religions

Article Islam¯ and Genesis 17: A Study in Scriptural Intertextuality

Khaleel Mohammed

Department of Religious Studies, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182-6062, USA; [email protected]



Received: 25 August 2018; Accepted: 17 September 2018; Published: 28 September 2018


Abstract: Abraham Geiger’s 1833 essay launched a particular genre of research that posits foreign etymology for many terms in the Qur’an.¯ Whereas some work has been erudite, others have posited far-fetched concepts to the point where at least one author opines that Aramaic was the original language of the Qur’an.¯ Muslim exegetes have compounded the problem by seeking to interpret the Qur’an¯ on its own, without reference to other Abrahamic scriptures. I argue that Muhammad’s audience understood him clearly since he was using terms that had become part of the Arabic language long before his time. I examine three terms: islam,¯ iman,¯ and d¯ın, showing that the meaning of these words in the Qur’an¯ can be deciphered by reliance on context of usage and intertextuality. To this end, I refer to several verses of the Qur’an¯ as well as of the Hebrew Bible and Talmudic literature. A proper understanding of these words allows us to see Q3:19 and Q5:3 as pluralistic instead of the particularistic interpretation that most exegetes proffer.

Keywords: Islam; Iman; Din; Qur’an;¯ Aramaic; Hebrew; Hebrew Bible; Talmud; Onkelos

Abraham Geiger’s 1833 essay Was hat Muhammad aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen postulated that the Qur’an¯ was largely unoriginal: Muhammad had compiled it using at least 14 terms from the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature, in addition to several other Jewish concepts (Geiger 1970, p. 44). Later analysis revealed that his work was “naïve and judgmental” (Lassner 1999), and that he sometimes fell victim to parallelomania, positing Qur’anic¯ borrowings from Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer without realizing that the latter document was composed after the advent of Islam¯ (Stillman 1974). Yet, Geiger must be hailed as the pioneer of the quest for foreign provenance of Qur’anic¯ terms. His work set off a torrent of publications by Jewish scholars who sought to further detail Judaic influences on Islam.¯ Hartwig Hirschfeld (Hirschfeld 1878), for example, wrote Judische Elemente im Qoran (1878), Charles Torrey penned The Jewish Foundations of Islam¯ (1933), and Abraham Katsh authored Judaism and the Koran (Katsh 1954). By the 1870s, scholars began to oppose some aspects of Geiger’s claims. Adolph Harnack (d.1930) surmised influence from a gnostic Jewish-Christian community (see Pfanmuller 1923, p. 108). Julius Wellhausen (d. 1918), after careful analysis, suggested that Jewish concepts may have entered Islam¯ through Christian refraction (Wellhausen 1961, p. 205). This search for foreign provenance continues to this day, and while engendering some truly erudite scholarship, has also spawned some of the most ridiculous claims. One professor, for example, would have us assume that his Arabic skills are such that he can correct the text to “the form the word or phrase had when it was first uttered by the prophet Muhammad” (Bellamy 1993). Christoph Luxenberg claims that Muhammad did not even speak Arabic, but rather an Arabic-Aramaic hybrid, and that the Qur’an¯ is derived from Syriac Christian liturgy (Luxenberg 2000). Another writer tells us that contrary to what Muslims and historians have claimed, the Qur’an¯ was actually written in Aramaic (Sawma 2006). Professor Walid Saleh’s words aptly describe the situation:

Religions 2018, 9, 293; doi:10.3390/rel9100293 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2018, 9, 293 2 of 10

The rule is presented differently by different scholars, but in a nutshell, it states that for every word in the Qur’an¯ for which the native philological tradition fails to give a solitary explanation and instead offers multiple meanings, modern scholars have to presume that they are dealing with a foreign word. Having determined that a word in the Qur’an¯ is foreign, scholars have gone ahead and presumed that its meaning in a cognate language or in its purported language of origin was the determining factor, and not its usage in its Qur’anic¯ context. (Saleh 2010, pp. 649–98)

Working off Professor Saleh’s findings, I intend to show that three important terms: Islam,¯ ¯ıman,¯ and din were part of the Arabic vocabulary long before Muhammad’s time, and that his audience had no problems comprehending their meaning. I will also show that Islam¯ actually owes its name to a particular Arabic rendering of Genesis 17:1. If I can sustain that line of reasoning for Arabic usage, rather than a foreign provenance, I demonstrate that two verses of the Qur’an¯ (Q3:19 and 5:3) allow for a pluralistic outlook rather than the particularistic interpretation that the majority of exegetes have offered. Each word is of such importance that it merits a full-length journal article or monograph. Fortunately, several scholars have written on the subject, and I use their findings to make my presentation more concise. I omit the use of diacritical marks except in cases where I assume—somewhat arbitrarily—there is an absolute need for pronunciational accuracy. In certain cases, I will abbreviate Qur’an¯ to Q followed by the chapter and verse number. For example, Q2:15 indicates the second sura,¯ verse 15. The underlying message behind the borrowing idea seems to indicate that the Qur’an¯ has misleadingly depicted its ideas as original, and that such a claim has been debunked by the revelations of its alleged sources. However, the Qur’an¯ makes no secret that its material is not new; indeed, Muhammad’s detractors repeatedly described his narratives as “tales of the ancients” (Q6:25, 8:31, 16:24,23:83,25:5, 27:68,46:17, 68:15, and 83:13), and he himself said that he had not come with any innovation (Q 46:9). The Qur’an¯ also describes itself as a preserver of the antecedent Abrahamic scriptures, even advising people to ask the Jewish mazkirim about matters relating to the prophets (Q 16:43; 21:7; Mohammed 2015, pp. 33–46). Even if there are perceived differences in narratives, to assume that we can trace the “true” story to some urtext is problematic, given the presence of the two Torot (written and oral). There was a wide variety of exegetical traditions that, over a long period of time, “supplemented, supported, amended, and even perhaps at times, subverted that legacy” (Pregill 2007, pp. 643–59). If we cannot trace the source for a reference, it may simply be that, as Marilyn Waldman noted, the Qur’an¯ is using the outlines of a story as a didactic vehicle. (Waldman 1985, pp. 1–13). Insofar as language is concerned, some Western scholars seem reluctant to believe that, before the Qur’an,¯ Arabs could effectively communicate via a language of their own. As Afnan Fatani notes:

