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Shall we oat all the way to the stars? Only those who will risk going too far can possibly nd out how far one can go. www.addisportals.com [email protected], [email protected] Tel: +25191124 5587 inquires to: StudioNet All correspondance andadvertising @addisportals.com readers andisalsoavilable onsubscribtionbasis published by StudioNet. The magazineisfree to all “AddisPortals” isanevent oriented magazine time andtell usaboutyour bright ideasfor tomorrow. to itsaudience. abouttheboldvisionariesofour Read We are reconstructing theway speaks Addis portals MANUSCRPTS ARENOT ACCCEPTED PLEASE NOT THAT UNSOLICITED dignified andnoble, allofwhich, constitute ofthe integralEthiopianpsyche. parts ethos, the spirit, self-consciousness, heroism, dignity, resistance andfreedom from alienrule, and by Adwa’s otherAfrican peopleeverywhere. onEthiopians’ timelessimpact and identity worldthe modern andhadramifications that are stillbeing felt today by her own populace and retreated withhumiliation. Ontheotherhand, thebattle putEthiopia on themapof Battle ofAdwa”“The dreamThe wasinto turned Italian anightmare, deafted The Italians of Adwa, past, andpresent andfuture endeavor. interpretation ofAdwa require ofbooks, aseries thisAPEdition isonlya “thumbnail” ofpicture eventreaders aboutthispowerful through Adetailedanalysis Ethiopian andEuropean and art. for andnationalism. dignity “ADWA- Through art “ isanattempt andremind to our portray ofallAfricans over hasresonated thegenerations,Adwa legacy inthehearts andIts striving The spirit, ethosofAdwa suggestions onAddisPortals.com how and ourstories told. are is our home Addis Portal Adwa -Let told itbe over over and againto ourchildrenand the futuregenerations for bold arguments and bigthinkers. and arguments for bold Editorial are inAddisPortals opinionsexpressed not necessarily those of StudioNet or the advertizers, The publisher does notaccept Thepublisherdoes thoseofStudioNetortheadvertizers, not necessarily to come. matters to Pleasesenduswhat you. We alsowelcome your opinionsand responsiblity or for any claims made by the advertisres intheseedition. orfor any madeby claims theadvertisres responsiblity Addisportals.com

ADWA THROUGH ART & PAINTING Beyond the boundaries of time.

The Italians coveted the lands of the Ethiopians. In cache of 80,000 rifles and 5,000,000 rounds 1889, the Italians sought to deceive the Ethiopians into of ammunition. The weapons included a treaty, When Menelik II renounced the treaty in its British Martinis, German Mausers, and entirety an Italian army entered Ethiopia from Eritrea American Winchester lever-action rifles. More with with the desire of conquest. importantly, the French transported a number Meanwhile, Emperor Menelik had managed to gather of quick-firing 37mm Hotchkiss cannons to the Ethiopians to fight against the Italian invasion. In Ethiopian freedom fighters. A band of French preparation to war Menelik II had been buying modern artillery experts accompanied the guns. To firearms from the French, the British, the Russians and make matters worse, the Hotchkiss cannons – amazingly – even the Italians themselves. Despite outranged the Italian 75mm Krupp mountain The Negus Negast Menelik II and his high command, in an engraving made these attempts to modernize, many of the soldiers were gun by more than 2,100 feet. at about the time of the battle of Adwa. still carrying swords, spears and shields. The Italians While these men wear lion’s-mane head dresses and elaborately embroidered regarded the Ethiopians as little better than tribal The Battle of Adwa in 1896, where the silkrobes, and carry decorated shields, note that they are armed with rifles. barbarians. The conflict heated up, and the European Ethiopians, who were the most united in Before March 1896 the Italians often nations chose sides. Whoever controlled the Horn of defense of their country against a common mistook Ethiopian adherence to traditionfor an inability to embrace Africa controlled the Red Sea and the fate of the Suez enemy. Here are the major timelines and useful technologies. (Courtesy SME/US) Canal. With the aid of French arms dealers based in events of the history of Adwa. Djibouti and Somalia, Menelik amassed a staggering Battle of Adwa History Timeline 1882 | The Peace Diplomacy “ An African Victory” It was in 1882 that Count Pietro Antonelli was dispatched to the court of Shewa in order to improve Italy’s relations with Menelik who was only a regional king but was nevertheless in control of Ethiopia. The Italians 1880’s | Purchase of Red Sea port of Assab were aware that there was an intractable rivalry between Menelik who Italy entered the Horn of Africa through a window of commercial showed overt signs of yearning to ascend the Solomonian throne and opportunity. Following the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, an Yohannes IV who was the Emperor of Ethiopia - equally determined to Italian steamship company, Rubattino, leased the Port of Assab on maintain his sovereign control. Rome obviously sought to exploit the the Red Sea as a refueling station. situation.

in 1882, the Italian government bought Assab from Rubattino for $43,200, thereby providing the steamship company a handsome profit on its investment and unofficially establishing the first Italian colony in Africa since the days of the Caesars. 1882

This aim was to pass Assab to the Italian state so that it would be To ease his “Italian problem,” Emperor Yohannes sought the diplomatic used as a staging ground to expand into the hinterland of Ethiopia help of Great Britain. As part of the peace diplomacy, and thus open up potential agriculture and mineral resources for Yohannes agreed to give compensation to the Italians for Dogali and exploitation by Italian entrepreneurs. to use Massawa as a trading post. By this time the French had started Pietro Antonelli arrives as a private traveler in a company of Pietro building a railroad from Addis Ababa to Djibouti. This would give Martini; following several audiences with Menelik, Antonelli offers Ethiopia a trading outlet on the Red Sea outside Italian influence. Italian arms in exchange for commercial favors. leaders, nursing a sense of shame and a thirst for revenge, decided something had to be done. Contract signed on 27 March 1881 – Menelik agrees to route caravans through the Italian-controlled port of Assab in exchange for The man to do it was Francesco Crispi, the prominent leader of the 2000 rifles. democratic or radical left wing of the Italian government served as Prime Minister from 1887-1891 and again from 1893–1896. A super- patriot, Crispi longed to see his country, that he always called “my Italy,” strong and flourishing.

addisportals | Page 5 1883 | The Royal Wedding The marriage of Emperor Menelik and Empress Taytu Betul Menelik II divorced his treasonous wife; Woizero Befana, in 1882, and in 1883, he married Taytu Betul. Empress Taytu Betul was a noblewoman of Imperial blood and a member of one of the leading families of the regions of Semien, Yejju in modern Wollo, and Begemder.

