its Valens) locations and (a, bits). locations (a,b). Examples of seismic assessments of masonry aqueducts are limited in the literature comparedExamples to those of seismic of other assessments masonry constructions. of masonry aqueducts Recent examples are limited of masonry in the archliterature bridge comparedanalyses usingto those three-dimensional of other masonry (3D) constructions. modeling with Recent the finiteexamples element of masonry (FE) method arch or bridgediscrete analyses element using method three (DEM)-dimensional present (3D) important modeling findings with relatedthe finite to theelement behavior (FE) of methodmasonry or discrete arch systems element [6– method9]. However, (DEM) the present behavior important of masonry findings aqueducts, related to especially the be- haviorones withof masonry two or arch more systems tiers and [6– substantial9]. However, height, the behavior is not studied of mas sufficiently,onry aqueducts, and theyes- peciallyare likely ones to with present two or different more tiers structural and substantial behaviors. height, The is limitednot studied research sufficiently, on masonry and theyaqueducts are likely has to concentratedpresent different on experimentalstructural behaviors. investigations The limited and structuralresearch on analyses. masonry In aqueductsterms of thehas experimentalconcentrated on investigations, experimental obtaining investigat theions aqueducts’ and structural modal analyses. parameters In termsusing of operationalthe experimental modal investigations, analysis and obtaining system identification the aqueducts’ methods modal parameters seems to be us- the ingmost operational common modal approach analysis [10,11 and]. Structuralsystem identification analysis examples methods present seems to a widerbe the variety.most commonSuarez andapproach Bravo [10,11]. [12] performed Structural a probabilistic analysis exampl structurales present analysis a wider of an variety. aqueduct Suarez in the andAlhambra. Bravo [12] Andreini performed et al. a [ 13probabilistic] and Mamaklı structural et al. [14 analysis] performed of an two-dimensionalaqueduct in the Alham- (2D) and bra.three-dimensional Andreini et al. (3D)[13] and FE analyses Mamaklı to et evaluate al. [14] theperformed aqueducts’ two behavior-dimensional for conservation (2D) and threepurposes.-dimensional There are(3D) other FE analyses studies whereto evaluate a 3D t discretehe aqueducts’ element behavior model wasfor conservation preferred [15 ]. purposes.The discrete There element are other method studies represents where a the3D discrete discontinuous element nature model of was masonry preferred structures [15]. Theas adiscrete system element of discrete method blocks represents interacting the alongdiscontinuous their boundaries. nature of Asmasonry such, a structures significant aspart a system