Arabic is not looked upon not as a sister or equal language of Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages, i.e., when it is treated as an offspring that presented the original language in a degenerated form. It is this view that compels some Western scholars to constantly look for the etymology of Qur’anic¯ terms in other Semitic languages, convinced that Arabic must by necessity, have borrowed its lexicon from these older and more sophisticated languages”. (Fatani 2006, pp. 356–71)

Muslim exegetes added to the problem in several aspects. One was by relying upon creedal constructs to provide explanations of the terms, often engaging in semantic acrobatics to support their interpretations. The earliest exegetes whose works are available were writing in a milieu that was far removed from the one to which the Qur’an¯ was initially addressed, operating under constructs that often worked to their epistemological detriment. Early Muslim approaches to philology and etymology were clearly in the service of religion, and this came with several drawbacks (Kopf 1956, pp. 33–59). While earlier exegetes recognized the existence of loan words in the Qur’an,¯ later ones sought to literally interpret the qur’anic¯ verses that referred to the document being in clear Arabic Religions 2018, 9, 293 3 of 10 Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10 Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10 Arabic(e.g., Q (e.g. 12:2,, 16:103,Q 12:2, 26:195,16:103, 41:44,26:195, and 41:44, 42:7). and The 42:7). derived The reasoningderived re wasasoning that sincewas that God since cannot God lie, cannot then Arabic (e.g., Q 12:2, 16:103, 26:195, 41:44, and 42:7). The derived reasoning was that since God cannot lie,every then word every had word to literally had to beliterally from anbe Arabicfrom an source. Arabic source. lie, then every word had to literally be from an Arabic source. Another problematic problematic concept concept was was the widespreadthe widespread Muslim Muslim contention contention that the thatprevious the scriptures previous Another problematic concept was the widespread Muslim contention that the previous scriptureswere corrupted were andcorrupted therefore and not therefore reliable. not This reliable. is underlined This is underlined by the idea by that the reliance idea that upon reliance rejecting upon scriptures were corrupted and therefore not reliable. This is underlined by the idea that reliance upon rejectingJudaic traditions—known Judaic traditions as—known isra’¯ ¯ıliyat—would as isrā’īliyat lead—would to false lead interpretations to false interpretations (Mohammed (Mohammed, 2015, p. 15). rejecting Judaic traditions—known as isrā’īliyat—would lead to false interpretations (Mohammed, 2015,Rejecting p. 15) biblical. Rejecting influence biblical negatively influence negatively affected exegesis, affected exegesis given that,, given as that, Reuven as Reuven Firestone Firestone aptly 2015, p. 15). Rejecting biblical influence negatively affected exegesis, given that, as Reuven Firestone aptlynoted, note “thed, “the Qur’ Qur’ānan¯ could could not not possibly possibly exist exist without without itsits scriptural predecessors predecessors as as subtexts” subtexts” aptly noted, “the Qur’ān could not possibly exist without its scriptural predecessors as subtexts” (Firestone ,2004 2004, pp., pp. 1–22 1-22).). The The dynamic dynamic influence influence that that the the Qur’ Qur’ānan¯ has has had had upon upon the theArabic Arabic language language (Firestone, 2004, pp. 1-22). The dynamic influence that the Qur’ān has had upon the Arabic language has also exacerbated thethe problem. This This is is because because almost every classical classical dictionary of of Arabic Arabic relies relies has also exacerbated the problem. This is because almost every classical dictionary of Arabic relies heavily on thethe Qur’Qur’ānan¯ forfor elucidation, elucidation, often often without without regard regard to to differences differences between between terminological terminological and heavily on the Qur’ān for elucidation, often without regard to differences between terminological andquotidian quotidian usage. usage. and quotidian usage. II rely onon some some late late discoveries discoveries within within the fieldthe field of Isl ofamic¯ Islāmic studies studies to form to certain form relevantcertain premises. relevant I rely on some late discoveries within the field of Islāmic studies to form certain relevant premises.The recent Thediscovery recent of discoverywhat some of term what as the some Birmingham term as manuscriptthe Birmingham basically manuscript vouchsafes basically what the premises. The recent discovery of what some term as the Birmingham manuscript basically vouchsafesMuslim tradition what the has Muslim always tradition held: that has the always Qur’an¯ held: goes that back the to Qur’ān the time goes of Muhammad,back to the time unlike of vouchsafes what the Muslim tradition has always held: that the Qur’ān goes back to the time of Muhammad,the late dating unlike that the researchers late dating have that claimed, researchers such have as Patriciaclaimed, Crone, such as Michael Patricia Cook, Crone, and Michael John Muhammad, unlike the late dating that researchers have claimed, such as Patricia Crone, Michael CookWansbrough,, and John for Wansbrough, example. The for presence example. of The Christian presence and of Jewish Christian tribes and in Jewish the Arab tribes peninsula in the Arab long Cook, and John Wansbrough, for example. The presence of Christian and Jewish tribes in the Arab peninsulabefore Muhammad’s long before birth Muhammad’s meant that, birth cognate meant consideration that, cognate aside, consideration certain religious aside, certain concepts, religious even peninsula long before Muhammad’s birth meant that, cognate consideration aside, certain religious conceif theypts, had even stemmed if they from had stemmed foreign terminology, from foreign had terminology, become completely had become Arabized completely by Muhammad’s Arabized by concepts, even if they had stemmed from foreign terminology, had become completely Arabized by Muhammad’stime (Griffith 2013 time; (GriffithGilliot and, 2013; Larcher Gilliot 2001 and).1 LarcherThere is, 2001). also a1midrash There is dated also a to midrash the second dated or to third the Muhammad’s time (Griffith, 2013; Gilliot and Larcher, 2001).1 There is also a midrash dated to the secondcentury or Sifre third to century Deuteronomy Sifre to 32:2Deuteronomy that states, 32:2 “When that states, God revealed “When God Himself revealed to give Himself the Torah to give to second or third century Sifre to Deuteronomy 32:2 that states, “When God revealed Himself to give theIsrael, Torah He to did Israel, so not He in did one so language, not in one but language, in four: but in Hebrew,in four: in in Hebrew, Greek, in in Arabic,Greek, in and Arabic, in Aramaic” and in the Torah to Israel, He did so not in one language, but in four: in Hebrew, in Greek, in Arabic, and in Aramaic”(Goitein 1958 (Goitein, pp. 149–63, 1958,). pp. As 149 Goitein–63). As astutely Goitein pointed astutely out, point whereased out, such whereas translation such translation was probably was Aramaic” (Goitein, 1958, pp. 149–63). As Goitein astutely pointed out, whereas such translation was probablynever committed never commit to writing,ted to it writing, certainly it must certainly have must been presenthave been via present an oral method.via an oral The method. Arabswere The probably never committed to writing, it certainly must have been present via an oral method. The Arabstherefore were not therefore as unfamiliar not as with unfamiliar Biblical material with Biblical as the material proponents as the of the proponents foreign etymology of the foreign camp Arabs were therefore not as unfamiliar with Biblical material as the proponents of the foreign etymologymight suppose. camp might suppose. etymology camp might suppose. of the (أسلم) Let us examine the first of the three terms: Islām. It is derived from the fourth form of the) of the ) (أسلم) Let usLet examine us examine the first the firstof the of three the three terms: terms: Islām. Isl Itam.