May 25,1883 | Treaty of Friendship The First (secret) Treaty of Friendship and Commerce, which was signed in Ankober on May 25, 1883. It established the exchange of diplomatic representative between Italy and Shewa. Full reciprocal freedom of transit for people and goods;

exemption from customs duty for Shewan goods transported A royal wedding in Abyssinia. via Assab; 5% and duty to be paid on Italian goods upon exit or A princely wedding at the entry; consular jurisdiction over all Italian affairs and those of court of Abyssinia, The exit of diplomatically unrepresented foreigners given to the Italians. the Temple. Illustration for The Little Parisian

(Illustrious Litterary 1885 | Italian forces land at Massawa Supplement), March 24, 1901. Not long after Antonelli concluded the first secret treaty 1883 in 1883, Italy proceeded to occupy Beilul, followed by the occupation of Massawa on February 5th, 1885. Menelik was attempting to steer a middle course between his attachment to the Italians and loyalty to Yohannes.

1887 | The Battle of Saati January 25 - the Italians decided to strengthen their position by pushing inland and taking over the villages of Ua-à and Zula. The local lord, Ras Alula,demanded that the Italians leave, and when they failed to do so he gathered 25,000 warriors. On 25 January 1887 he attacked the fort at Saati, 1884 held by 167 Italians and 1,000 native troops, but found it too The Berlin Conference, can be seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa. strong to take. Conference of Berlin in 1884-1885 role in the colonial partitioning of Africa that “divided up” what was left of Africa after the initial wave of European colonialism. At the conference, Italy was “awarded” Ethiopia addisportals | Page 6 The Battle of DOGALI

Emperor Yohannes campaigned against the Dervishes, but, while January 26 | The Battle of Dogali at first successful, he was defeated and fatally wounded at the Alula’s forces intercept 500 Italian soldiers at Dogali, massacre ensues; Ras battle of Metemma on 9 March 1889.The Italians took advantage Alula ambushed them at Dogali with about 10,000 warriors; the Italian of Yohannes’ absence on campaign to push further inland, taking machine guns soon jammed, and the relief force was surrounded and cut the Tigréan provinces of Hamacen, Okule-Kasai,and Serae; these down. The Italians lost 23 officers and 407 men killed, one officer and 81 men wounded. This defeat led to a massive Italian reinforcement of what would become their colony of Eritrea. By the end of 1887 troops in the colony numbered 18,000, of whom only 2,000 were natives, and an arms embargo on Ethiopia was in place. By the end of March 1888, the Emperor Yohannes and Ras Alula were negotiating peace with the Italians. To ease his “Italian problem,” Emperor Yohannes sought the diplomatic help of Great Britain. As part of the peace diplomacy, Yohannes agreed to give compensation to the Italians for Dogali and to use Massawa as a trading post. By this time the French had started building a railroad from Addis Ababa to Djibouti. This would give Ethiopia a trading outlet on the Red Sea outside Italian influence. Italian leaders, nursing a sense of shame and a thirst for revenge, decided something had Michele Cammarano paint in he depict the battle of dogali on january 26, 1887 to be done. RAS ALULA THE ABYSSINIAN “He is as fair as angel The great Abyssinian chief Ras Alula is at present a person of much interest to the Italians, And strong as a lion, and the Riforma is publishing a sketch of his life, in the course of which it is stated that Swift-footed as a leopard, he is the son of Abyssinian peasants. He was born about 45 years ago in the village of Sly as a fox, Pamaka, near Mekalle, and served for many years as groom under the Negus Ras Area. Later on he became Master of the Wardrobe at Court, and married the daughter of Ras Wise as Solomon, Area, who died not long after the marriage. He then rose to the rank of Chamberlain, and Generous as a King, was finally made Governor of Tigre, with the title of Ras. Is most valiant of all.” Ras Alula is of middle height, has a chocolate-colored skin and a thin face, but it is otherwise rather stout. He never laughs, talks slowly, polite to strangers, but haughty to inferiors. His orders are given only once. If they are not executed, he horsewhips his The King has promised him the crown of Kassala, if servants. As a rule he wears a white cotton shirt and trousers. A red fez covers his close- he can earn it. Eight generals fight under him. His cut hair. On special occasions, he wears a red silk shirt, the robe of the Governor. He is an daughter is a good and beautiful woman, who has excellent horseman, and it will be difficult to find an Abyssinian who bears the hardships protected Count Salimbeni and his companion, of traveling better than he. He accompanies the Negus barefooted on all his tours, and and it is due to her influence that they have not never show a sign of fatigue. Having had no education, he can neither read nor write, but been killed. is very intelligent and cunning, but pious and superstitious withal. His avarice is extreme; he takes everywhere and gives nowhere. Wherever he goes he takes everything he can (C) The New York Times, April 12 1887 lay hold of. On his marches he is accompanied by his servants, who carry his wine, made of honey. Ras Alula is fond of women, but tries to conceal that fact. One of the many Abyssinian poems in his honor runs thus: would become the principal territories of the future colony.

May 1887 | Italy blockaded Ethiopia Italy’s actions appeared increasingly warlike. A British attempt to mediate by sending a mission led by Sir Gerald Portal to Emperor Yohannes failed to attain its objective of making the Emperor agree to allow the Italians to possess Sahati and Uaa and to make Ghindae the frontier town of Ethiopia. September 1887 Emperor Yohannes summoned Abune Meatteows, the bishop of Shewa, to join him at Debre Tabor, in September of 1887. In his letter, Emperor Yohannes informed him of his intention to march against the Italians in Sahati.

October 1887 | The Second Secret Treaty The second secret Treaty of Friendship and Alliance was concluded The massacre of Italian explorer Gustavo Bianchi and his companions at Entoto on October 20, 1887, with the main object of securing on October 7, 1884, Ethiopia. Menelik’s neutrality in the case of war between Italy and Emperor drawing by Edoardo Matania (1847-1929), engraving from Yohannes. Menelik was offered 5,000 Remington rifles for his L’Illustrazione Italiana, February 1, 1885. cooperation. In a separate contract between Menelik and Antonelli, it was specified that 5,000 Remington rifles with 200 cartridges for each rifle, at a cost of 20 Maria Theresa thalers, would be provided by Antonelli each year for a period of ten years, which would add up to 50,000 rifles. Menelik, in turn, had agreed not to use the guns against Italy.

October 25, 1887: Menelik wrote to the King of Italy, which was sent with Dr. Vincenzo Ragazzi stating:

I love Italy - on the other hand, either out of love or for other reasons, which is not the place to go into. I am bound to the Emperor by an oath of friendship and loyalty - I wish to have permission from the King of Italy and from the Emperor to act as peace maker. If either rejects peace...I will never give my aid to any one who wishes for war. Rare issue of La Rana, published in Bologna, March 2, 1888. Fold out centre title reads: “A Novice Hunter”

addisportals | Page 9 November 1887: Emperor Yohannes orders Menelik to go to Wallo from Debre Birhan.

January of 1888 | First Italo-Ethiopian War Menelik departed to Wello from Debre Birhan with 110,00 to 120,00 followers as ordered by Emperor Yohannes. Mahdists enter Gondar “45 churches set on fire.” Yohannes turns his attention from Italians to the Mahdists. Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi and incited Sudan into a long and violent revolt, his followers successfully either drove the Egyptian garrisons out of Sudan or isolated them at Suakin and at various posts in the south. Yohannes agreed to British requests to allow these Egyptian soldiers to evacuate through his lands, with the understanding that the British Empire would then support his Fold out centre shows the English pushing Italy into a war in claims on important ports like Massawa on the Red Sea to import weapons and Ethiopia. The caption reads: “Story of a contemporary castaway. ammunition, in the event that Egypt was forced to withdraw from them. England has led us to look for a pot to break. Now that we’re on it, do you expect the chick to escape below? down a good blow until we are on time ... And at home!” July 1888 | The Letter to Crispi Rare issue of La Rana, published in Bologna, April 13, 1888. Menelik assured me that he was ready to help Italy instead of Yohannes and asked the King of Italy to advance him the amount necessary to buy 10,000 Remington guns and 400,000 Wettery cartridges - when he had all of this, Italy must not think of spending so many millions to avenge the dead of Dogali... He also wished the caravans of arms to be escorted by 500 to 1,000 Italians soldiers...King Tekle Haimanot is with him and he has sent Dejazmach Wolde to persuade Ras Mikael to join him. In September, 1888, Bertole-Viale, the Italian Minister of War, wrote to Menelik stating: the dispatch of arms was held up because of the difficulty of finding means of transport through the Danakil regions and that it could not be done with the secrecy you desired...Antonelli is returning to Shewa...you can take with him all the necessary measures to assure a way for the passage of our officers

and out soldiers that you wish to have as an escort for the future. Fold out centre title reads: “true effffigies of our gracious africa allies” Rare issue of La Rana, published in Bologna, April 6, 1888. October 1888 | Ragazzi, who had been sent to Italy with the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance, returned to Shewa on October 22, 1888, with 1,000 Remington guns sent as a gift by Umberto to Menelik.

addisportals | Page 10 February - 1889 | Death of Emperor Yohannes Antonelli returned with 4,700 Remington guns and 220,000 bullets sent as gifts to Menelik loaded on 580 camels. In a letter to Umerto dated 20 February 1889, Menelik reassured Umberto, saying:

With deeds rather than words, I will show my gratitude to Italy for the rich presents that you [Umberto] sent and also for the arms and munitions. Emperor Yohannes was killed in battle against Mahdists at Metemma; his son Mangasha claims imperial throne; Menelik, on hearing of the death of Yohannes, declares himself emperor. Evidence suggests that Emperor Yohannes had acted rashly and had made himself vulnerable, going beyond enemy lines in a range of enemy shots as victory was going to his side. Mortally wounded from a gunshot, he had been carried to his tent, where he announced that his nephew Ras Mengesha was actually his natural son, and named him his heir (his elder son Ras Araya Selassie had died a few years earlier). He died hours later. Guerra in Abissinia - Il maggiore Salsa e il capitano Angherà nella tenda di Menelik per le fallite trattative di pace ..War in Abyssinia - Major Salsa and Captain Angera in Menelik’s tent for the failed peace negotiations ...Veduta May 2, 1889 | Treaty of Wuchale interna della trattativa di pace tra Menelik e gli ufficiali italiani Salsa e Angherà. Internal view of the peace negotiation between Menelik and the Shortly after Yohannes IV’s death Menelik negotiated and signed the Italian officers Salsa and Angerà. Treaty of Wichale between Ethiopia and Italy. It was a treaty signed by King Menelik II of Shewa, later the Emperor of Ethiopia with Count Pietro Antonelli of Italy in the town of Wuchale, Ethiopia, on 2 Baratieri sent Major May 1889. Menelik gets recognition, arms, and Italian protection of Tommaso Sasa with Captain Annibale Anghera Ethiopians abroad; Italians get recognition of Italian occupation of and an interpreter, Gebre Eritrea and, they believe, protectorate relationship with Ethiopia. Egziabher (Who later defected to Ethiopia), to Menelik’s Camp with a What makes the Wuchale Treaty different from the rest was the peace proposal requesting renewed acceptance of the historical period, the scramble for Africa, which inspired European Wuchale Treaty Cessation states to forge ulterior motives in shaping of treaties. In the colonial of territory up to Lake thinking of the period, the establishment of a protectorate over an Ashenghe, were the Italian flag had been hoisted. The African territory was closely tied up with the exclusive right to conduct proposal was rejected. or control its foreign affairs. And that was what Italy tried to achieve by giving the different version to article XVII of the treaty. The Italian text of this article read: addisportals | Page 11 Article 17 - of the Treaty of Wichale stated that the emperor of Ethiopia “could” have recourse to the good offices of the Italian government in his dealings with other foreign powers; but the Italian text of the treaty had the word “must.” Based on their own text, the Italians proclaimed a protectorate over Ethiopia. Treaty of Wuchale In September 1890, Menilek II repudiated their claim, and in “His Majesty, the King of Kings 1893 he officially denounced the entire treaty. An attempt by of Ethiopia, consents to avail himself of the government of the Italians to impose a protectorate over Ethiopia by force was his Majesty the King of Italy for finally confounded by their defeat at the Battle of Adwa on March all negotiations in affairs which 1, 1896. By the Treaty of Addis Ababa (Oct. 26, 1896), the country he may have with other Powers or Governments.”. south of the Mareb and Muna rivers was restored to Ethiopia, and Italy acknowledged the absolute independence of Ethiopia. The Amharic version differs significantly: According to the Amharic version, Menelik could, had the right or authority to request the good office of the Italian government His Majesty, the King of Kings in matters of foreign relations, if or when he so wanted. But the of Ethiopia, may, if he so wording of the Italian implied obligation. Italy wanted this article desires, avail himself of the Italian government for any XVII in order to claim protectorate over Ethiopia in conformity negotiations he may enter with General Act of Berlin that made possible for a European into with other Powers and power to declare a unilateral claim of protectorate. Governments.

August 1889 | Italian occupation of Asmara Ethiopian delegation disembarks at Naples and send Ethiopian delegation reaches Rome; they have an audience with King Umberto, then tour several cities; they return to Rome on 19 September. October 1889 | Alleged Italian protectorate Italy informed other European powers through formal diplomatic channels of her protectorate over Ethiopia and used as evidence article 17 of the Treaty of Wichale. Most of the European powers accepted the alleged Italian protectorate. “Hot Time in the Old Town” November 1889 | Menelik crowned emperor of Ethiopia During most of the year of 1895, Gen. Baratieri did his best to avoid direct Menelik sends letters announcing coronation to European confrontation with the Ethiopian army. heads of state. Britain and Germany respond that they should He even found the time to return to be informed through Italy, as per the protectorate clause of the Italy briefly, telling a crowd that he would shortly bring the Ethiopian Wichale agreement. emperor back to Rome in a cage. addisportals | Page 12 January 1890 | Italian colony of Eritrea Italian colony of Eritrea formalized with capital at Asmara and briefly occupy Adwa, capital of Tigray.

August 1890 | Menelik II livid with rage Menelik did not discover the protectorate clause from the treaty until August 1890 and at the time he was already angry with the Italians over the fact that they had advanced well beyond the boundaries agreed too at the Treaty of Wuchale. When the letters sent in reply from the European powers were “La Risata di Taitu”, reproduction in Domenica del Corriere, 1963, of older drawing showing “ the diplomatic rupture between Count Antonelli and translated Menelik II became quietly livid with rage. The letter from Menilek” Queen Victoria especially made Menelik II angry. In it, Queen Victoria replied to the letter in which Menelik II had informed the British of his coronation and of his desire to send representatives to both France and Britain. In her letter, Queen Victoria told him that given article 17 in the Treaty of Wuchale he should make all such approaches only through the Italian government. Upon learning the contents of the Italian version of the Treaty of Wuchale the Empress Taytu is supposed to have told Menelik II,

“How is it that Emperor Yohannes never gave up a handful of our soil, fought the Italians and the Egyptians for it, even died for it, and you, with him for an example, want to sell your country ! What will history say of you?” Empress Taytu was the first to agitate the hesitant Emperor and other Italians in Abyssinia. Major Tommaso Salsa and Captain Annibale Anghera men to stand up for liberty, dignity and against Italian aggression. before the emperor of Ethiopia Menelik II camp with a peace proposal requesting a renewed acceptance of the Wuchale Treaty Cessation but it was rejected. Engraving by Hector Ximenes in “La Ilustracion Artistica”, 1896. Colored. September 27, 1890 | Menelik II Letter to Italy intermediaries; if not, you are free not to do so.’ I said to him: Menelik II wrote to Umberto the king of Italy to inform him that Ethiopia ‘If it is merely a question of friendship why should I employ was no protectorate of Italy in it Menelik II said: anyone but you in my external negotiations?’ I accepted at While talking to Count Antonelli at the time when the treaty that time no obligatory agreement and I am not a man to was being brought to a conclusion, I questioned him with great accept it, nor could you advise me to do so” seriousness, and he answered me in the following manner: ‘If it suits your convenience, you can employ us as your addisportals | Page 13 February 1891 | The Italians Build Their Presence Crispi appointed Italy’s greatest commander, General Oreste Baratieri, to govern Eritrea and its armed forces. By December 21, Baratieri’s men were primed for action. The general penetrated the Ethiopian border, while Colonel Giuseppe Arimondi stormed the northern Ethiopian city of Adigrat. As a reward for the successful operation, Arimondi was promoted to general. December 1891 | The Mereb Convention According to the Italians, the convention was simply a ceremony held at the Merab for an exchange of oaths between Ras Mengesha and the prominent personalities of Tigray with General Giuseppe Gandolfi, the Italian governor of Eritrea. There was no formal written agreement. The only document produced was a letter from Ras Mengesha to King Umberto written at Mereb on December 8, 1891 confirming that he and Italian government met at Merbe and concluded an oath which declared;