¯ is derived It is derived from from the fourth the fourth form form salima), which occurs in the Qur’ān in its various forms some 157 times. The verb forms of) سلم verb salima),(salima), which which occurs occurs in the in Qur’ān the Qur’ inan¯ its invarious its various forms forms some some 157 times. 157 times. The verb The verbforms forms of of) سلم verbverb occur 22 times, and the noun, Islām, from that verb, is found in eight verses. The meanings of أسلم occuroccur 22 times, 22 times, and andthe noun, the noun, Islām, Isl fromam,¯ from that thatverb, verb, is found is found in eight in eight verses. verses. The meanings The meanings of of أسلم various verb forms of a common root in Arabic can seem unrelated to each other. The second form variousvarious verb verbforms forms of a common of a common root rootin Arabic in Arabic can seem can seem unrelated unrelated to each to eachother. other. The second The second form form of salima, for example, sallama, used transitively, means to hand over or to give over something. of salima,of salima, for example, for example, sallama, sallama, used usedtransitively, transitively, means means to hand to hand over overor to orgive to over give oversomething. something. Used with a preposition, it means to greet, as in Sallama alaihi. One must avoid arbitrarily selecting UsedUsed with witha preposition, a preposition, it means it means to greet, to greet, as in as Sallama in Sallama alaihi. alaihi. One One must must avoid avoid arbitrarily arbitrarily selecting selecting a a meaning from any particular root simply because it fulfills a cherished objective; an offered a meaningmeaning from from any any particular particular rootroot simplysimply because because it fulfillsit fulfills a cherished a cherished objective; objective; an offered an offered explanation explanation should be accompanied by incontrovertible proof(s). explanationshould beshould accompanied be accompanied by incontrovertible by incontrovertible proof(s). proof(s). Jane Smith, in her 1975 doctoral dissertation, noted that, “[W]ithin the Muslim community itself, Jane JaneSmith, Smith, in her in 1975 her 1975 doctoral doctoral dissertation, dissertation, noted noted that that,, “[W] “[W]ithinithin the theMuslim Muslim community community itself, itself, there has been a change in the understanding and interpretation of Islām, i.e., that the word connotes therethere has been has been a change a change in the in understanding the understanding and andinterpretation interpretation of Islām, of Islam, ¯i.e., i.e.,that that the theword word connotes connotes to Muslims of the current century something different (or additional to) what it meant to those of the to Muslimsto Muslims of the of current the current century century something something different different (or additional (or additional to) what to) what it meant it meant to those to those of the of the early centuries of Islām” (Smith, 1975, pp. 2–3). After 9/11, some Muslim apologists, trying to distance earlyearly centuries centuries of Islām” of Islam”¯ (Smith (Smith, 1975 1975, pp., pp. 2–3). 2–3). After After 9/11, 9/11, some some Muslim Muslim apologists, apologists, trying trying to distance to distance their faith from the stereotype of violence, tried to focus on one derivative of Salima (as opposed to theirtheir faith faith from from the stereotype the stereotype of violence, of violence, tried tried to focus to focus on one on derivative one derivative of Salima of Salima (as opposed (as opposed to to its fourth form, aslama) to insist that Islām comes from the word ‘salam’ and means peace (see for its fourthits fourth form, form, aslama) aslama) to insist to insist that thatIslām Isl comesam¯ comes from from the wo therd word ‘salam’ ‘salam’ and means and means peace peace (see for (see for example, Balogun, 2014). Our task then is specific: it is not to simply look for the root, but to examine example,example, Balogun Balogun, 2014). 2014 Our). Ourtask taskthen then is specific: is specific: it is itnot is to not simply to simply look lookfor the for root, the root, but to but examine to examine the word’s usage and if possible, refer to a narrative or concept already known to the Arabs. the word’sthe word’s usage usage and if and possible, if possible, refer refer to a narrative to a narrative or concept or concept already already known known to the to Arabs. the Arabs. Several lexicons provide a gamut of meanings, including “safety” as well as “freedom from SeveralSeveral lexicons lexicons provide provide a gamut a gamut of meanings, of meanings, including including “safety” “safety” as well as wellas “freedom as “freedom from from blemish,” but end up referring to the Qur’ān to proffer Islām as submission (khuḍūʽ) or accepting blemish,”blemish,” but butend endup referring up referring to the to the Qur’ān Qur’an ¯to toproffer proffer Islām Islam¯ as as submission submission (khu dḍ. uū¯ ʽ) or acceptingaccepting what what the Prophet has brought (al-Jawhari, 1957; al-Isfahani, 1961, pp. 240–1; Ibn Manẓūr n.d., pp. whatthe the Prophet Prophet has has brought brought (Al-Jawhari (al-Jawhari 1957, 1957;; Al-Isfahani al-Isfahani 1961, 1961, pp., pp. 240–1; 240 Ibn–1; Ibn Manzur Man ẓn.d.ūr n.d.,, pp. pp. 342–50). 342–50). Isma’il al-Jawhari (d.c. 400), in his Tāj al-Lugha, deduced that the aslama and istaslama forms 342–Isma’il50). Isma’il al-Jawhari al-Jawhari (d.c. (d.c. 400), 400), in his in his Taj¯ Tāj al-Lugha, al-Lugha deduced, deduced that that the the aslama aslama and and istaslama istaslama forms forms are are contextually equivalent and therefore underlined the meaning as “submission” (1957). The are contextuallycontextually equivalent equivalent and thereforetherefore underlinedunderlined the the meaning meaning as as “submission” “submission” (1957). (1957). The The general general trend in the tafsirs is not different, as noted in Jane Smith’s study of 14 major exegetes, to general trend in the tafsirs is not different, as noted in Jane Smith’s study of 14 major exegetes, to represent the explanation over a 14-century period (Smith, 1975, pp. 218–26). Interestingly, she cites represent the explanation over a 14-century period (Smith, 1975, pp. 218–26). Interestingly, she cites al-Rāzī who, among other definitions, offered that the term means “entering into wholeness or al-Rāzī1 Seewho, for among example, (otherGriffith definitions, 2013, pp. 1–53) offered that the term means “entering into wholeness or

1 See for example, Sidney Griffith. 2013. The Bible in Arabic: The Scriptures of the People of the Book in the Language 1 See for example, Sidney Griffith. 2013. The Bible in Arabic: The Scriptures of the People of the Book in the Language of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 1–53. of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 1–53.

Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10

Arabic (e.g., Q 12:2, 16:103, 26:195, 41:44, and 42:7). The derived reasoning was that since God cannot lie, then every word had to literally be from an Arabic source. Another problematic concept was the widespread Muslim contention that the previous scriptures were corrupted and therefore not reliable. This is underlined by the idea that reliance upon rejecting Judaic traditions—known as isrā’īliyat—would lead to false interpretations (Mohammed, 2015, p. 15). Rejecting biblical influence negatively affected exegesis, given that, as Reuven Firestone aptly noted, “the Qur’ān could not possibly exist without its scriptural predecessors as subtexts” (Firestone, 2004, pp. 1-22). The dynamic influence that the Qur’ān has had upon the Arabic language has also exacerbated the problem. This is because almost every classical dictionary of Arabic relies heavily on the Qur’ān for elucidation, often without regard to differences between terminological and quotidian usage. I rely on some late discoveries within the field of Islāmic studies to form certain relevant premises. The recent discovery of what some term as the Birmingham manuscript basically vouchsafes what the Muslim tradition has always held: that the Qur’ān goes back to the time of Muhammad, unlike the late dating that researchers have claimed, such as Patricia Crone, Michael Cook, and John Wansbrough, for example. The presence of Christian and Jewish tribes in the Arab peninsula long before Muhammad’sReligions birth meant2018, 9, 293that, cognate consideration aside, certain religious 4 of 10 concepts, even if they had stemmed from foreign terminology, had become completely Arabized by 1 Religions 2018, 9, x FORMuhammad’s PEER REVIEW time (Griffith, 2013; GilliotReligions and 2018 Larcher,, 9,, xx FORFOR ,PEERPEER 2001). REVIEWREVIEW There is also 4a of midrash 10 dated to the 4 of 10 second or third century Sifre to Deuteronomytrend in the 32:2 tafsirs that is states, not different, “When God as noted revealed in Jane Himself Smith’s to give study of 14 major exegetes, to represent peacefulness”—thisthe of Torah course to beingIsrael, Religionsachieved HeReligions did 2018 so 2018by not, 9 subjecting, ,x 9 inFOR, x onepeacefulness”theFOR PEER language, explanationPEER oneselfREVIEW REVIEW tobut— overthethis in obligationsfour: of a course 14-century in Hebrew, being required period achieved in by Greek, God (Smith by in subjecting Arabic,1975, pp. and 218–26).oneself in to Interestingly, the obligations4 of4 10of 10 she required cites al-R by Godaz¯ ¯ı (n.d, vol 7, p. 702).Aramaic” (Goitein, 1958, pp. 149–63).((n.d,Al-R As volaz ¯Goitein¯ı n.d.7, p.) 702astutely who,). among point othered out, definitions, whereas such offered translation that the termwas means “entering into wholeness or Some Westernprobably-based analysesnever commitpeacefulness” havepeacefulness”ted offered to writing, — trulythis—peacefulness”—thisthis it of far Somecertainly ofcourse-fetched course W beingestern must being interpretations. achieved of-havebased achieved course been analyses by being presentby subjecting Margoliouth subjecting achieved have via anoneself offered by oneself oral subjecting method.to truly tothe the obligations far oneself obligationsThe-fetched to required the interpretations.required obligations by byGod God required Margoliouth by God asserted that the derivedArabs were word therefore “Muslim”(n.d,(n.d, not vol has vol as7 l, ittlep.7unfamiliar, p.702 to 702(n.d,).asserted do ). with vol.with thethat 7, Biblicalp. Arabic the 702). derived materialroot to word which as “Muslim” the it isproponents usually has little of tothe do foreign with the Arabic root to which it is usually traced, but that it wasetymology instead camp derived might from Somesuppose. Somethe nameW esternW estern Musailima,traced,-basedSome-based but analysesWestern-based thatthe analyses false it was haveprophet instead have analyses offered offeredof derived a monotheistic have truly truly from offered far far -thefetched -fetched trulyname far-fetched interpretations. Musailima, interpretations. interpretations. the false Margoliouth Margoliouth prophet Margoliouth of a monotheistic asserted ,debunked the root) of Arabicroot the to to which Margoliouth’s rootwhich it to isit which usuallyis usually allegation, it is usually and traced, then أسلم) sect (Margoliouth, 1903Let, pp. us 467 examine–83).asserted Mark theasserted first Lidzbarski that of that the the thethree sectthat deriveddebunked derived ( theterms:Margoliouth, derivedword wordMargoliouth’s Islām. “Muslim” “Muslim” word It1903 is derived “Muslim”, pp.has allegation, has 467 little from l–ittle83). has to the todoandMark little do fourthwith then, with Lidzbarski to the do form the Arabic with Arabic concept, (salima), alleged whichtraced,traced, that occurs but the but that inword that the itfollowingbut was it hasQur’ān was that insteadno instead meaning it in the was its derived borrowing various derived instead on its from forms derivedfromown, concept, the the butsome namefrom namecan alleged 157 Musailima, be the Musailima, times. traced that name Thethe Musailima,the word verbthe false false formshas prophet noprophet the of meaning false of ofa prophet monotheistic a on monotheistic its own, of a monotheistic but can be traced sect سلم following the borrowingverb ,σωτηια occur (soteria), 22 times, sectindicating andsect (Margoliouth, the (Margoliouth, noun, salvation Islām,(toMargoliouth 1903 be (1903Lidzbarski likefrom, pp. ,the pp. 467that Greek 4671903 1922– verb,83).–83)., σωτηια, Mark pp.pp. is Mark found85 467–83). Lidzbarski– (soteria),96) Lidzbarski in. Meir eight Mark indicating Bravmandebunked verses. debunked Lidzbarski The salvationMargoliouth’s Margoliouth’s meanings debunked (Lidzbarski of allegation, Margoliouth’s allegation, 1922, and pp. and then,85 allegation, then,–96) . Meir and Bravman then أسلمto be like the Greek decided that nonevarious of these verb explanations formsfollowing offollowing awas common convincin the the borrowing root borrowingdecidedfollowingg in and Arabic relatedconcept, that concept, the can none borrowing the seemalleged ofallegedterm these unrelated tothat concept, that“explanationsgihād”, the the wordto alleged wordeach rendering has other.haswas that no no meaningconvincin the The meaning word second on hasg onand its form no its own, related meaningown, but but the can oncan term be its be traced own, to traced “gihād”, but can rendering be traced it as “defiance of ofdeath salima,, self for-sacrifice example,to (fortobe be sallama,like the like the sake the Greek used Greekofitto God as σωτηια betransitively, σωτηια“defiance likeand the (soteria),his (soteria), Greek prophet), ofmeans death σωτηιαindicating indicating to ,or selfhand “readiness(soteria),-sacrifice salvation over salvation or indicating (forfor to (Lidzbarski give the(theLidzbarski sakeover salvation 1922 ofsomething. 