“My enemies shall be thy enemies and my friends shall be thy friends.” This convention was seen by Emperor Menelik as treachery. Which exacerbated the alienation of Menelik and Mengesha, thus inadvertently fulfilling the principal objective of the Italians. quickest steeds in the kingdom and bolted outward to the four corners of Ethiopia and carried a call to arms of Ethiopia. Menelik’s message thundered: February 1892 | A shift of policy Lt. General Oreste Baratieri replaced General Giuseppe Gandolfi as governor of Eritrea. A change which marked a shift of policy on the “An enemy is come across the sea. He has broken part of Italy. The Entente cordiale between Mengesha and the Italian administration in Eritrea was destined to be of short duration. through our frontiers in order to destroy our motherland This caused fraction with both governments due to a change in policy in and our faith. He undermines our territories and our Italy stance. Italy still occupied the territory of Mengesha and Alula which people like a mole. Enough! With the help of God, I eliminated the chance of regaining the crown of Yohannes. will defend the inheritance of my forefathers.” It was a call all Ethiopians did not refuse. Even Menelik’s perpetual February 1893 | The Wuchale was void rivals, the lords of Tigray; Yohannes’s son, Ras Mengesh; and his loyal Menelik could not tolerate the Italian encroachments on his territories. minister of war, Ras Alula, joined the confederation. On February 12, 1893, the African monarch declared the Treaty of Wuchale null and void. The king’s courtiers then vaulted upon the addisportals | Page 14 December 1894 | The Italians go on the Offensive As Menelik’s armies gathered, the Italians went on the offensive. First, 7,500 men under Arimondi captured the city of Mekele. A month later, the Ethiopian city of Amba Alage fell to 1,800 soldiers led by Major Pietro Toselli. The Battle of Amba Alagi was the first in a series of battles between the Italian General Baratieri and Ethiopia’s Emperor Menelik during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. Amba Alagi was one of Baratieri’s forward positions. Despite the victories, the quickness with which Menelik’s forces assembled amazed the Italians. Menelik’s imperial bodyguard accounted for an impressive 30,000 soldiers, all armed with modern weapons and swords. Empress Taitu augmented the bodyguard with an additional 3,000 infantry and 6,000 horsemen of her own. Over the next few months, Menelik’s capital city of Addis Ababa took on the appearance of a military camp as bristling soldiers descended on the town from the farthest reaches of his realm.

Ras Makonnen of Harar marched into town at the head of 15,000 of his notorious swordsmen. The famed 10,000-strong cavalry, commanded by Defeat of the Italians at the Battle of Amba Alagi, First Italo- Ras Mikael also turned up. Ras Mengesh Yohannes and Ras Alula, pledged Ethiopian War. Ras Makkonen before the body of Major Toselli. Les Evenements d’Abyssinie, Le ras Makonnen devant le corps their 21,000-man army to the cause. The force was unprecedented. The du Major Toselli. Illustration for Le Petit Parisien (Supplement exact size of the Ethiopian army is unknown; estimates range between Litteraire Illustre), 29 December 1895. 80,000 and 120,000 experienced fighting men primed for battle.

March 28, 1895 | Italians occupy Mekele Thousands of square miles of the territory occupied since December. Baratieri fortified Adigrat and Mekele, two important towns on the roads between the coast and the interior. Baratieri even pushed as far as Adwa once more. October 9, 1895 | Italian forces pursue Mangasha’s army as far as Amba Alage and Lake Ashenge, a mere 250 miles from Addis Ababa. Baratieri led a large Italian force 80 miles south from Adigrat to Ras Mengesha at Debre Aila.

Ras alula engida pledging allegiance to crown addisportals | Page 15 December 1895 | The Battle Amba Alagi An advance party led by Ras Mekonnen and aided by Ras Alula, Ras Mikael of Wollo and Ras Wolle of Yejju, as well as a number of other commanders, was dispatched to join Mengesha. Ethiopia gained her first victory at Amba Alage. Fatally for Toselli, however, two Ethiopian commanders found the temptation to strike the first blow irresistible. The Fitawrari Gebeyehu and the Gerazmach Tafese attacked the Italian position at Amba Alagi on 7 December 1895, and this assault attracted all the nearby warriors into the fray – some 30,000 men, including the commands of Ras Mekonnen and Ras Mangasha. Together they completely overwhelmed the Italians, who suffered 19 Italian officers (including Maj Toselli), 20 Italian other ranks, and 1,500 Ascari killed, and three officers and 300 Ascari wounded. The survivors fled some 35 miles north to the town and fort at Mekele, and the rest of the region was abandoned. The Ethiopians suffered an estimated 3,000 casualties; Menelik’s wife, Empress Taitu, recognized the importance of water in the campaign. Without water, no army could last in the scorching heat. Realizing this, Taitu led a detachment of her infantry to dam the city’s water supply, while Hotchkiss cannons pounded the adobe fortress to dust. The siege continued for two weeks, and the Italians resorted to breaking into stores of Communion wine to quench their thirst. Finally, the Italian commander offered to surrender if the garrison could leave bearing their arms. Menelik agreed to these generous terms, both because he wanted to free up his army to march Ras Makonnen, Ethiopian general who defeated the Italians at the Battle of Amba Alagi. Le Ras Abyssinia Makonnen. Vainqueur on, and because he could see a use for the prisoners. Ras Mekonnen was sent des Italiens a Amba-Alaghi. Illustration for Le Petit Journal, 29 to ‘escort’ them back to Italian lines – a convenient way to bring a major part of December 1895. the Ethiopian army deep into Italian-held territory without being molested.