1922 God, (pp.Lidzbarski, pp.and 85 85– his96)–96) . prophet),Meir1922. Meir, Bravman pp. Bravman 85–96).or “readiness Meir Bravman for the defiance of death”Used (Bravmann with a preposition,, 2009decided,decided pp.1 it means-that38 that). none Both tononedefiancedecided greet, of David ofthese theseas that inof Kuntslingerexplanations Sallamaexplanations death” none of alaihi.( theseBravmann andwas was explanations One Helmerconvincin convincin must, 2009 Ringgren avoidg, and wasgpp.1 and arbitrarilyrelated convincing-38 related). Both the the selecting term and David term relatedto to“ Kuntslinger gihād”, “gihād”, the term rendering rendering toand “gih Helmer ad”,¯ rendering Ringgren it examined Hebrewa and meaning Aramaic from cognates anyit asit particular as “defianceof “defiancethe word, root ofexaminedas withofdeath simply “defiancedeath the, self former, Hebrewself because-sacrifice of-sacrifice death, pointing andit (for self-sacrificefulfills Aramaic (for outthe the athatsake cherished sakecognates some (for of ofGod the usagesGod sakeof objective;and the and ofhis word, Godhis prophet), anprophet), andwith offered his the or prophet), former or “readiness “readiness pointing or “readiness for for theout the that for some the defiance usages to Both Both various David( Küntslinger David David Kuntslinger Kuntslinger Kuntslinger, 1935 , andpp. and and 128 Helmer Helmer Helmer–37). Ringgren Ringgren Ringgren examined refers to Hebrewvarious שלוםdefiance be defiance( Küntslingeraccompanied of of death” death”, inof1935 by death”the (incontrovertibleBravmann , (pp.Qur’ānBravmann (128Bravmann– match37)., 2009, Ringgren2009 proof(s). 2009the, pp.1, Hebrew,pp.1 pp.-38 refers - 1–38).38). ).Bothשלום in the Qur’ān matchexplanation the Hebrew should parts of Qur’ān and versesJane Smith,of ancient in examinedher poetryexamined 1975 todoctoral Hebrew show Hebrew partsandthat, dissertation, and and Aramaic whileAramaicof AramaicQur’ān he cognatesnotedopted cognates and cognates thatversesfor of aof, “[W]general the ofthe of the word,ancientword,ithin word, meaning the with poetry with Muslim the the of the formerto former formercommunityshow pointing pointingthat, pointing itself,while out out out hethat that thatopted some some some for usages usagesausages general in meaning the Qur’ an¯of שלום ¯Küntslinger ((Küntslinger KüntslingerQ2:66, there of Islām, for are, 1935example, ,other1935i.e. 1935,, that ,pp. pp.,usages pp. 128the 128–37). 128 –word 37).(Ringgren–37). connotesRinggren Ringgren Ringgren, 1949 refers refers refers, pp. to 1 to –tovarious27). various various Q2:66, parts for of example, Qur’an).(27 –1 שלום,submission and surrender,there has been there a arechangein other inthe the in Qur’ān usages the Qur’ān understanding match (Ringgren matchsubmissionmatch the the the Hebrew, 1949 andHebrew Hebrew and ,interpretation pp. surrender “mussalamatun lato shīyata Muslims fihā”, of the indicates currentpartsparts of acentury heiferofQur’ān Qur’ān that something and“mussalamatunand and is verses perfect verses verses different of ofand ofancient ancient ancient free la (or shīyata from poetry poetryadditional poetry blemish. fihā”, to to toshow show to) showindicatesIn Q37:82 what that, that, that, it whileandwhile ameant whileheifer he he tohe optedthat opted those opted is for perfect forof for thea a general a general generaland free meaning meaning meaning from blemish. of of of submission In Q37:82 andand 26:89, he also pointsearly out centuries that it means of Islām”submission “sound”submission (Smith as and in, 1975and Qalb surrender,26:89,surrender, surrender,, pp. Salīm he2– 3).also (1949). there After there points areare He9/11, are other otherout drew othersome that usages usagesupon Muslimitusages means Isaiah ((RinggrenRinggren ( apologists,Ringgren “sound” 38:3 to 1949, 1949 ,as 1949trying, in pp., pp. Qalb, to 1–27).pp. 1 distance– Salīm127).–27). Q2:66, Q2:66, (1949). Q2:66, for for example,Hefor example, drewexample, upon “mussalamatun Isaiah 38:3 to la ,ggren perfectisSalima) perfect that, and andin (as andcontext free opposedfree free from from means from blemish.to blemish. blemish. “whole In In Q37:82 In and Q37:82 Q37:82 undivided” and and and 26:89, (Rin heggren also ל perfectםֵ֔ isof שthat in of context violence, lashowsh shīyatala¯ıyata shīyatameans an tried fih almost fihā”,a”,¯ “tofihā”,wholeindicates focus identicalindicates indicates and on one aundivided” expression heifera heiferderivative a heifer that that ( that( isRin ( ל םֵ֔ stereotype“mussalamatunש )show an almost identicaltheir faith expression from the “mussalamatun 1949). Incidentally,its in fourth Arabic form, parsing, aslama)26:89, the26:89, term tohe insisthe also “sālim” also points that pointspoints1949 isIslām out used). out Incidentally, out that comes tothat that denoteit means it itfrom means means a in nounthe“sound” Arabic “sound” “sound” wo (orrd parsing, itsas‘salam’ as pluralin inQalb Qalb theand form) Salīm term means SalSalīm,¯ım (1949).“sālim” (1949).(1949). peace He is He(see He useddrew drew drewfor toupon upon denoteupon Isaiah Isaiah Isaiah a noun 38:3 38:3 38:3 (orto to to its show plural an almostform), ל םֵ֔ ש Qā’ilūn”,adhering simply) that ) that inin lookto contextincontextwherein all context for the the means meansqualities the meansroot, “whole “ butwhole of“whole toa noun, andexamine and and undivided” undivided” as undivided” in the word (Ringgren (Rin ( Rin“Qā’ilūn”,ggrenggren 1949, , ). wherein Incidentally, the“ ל to )םֵ֔ ש) ,.which is “sound”,example, i.e., adhering Balogun to all, show2014). theshow qualities an Our an almost taskalmost of thenidentical awhichidentical identicalnoun, is specific: is as expression expression“ sound”, inexpression the it isword noti.e form of the plural thesuffix word’s indicates usage that and1949 i1949 tif is ).possible, aIncidentally,). sound Incidentally, refermasculineformin Arabicinto inArabic aof narrative Arabic the plural: parsing, plural parsing, parsing, “jam or thesuffix concept theʽ termmudhakkar the indicatesterm “s termalreadyalim”¯ “sālim” “sālim” thatsālim” is known used isit usedis (Ibnto touseda denotesoundthe to todenote Arabs. denote masculine a noun a noun a (ornoun plural: its(or (or plural its its plural“jam plural form),ʽ mudhakkarform) form) which, , is “sound”, sālim” (Ibn i.e., Hishām, 2003). Several lexiconswhichwhich pro videis “issound”, “asound”, gamutHishāmadhering i.e., ofi.e., adhering meanings, adhering, 2003). to all theto includingtoall qualities all the the qualities qualities of“safety” a noun, of ofa as noun, asa wellnoun, in the as as as wordin “freedom inthe the “Qword a’ilword¯ from un”,¯“Qā’ilūn”, “Qā’ilūn”, wherein wherein thewherein form the ofthe the plural suffix The backgroundblemish,” that but Ringgren end formup form and referring of Kuntslingerofthe the plural to plural theindicates suffix Qur’ān suffix provideThe indicates that backgroundindicatestod proffer itis is that certainly a that soundIslām i t thatis it ais as masculine useful,sound a Ringgrensubmission sound masculine but masculine plural: andwhen (khu Kuntslinger“jam plural: ḍ plural:ūʽ)mudhakkar or “jam accepting “jam provideʽ mudhakkarʽ mudhakkar salim”¯ d is( Ibn sālim” certainly sālim” Hish (Ibnam¯ (Ibn useful, 2003 ). but when examining both thewhat Hebrew the Prophet and Arabic hasHishāmHishām cognatesbrought, 2003)., 2003). (al, they - Jawhariexamining seemTheed, 1957; backgroundto both overlook al- theIsfahani Hebrew certain that, Ringgren1961 andsimple, pp. Arabic and 240facts. Kuntslinger– cognates1; The Ibn Man, they providedẓūr seemn.d., edpp. is to certainly overlook useful, certain but simple when examiningfacts. The first is that the Qur’ān342– 50).occasionally Isma’il al reports-JawhariThe BiblicalThe (d.c. background background 400), storiesfirstboth in his is thewith that that Tāj that Hebrew its al Ringgrenthe -own RinggrenLugha Qur’ān and—obviously, deduced Arabicand occasionally and Kuntslinger cognates,Arabic Kuntslinger that the —reportsrendition aslama they provide provide Biblical seemed and d istaslama dis stories to is certainly overlook certainly forms with useful,itscertain useful, own simple— but obviously but when facts.when Arabic The first—rendition is that of the actual dialogue.are contextually The second equivalent isexamining thatexamining, in and theboth both Arabiantherefore theofthe the theHebrew Qur’ Hebrew actualenvironment, underlinean¯ and occasionally anddialogue. Arabic dArabic the as cognates Themeaningnoted reportscognates second earlier, Biblicaltheyas, they is“submission” seemin that seemSifre stories,ed ined to the tooverlook with overlook Arabian(1957). its own—obviously certain Thecertainenvironment, simple simple facts. Arabic—renditionasfacts. noted The The earlier inof Sifre the midrash to Deuteronomygeneral trend32:2, therein thefirst is tafsirsfirst evidence is thatis isthat notthe that the Qur’āndifferent, midrashactualthereQur’ān occasionallywere dialogue. occasionallyas to noted atDeute least Theinronomy reports partialJane reports second Smith’s 32:2,Biblicaltranslations isBiblicalthat, there study stories in storiesis the evidenceof with Arabian14the with major its thatits own environment, exegetesown there—obviously—obviously were, to asat Arabic notedleast Arabic— partial earlierrendition—rendition translations in Sifre midrash of the to Torah in Arabic. Mostrepresent likely, the such explanation translationsof ofthe the actual over actual would a dialogue.14 dialogue.- centuryTorahDeuteronomyhave originated inThe period Arabic.The second second 32:2, ( Smithtoo Most is there from isthat ,likely, 1975 that is the, evidencein,, suchAramaicpp. inthe the218 Arabiantranslations thatArabian–26). Targum there Interestingly, environment, environment, were would at have least she as partialoriginated cites asnoted noted translations earlier earlier too from in inSifre of theSifre the Aramaic Torah in Targum Arabic. rather than the Hebrewal-Rāzī text. who, The among thirdmidrash ismidrashother that , definitions, toin toDeutethe Deute Qur’ān,ratherMostronomyronomy offer likely, Abrahamthan ed32:2, 32:2,thethat such there Hebrew istherethe translations the is term evidenceisprototype text. evidence means The would that ofthird that“entering the there have isperfectthere that were originated were,into in atthe wholenessatleast Qur’ān, least too partial from partial Abraham or thetranslations translations Aramaic is the Targumofprototype ofthe the rather of the than perfect the worshipper. Indeed, the Qur’ān 2:135Torah revisitsTorah in in Arabic.the Arabic. argument Mostworshipper.Hebrew Most likely, that likely, text. Jews such Indeed, Thesuch and translations third translations Christiansthe isQur’ān that, would inhave2:135would the have engaged revisits Qur’ have originatedan,¯ originated the Abraham argument too too from is from the that the prototype the Jews Aramaic Aramaic and of Christians Targum the Targum perfect have worshipper. engaged in over the identity of Abraham with rather, “They rather than say, than the‘Be the HebrewJewsinIndeed, Hebrew over or Christians, text. the the text. identity The Qur’ The thirdan¯ and third of 2:135 isAbraham you thatis thatrevisitswill, in ,be inthe with guided.’the the Qur’ān,, Qur’ān,“They argument Say Abraham say, Abraham that‘Be Jews Jewsis theis or the and prototype Christians, prototype Christians of and ofthe have the perfectyou perfect engaged will be guided.’ in over Say the worshipper. Indeed, the Qur’ān 2:135 revisits the argument that Jews and Christians have engaged ‘Rather the path of1 Abraham,See for example, a ḥanīf; Sidneyworshipper. he was Griffith not .Indeed,one 2013 of‘Ratheridentity. The the the Bible polytheists.” Qur’ān the of in Abraham pathArabic: 2:135 of The Abraham,The with,revisits Scriptures Qur’ān “They the a of 2:128ḥ argument say,theanīf; People ‘Bealso he Jewswas ofhas that the not or Book Jews Christians, one in and ofthe the Language Christians andpolytheists.” you have will beThe engaged guided.’ Qur’ān Say 2:128 ‘Rather also has the in over the identity of Abraham with, “They say, ‘Be Jews or Christians, and you will be guided.’ Say Abraham and Ishmaelof Islamlaying. Princeton: the foundationsin Princeton over the ofUniversityidentity the KapathAbraham ofʽ abaPress Abraham of in Abraham,, pp. Meccaand 1– withIshmael53. and a ,h. “Theyan asking ¯ıf;laying he say, wasGod the ‘Be not thatfoundations Jews one they or of Christians, be the of polytheists.” the Ka andʽaba you The in will Mecca Qur’ bean¯ guided.’ and 2:128 asking also Say has God Abraham that they and be Muslim. ‘Rather‘Rather the the path path ofMuslim.Ishmael ofAbraham, Abraham, laying a ḥ theaanīf; ḥanīf; foundations he he was was not not of one the one of Ka ofthe abathe polytheists.” polytheists.” in Mecca and The The asking Qur’ān Qur’ān God 2:128 2:128 that also they also has be has Muslim. Charles Torrey pointed out thatAbraham MuhammadAbraham and and did Ishmael Ishmael not considerCharles laying laying theTorrey TorreyIslām the foundations foundations as pointed pointed a new outreligion of out of thethat the that Ka Muhammad( Torrey,Kaʽaba Muhammadʽaba in inMecca Mecca did and not did and askingconsider not asking consider God IslāmGod that that Islas theyam ¯a they new be as be religion a new ( religionTorrey, 1967, p.64), referring to the identificationMuslim.Muslim. of Abraham(1967Torrey in, p.64 the1967 ),Qur’ān, ,referring p. 64), not referring to only the asidentification to theMuslim identification, but of Abraham of Abraham in the in Qur’ān, the Qur’ notan,¯ only not onlyas M asuslim Muslim,, but exhorting his offspring to be such (Q 2:132).CharlesCharles Rather Torrey Torrey strangely,exhortingbut pointed exhorting pointed hisTorrey out offspring hisout that offspringmakesthat Muhammad Muhammad to no be to mention such be suchdid (Qdid notof (Q2:132). notverse consider 2:132). consider Rather Rather Islām Islāmstrangely, strangely, as asa new a new Torrey Torreyreligion religion makes makes (Torrey, (Torrey, no no mention mention of of verse verse Q2:131. He then states that there was1967 no1967 real, p.64, p.64equivalen), referring), referringQ2:131.t in toAramaic toHe the the then thenidentification oridentification state statesSyriacs that (Torrey of there ofAbraham ,Abraham 1967was ,no p.101 inreal real inthe), equivalen equivalentthe Qur’ān, Qur’ān,t notin in notAramaicAramaic only only as asor orM Syriacuslim SyriacMuslim, ( ( butTorreyTorrey, but , 19671967,, p. p.101 101),), and as such, he attributed the word toexhorting aexhorting genuine his Arabic his offspring offspringand usage as tosuch, . Wtobehile be such he such disputingattributed (Q (Q 2:132). 