January 21, 1896 | Evacuation of Mekele negotiated. Emperor Menelik and King Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, the Ethiopian forces successively defeated the Italian army at Mekele & evacuation of Mekele negotiated.

February 1896 | Menelik’s forces move northwest from Mekele, bypassing Italian forces at Adigrat; they settle near Gundapta; Baratieri leads the force from Adigrat Ras Makonnen1852 -1906 fighting italian troops during the westward in pursuit; they settle near Entisho. February 13 - Italian allies siege of mekele 1896, drawing by walter molino (1915-1997) Hagos Tafari and Ras Sebhat defect to Menelik, taking their forces with them; la domenica del corrie addisportals | Page 16 Ethiopian popular resistance to Italian occupation builds, imperiling Italian supply lines February 22 – impatient Italian political leadership secretly names Antonio Baldissera to replace Baratieri; he leaves for Africa.

February 1896 | The Wrong Calculation February 25, Crispi sends searing telegram to Baratieri after consulting brigadier generals the previous day, Baratieri decides on the aggressive move forward, in an attempt to force Menelik to attack or to withdraw. The advance took place at night on the 29th of February. By dawn, the Italians were to have been securely established in the Ethiopian passes, inviting attack. Instead, one Italian brigade overshot its rendezvous point and virtually marched into the Ethiopian camp. A second Italian brigade sent to cover the retreat of the first got caught up in a separate engagement. Menelik’s forces were able to defeat these brigades and the main Italian force in three separate combats. With Crispi threatening to remove him, Baratieri’s career was on the line. Only a decisive victory over of the Ethiopian forces could clear his name. Therefore, he planned a nighttime surprise offensive to coincide with the Ethiopian holiday of Saint George’s Day on March 1.

Gen Baratieri spies informed him that much of the Ethiopian army had scattered across the Battle between Abyssinians and Italians, in Ethiopia, Engraving countryside foraging, or were praying in various churches around Adwa in preparation for from French newspaper Le Petit Parisien, 1896, Private a feast day on 1 March. Collection, (Photo by Leemage/UIG via Getty Images) These reports were exaggerated, either by mistake or design. While some warriors were indeed foraging or praying, most had not strayed far; and in any case, the Ethiopian Empress Itegue Taytu Betul

“the Light of Ethiopia”

Master Strategist Behind the Battle Empress Taytu Betul was born in Wollo from a Christian and Muslim family. She had a comprehensive education and was fluent in Ge’ez, the language of the sacred texts handed down over centuries in one of the world’s oldest Christian nations.; Taytu was educated, which was exceptional for an Ethiopian woman of that time. Taytu was a loyal and respectful wife of Menelik II whom she married in 1883 when he was still King of Showa. Their marriage was beyond romance as it was believed to be a political marriage aiming to seal alliances with the northern regions where Taytu’s family held important positions. With Menelik’s ascent to imperial throne, Taytu became empress of Ethiopia in 1889, and in that capacity became a valuable advisor to him. He would consult her prior to making important decisions and due to her intelligence and loyalty for the throne and her country; he endorsed her views and proposals in administrative, political, military as well as foreign affairs. Determined to protect her country and husband’s interests, she went on to play a key role in the conflict over the 1889 bilingual Treaty of Wuchale. When that deception in the treaty was discovered by a councilor to the Emperor, Taytu tore up the treaty and pushed the Emperor to declare war against Italy. The Battle of Adwa is known to have stopped the colonial aggression of Europeans in Africa after Ethiopian forces surprised the world by defeating heavily-armed Italian troops that attempted to conquer the Empire in 1896. Behind this victory that maintained Ethiopia as the only African nation that was never colonized, lies a brilliant military strategist named Empress Taytu Betul. When an Italian diplomat in Ethiopia cautioned that the annulment When the war ended with the Battle of Adwa, the Italians suffered a of the treaty might cause Italy to lose its “dignity”, the empress humiliating defeat at the hands of a united Ethiopia. There is no doubt replied: “We too must retain our dignity...you want other countries that Empress Taytu’s intellectual and physical contribution led to this to see Ethiopia as your protégé, but that would never be.” historical victory of an indigenous African army putting a definitive During the war Empress Taytu ignored proposals by some higher stop to a colonizing nation’s efforts. officials that she stay in the capital and keep peace and order; she As the top lady in the Empire, Taytu kept exercising great power and bravely stood up and motivated men against retreat and mobilized when the emperor’s health weakened in around 1906, she began to thousands of women and encouraged them to take part in the make decisions on his behalf. She later faded from the political scene fighting and care for the wounded soldiers. until her death in 1918. Taytu made a remarkable contribution to the war effort when she proposed to besiege the Italian fort at Makelle by controlling their water supply. Although it was not easy to convince the Ethiopian soldiers that controlling the water source would be a more effective tactic than attacking the fort, 900 men from the Empress’s contingent went on to execute her plan. Taytu’s plan worked and the Italians suffered from shortage of water and surrendered their partially completed fort in a city which they had occupied since 1895, to Ethiopian forces. Throughout the assault on the Italian troops, Taytu was on the frontline in the battlefield commanding her own contingent of about 5000 infantry and 600 mounted troops. addisportals | Page 19 The African Victory The Battle of Adwa