2:132). the thethe Rather interpretation wordword Rather to strangely, a strangely, genuine genuine of Torrey Arabic ArabicTorrey makes usage usage. makes no. W While no mentionhile mention disputing of ofverse versethe interpretation ofof “submission”, he offers the meaningQ2:131. ofQ2:131. “yielding He He then to then the state“submission”,“submission” statewills thatofs thatGod.” there there, he heThis was offers offers was is no where no thereal the real meaning meaningequivalen Q2:131 equivalen becomes of oft “yieldingin“yieldingt inAramaic Aramaic toto or thethe orSyriac willwill Syriac of (Torrey God.” (Torrey, This 1967, 1967 is , p.101 where , p.101), Q2:131 Q2:131), becomes becomes so important to us: Idh qāla lahū Rabbuhūandand as “Aslim.” assuch, such, he he attributedQāla,so attributed importa important “Aslamto thent the word to li word us: us:rabbil to Idh Idh toa genuine qālaalamīn.”a q genuineala¯ lahū lah Arabic uThe¯ Rabbuhū Arabic Rabbuh Qur’ān usage usageu ¯“Aslim.” “Aslim.”is. W . hileWhile disputingQāla, Q disputingala,¯ “Aslamto “Aslamto the the interpretation interpretationli lirabbil rabbil alamīn.” alam of of¯ın.” The The Qur’ān Qur’an¯ is obviously referring to Genesis 17.1, “submission”wherein“submission” the partly, he,obviouslyis he offers obviously- translatedoffers the the referringmeaning referringmeaning text reads ofto toof“yieldingGenesis, Genesis “yielding“When 17.1, to 17.1,Abram tothe whereinthe whereinwill willwas of of God.” the theGod.” partly partly-translated This This- istranslated whereis where Q2:131 Q2:131text text reads becomes reads, becomes, “When “When Abram Abram was ninety-nine years old, The Lord appearedso soimporta importa beforent him ntto tous: ninetyninety-nineand us: Idh Idhsaid qāla-nine qāla I amlahū years lahū God Rabbuhū Rabbuhū old, Almighty. The “Aslim.” Lord “Aslim.” Walk appeared Qāla, before Qāla, “Aslamto beforeme “Aslamto him li rabbil liand rabbil said alamīn.” alamīn.” I am God The The Al Almighty.Qur’ān mighty.Qur’ān is is Walk before me ,,”When differentlydifferently: Abram Abram: wassome some was as as “blameless” “blameless“ , םיWhenִֽ“ ,מָש tamīm).differently(tam 17.1, 17.1,¯ım). wherein The Thewherein: some various various the as the partly“blameless” translators translatorspartly-translated-translated, have textrendered text reads reads) םיGenesisִֽ מָש tamīm). The various translatorsobviouslyobviously have referring referring renderedand to be toGenesis) םיִֽמָש and be others as “whole-hearted.” While thereninetyninety is agreement-nine-nine years yearsothers thatold, old, Thein as Theorder Lord “whole-hearted.”“whole Lord to appeared obey-appearedhearted.” God’s before before WhileW edicts,hile him himthere oneand and must issaid agreement said I am I am God God that Al Almighty. inmighty. order Walk to Walk obey before before God’s me me edicts, one must םיִֽמָש םיִֽמָש differently differently of of submission; submission;: some: some as rather, rather as“blameless” “blameless” it, indicatesit indicates, , the the attempt attempt to םיִֽ מָש tamīm). (tamīm). submit,of submission; The The thethe various variouswordword rather translators inin translators context, it indicates hashas have have nono renderedthe directdirect rendered attempt connotationconnotation) םיִֽ מָש submit, the word in context has no directandand beconnotation be to be perfect, to be without blemish, toothers beothers sincere as as“whole “wholeand loyal.-tobehearted.” -be perfect,hearted.” perfect,The Arabic W to hileWto be hilebe without contextualthere without there is blemish,agreementis blemish, agreementrendition, to to bethat workingbe sincerethat sincere in inorder order and and to loyal. toloyal.obey obey The God’s The God’s Arabic Arabic edicts, edicts, contextual contextual one one must must rendition, rendition, working working has no direct connotation of submission; rather, it indicates the attempt أتمم the word in context تماما كن,submit atmim).atmim the attempt). Since Since the the Arabs Arabs were))أتمم Kun(Kun rather tamāman) tamaman)¯ , it indicates or) تماما were كن ;off the Hebrew cognate, would be eithersubmit, the (Kun word tamāman) offin context the Hebrew or has no (cognate, atmim direct). connotation wouldSince the be eitherArabs of submission more familiar with the Aramaic Targum,to bethe perfect, more significant to be without word, blemish, as in Onkelos, to be sincere would and have loyal. been The Arabic contextual rendition, working to be perfect, to bemore without familiar blemish, with tothe be Aramaic sincere and Targum, loyal. thethe The moremore Arabic significantsignificant contextual word, word, rendition, asas inin Onkelos,Onkelos, working wouldwould have been أتمم تماما كن atmim of(atmim the). Hebrew Since). Since the Biblethe Arabs Arabs is generallywere were rendered as)أتممor (tam) or םי ש noteworthy (Kun (Kun rendered tamāman) tamāman) that as تماما generallyكن shalīm). Hebrewwould would be BibleIt be either is either rather is) םי ofcognate, ֵ֔ the ָש ,tam) cognate) םיHebrew ש shalīm). It is rather noteworthyoff off thatthe the Hebrew) םי ֵ֔ ָש .(have (without have been been blemish ִֽוש wouldֵֵ֔֔ would א ,Targum,ִֽfew (without cases, the the more such blemish). more significantas significant in Job 1:1, word, where word, as it asin becomes inOnkelos, Onkelos וa ש ,inֵ֔ Targum ֵ֔א the ,Aramaic except Aramaic םי becomes ֵ֔the ָשexcept in a few cases, such as inmore Jobmore familiar1:1, familiar where with itwith ,םי ֵ֔ ָש tam) of ofthe the Hebrew Hebrew Bible Bible is isgenerally generally rendered rendered as as) םי(tam) ש םי ש shalīm). (shalīm). It isIt ratheris rather noteworthy noteworthy that that)םי ֵ֔ םי ָשֵ֔ ָש .(withoutִֽ (without blemish). blemish)ו שִֽ וֵ֔ש ֵֵ֔֔א ֵ֔א except, except in ina few a few cases, cases, such such as asin inJob Job 1:1, 1:1, where where it becomesit becomesםי ,ֵ֔ םי ָשֵ֔ ָש