numbers were such that, even with part of the force absent, they still outnumbered the Italians by a factor of anything between 4:1 and 8:1. Menelik certainly had a thorough knowledge of the Italians’ numbers, his informants did not have time to report the last-minute Italian advance. Albertone forged ahead; but he ended up in the wrong position, well ahead and to the left of the rest of the force, and this ruined Baratieri’s plan of battle. On 17 September 1895 Menelik called for general mobilization. Thousands of warriors converged on four regional assembly points, and of these about 35,000 gathered under Menelik himself. His empress Itegue Taitu also mobilized another 6,000. The rest were raised by governors and regional princes, the largest contingent being that of Menelik’s cousin Ras Mekonnen of Harar, who brought about 12,000 men. The exact size of the Ethiopian army is unknown; estimates range between 80,000 and 120,000, and at least Detail from a painting of The Battle of Adwa by an unknown Ethiopian artist c.1925 The detail shows Ethiopian Troops fighting the Italian Troops 100,000 seems probable. at the Battle of Adwa, 1896 Photo - © The Royal Asiatic Society - 2008 The battle of Adwa ended with a decisive victory for Ethiopia, and due to the exhaustion of the army and dwindling of provisions Menelik did not push Oil painting on cotton cloth depicting the Battle of Adwa, 2 March 1896. Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia is depicted in the top left corner in royal crown, velvet cape (lemd) and with a royal umbrella. Empress Taitu of Ethiopia is shown in the bottom left corner on a richly caparisoned horse with a royal umbrella, she carries a revolver. The Ethiopian troops are shown full face and all wear striped tunics. The Ethiopian generals are shown in striped tunics and lemd with lion’s mane collars and lion’s mane headdress. The Italian troops are shown side on and are often reduced to heads and guns. Above the battle is the image of Saint George, the patron saint of Ethiopia, in a halo of green, yellow.

the Italians across the seas. In the combat with Albertone and soon with the other generals, the Ethiopians followed their own strategy, tested and proved successful in their different wars. Baratieri had wanted Albertone to occupy a flat-topped hill south of the left flank of Mt Belah, which would constitute the army’s forward position. Baratieri thought this hill was called Kidane Meret, but actually, it does not have a name. There is a mountain called Enda Kidane 4 miles further on, with a smaller feature north of it – which is the height that any local would point to if asked for the location of the ‘Hill of Kidane Meret’. but after waiting for about an hour, and not seeing Arimondi coming into line on his right as he expected, he started to mistrust his own instincts. (Arimondi, of course, had been badly delayed by the obstruction of the track by Albertone’s own brigade.) Albertone’s guides insisted that, they had not yet reached Kidane Meret; so he followed their lead and advanced. When he halted, he was isolated well to the south-west of the rest of the army, at the Hill of Enda Kidane “ The battle of Adwa” 1896 Meret – the ‘real’ Kidane Meret. In the western chain of mountains, this overlooks the Mariam Shavitu valley containing Adwa; perhaps Albertone convinced himself that Baratieri wanted him to threaten the town. It was Ras Alula’s scouts who sighted Albertone’s troops as they came into position; despite being on the Ethiopian left (north) wing, and thus furthest from Albertone’s brigade, the victor of Dogali was the first to spot them because he had scouts active The African Victory The Battle

The stand of Dabormida’s brigade in Mariam Shavitu valley

across the entire area. Soon the entire Ethiopian camp was alerted and began forming up to envelop the invaders. On the right, south of Adwa, was King Tecla Aimanot and his troops from Gojjam, with the cavalry in front. In Adwa, itself was Ras Mekonnen with his troops. To the north of Adwa was Ras Mikael leading his troops, North of him was Ras Mangasha and his troops, and in the far north of the line was Ras Alula. In reserve on the hills just west of Adwa, where the church of St George stands, were the Emperor Menelik and Empress Taitu, with the warriors of Ras Alula and Wagshum Guangul. The Oromo cavalry was grazing their ponies in meadows some 8 miles away, but they were soon informed of the situation and mounted up. Menelik and Taitu went into the church of St George to pray; the empress, surrounded by her retainers, bent low with a stone on her neck, a traditional method of prayer in times of emergency. Nearby, priests from Axum carrying the Ark of the Covenant prayed for victory. General Dabormida had been fighting mostly against Ras Alula’s troops, but now the bulk of the Ethiopians – some 40,000 men – turned on 2nd Brigade. By 2pm Dabormida, still unaware of the rout of the rest of the army, was nearly surrounded. Working in tandem, Alula, Mikael, and Mekonnen employed an old Ethiopian technique of mountain warfare called afena. A sort of barefoot blitzkrieg, afena involved encircling an enemy while artillery pounded them into submission. Under Le petit journal menelik-negus-d’abyssinie covering fire, the warriors advanced toward the center with the goal of engaging their foes in hand-to-hand combat. As the tribesmen enveloped Albertone, his artillery cut bloody swaths through the charging Ethiopian formations. Dejazmach Balcha Abba Nefo brought up the quick-firing Hotchkiss cannons and decimated Albertone’s guns. His men were exhausted by their night march and long day’s fighting, suffering from thirst and hunger, and running low on ammunition. Dabormida ordered a final attack that temporarily pushed the Ethiopians back, allowing him to sound the retreat at perhaps 4.30pm. As with the Albertone, the Ethiopians came in close and harried the retreat from three sides. Two guns that tried to cover the retreat soon ran out of ammunition; they were overrun and their crews were killed to a man. The remnants of Dabormida’s force only escaped after great loss. The onslaught began when a party of over 20,000 horsemen overran Dabormida’s rear guard and then headed straight for the general’s main brigades. In the first 12 minutes of the battle, all but two of his 14 officers were trampled underfoot. General Baratieri, realizing that the battle was lost, ordered a general retreat. Dabormida died rallying his exhausted men around the broken trunk of the sycamore tree at the center of his position. With remarkable suddenness, the Battle of Adwa was over. Baratieri, Italy’s greatest commander, returned to Rome to face court-martial proceedings. Crispi retired from politics in disgrace, and Rome sued for peace with Ethiopia and tore up “ Negus Menilk at the Battle of Adwa” Le petit Journal august 28, 1898 the disputed Treaty of Wuchale. addisportals | Page 23 “Siege of Mek’ele”, Ethiopia, 1896. “Battle of Adwa”, Abyssinia, 1896. “The War Dance” “Fukera”, Abysinia, 1896. “Negus Menelik watching the troops” 1896. © Liebig card, published between, 1895-1896. © Liebig card, published between, 1895-1896. © Liebig card, published between, 1895-1896. © Liebig card, published between, 1895-1896.

“ Memories of Abba Garima - “ A man summons the people ” The Death of General Da Bormida” The news of the Adwa Victory © La Tribuna, March 20,1896 © Illustrazione del Popolo, february 9,1896

“ Menelik Negus D’Abyssinie” © La Petit Journal, february 9,1890 “Italian prisoners of war”, “Menelik and the Palace in Addis Ababa”, “Empress Taytu and her suite”, 1895-1896. © Liebig card, published between, 1895-1896. © Liebig card, published between, 1895-1896. © Liebig card, published early, late 19th or early 20th century.

The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria- Hungary, and Italy. Italy is depicted as an old, feeble man with a wooden prosthetic leg that is being wrapped with a bandage by figures representing Austria and Germany. The bandage is inscribed: Renewal of the Triplice © Le Petit Journal , 1896

“ Emperor Menelik II at the Adowa camp, after the defeat of the Italian army ” © Le Petit Parisien, 1896 “Negus Menelik’s lunch, according to a guest’s description” © La Tribuna, February 12,1899

“ peace negotiations in africa “ il maggiore Salsa and the captain anghera confer with Menelik II and with Ras © La Tribuna, 1896 Monsignor Macario presents to the Pope the letter from Menelik who refuses to hand over the Italian prisoners

© La Tribuna Illustrata 22 November 1896 The caravan of the Coptic bishop Mgr. Macarius started from Djibouti to bring to Menelik the autograph letter of the Pope asking for the release of the prisoners.

“Arrival in Djibouti of a convoy of Italian prisoners surrendered by “ The major doctor Nerazzini signs the peace Menelik ” “L’artiglieria di Menelik” Artillery of Menelik. treaty with Negus Menelik. ” © Le Tribuna, 1896

© L’illustration Journal, September 5,1896. “Monsignor Macaire visting Emperor Menelik,1895, “Palace of Harar” Abissinia,1895, “ A sitting of the court of justice,” 1895-1896. © Liebig card, published early, late 19th or early 20th century. © Liebig card, published early, late 19th or early 20th century. © Liebig card, published early, late 19th or early 20th century.

“ Two Men Of Emperor Menelik’s “ Abyssinia - The Menelik king leaving the church at Entotto” LE MONDE ILLUSTRE “ At the Court of Menelik. The French mission delivers the cross of Guards wearing a lion Mane.” N°2081 - February 13, 1897 the Legion of Honor to the Negus. “ © Journal des voyages, 1903 © LaMonde Illustre , February 13, 1897 © La Tribuna , February 13, 1893

The African events. “the court of abyssinia the empress Taitu Engineer Capucci tried is to arrest the minister of commerce “ and judged by the Negus Menelik. © La Tribuna , January 9, 1910, On March 21, 1906, while leaving for Addis Ababa,

“ the reception of Ras Makonnen in Paris, Mekonnen died in Kulubi . Organized in Addis “Visit of Ras Mekonnen to les invalides in paris 1902” at the Élysée Palace in France “ Ababa, the funeral ceremony, attended by 10,000 © Le Petit Parisien, 1902 © Le Petit Parisien, July 27, 1902 people, is chaired by Menelik II.

Mäkonnen Wäldä-Mika’él (May 8, 1852 – March 21, 1906), Ras Makonnen was a grandson of Negus Sahle Selassie of Shewa through his mother, Leult Tenagnework Sahle Selassie. As such, he was a first cousin of the Ethiopian Emperor, Menelik II. In the 1880s, as Governor of Harar, Ras Mäkonnen became a close friend of the French poet, Arthur Rimbaud, who was then living and doing business in that province. In 1902, Ras Mäkonnen attended the coronation of King Edward VII in England, In 1902, then went to France in July where he was received by President Emile Loubet and paid visits to Italy, Turkey, and Germany. He received the following decorations: Badge & Star of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (Knight Commander), Star of the Russian Order of St. Anne, Star of the French Legion d’Honneur (Third Republic), Star of the Order of “Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, standing by the casket of Ras Makonnen, General and the Crown of Italy, Star of the Ottoman Order of Osmania. Governor of Harar province, in Abyssinia “ © Le Petit Parisien, April 15, 1906 “Death of Menelik ” Announces the passing away of Emperor Menelik II © La Tribuna Illustrata, February 1909

At the court of King Menelik

In the early morning hours of 12 December 1913, Emperor Menelik II “ the old and infirm Menelik is rescued in a dungon” died. He was buried quickly without announcement or ceremony at the Se’el © Tribuna Illustrata Rivista, 2 March 1913 Bet Kidane Meheret Church, on the grounds of the Imperial Palace. After the death of Menelik II, the council of regency continued to rule Ethiopia. Empress Zewditu I succeeded Menelik II on the 27 September 1916.

“Death MenelikThe consternation of Abyssinians in Addis Ababa before the Ghebì of Menelik” © La Tribuna Illustrata February 1909 watch out for new thinking...

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