ReligionsReligions 20182018,,, 99,,, xxx FORFORFOR PEERPEERPEER REVIEWREVIEWREVIEW 44 ofof 1010

peacefulness”peacefulness”——thisthisthis ofofof coursecoursecourse beingbeingbeing achievedachievedachieved bybyby subjectingsubjectingsubjecting oneselfoneselfoneself tototo thethethe obligationsobligationsobligations required requiredrequired by byby God GodGod (n.d,(n.d,(n.d, volvol 77,,, p.p.p. 702702).).). SomeSome WWesternestern---basedbased analyses analyses have have offered offered truly truly far far---fetchedfetchedfetched interpretations. interpretations. interpretations. Margoliouth Margoliouth Margoliouth assertedasserted thatthat thethe derivedderived wordword “Muslim”“Muslim” hashas llittleittleittle tototo dododo withwithwith thethethe ArabicArabicArabic rootrootroot tototo whichwhichwhich ititit isisis usuallyusuallyusually traced,traced,traced, butbutbut thatthatthat ititit waswaswas insteadinsteadinstead derivedderivedderived fromfromfrom thethethe namenamename Musailima,Musailima,Musailima, thethethe falsefalsefalse prophetprophetprophet ofofof aaa monotheisticmonotheisticmonotheistic sectsect ((Margoliouth,Margoliouth, 19031903,,, pp.pp. 467467––83).83). MarkMark LidzbarskiLidzbarski debunkeddebunked Margoliouth’sMargoliouth’s allegation,allegation, andand then, then, followingfollowingfollowing thethethe borrowingborrowingborrowing concept,concept,concept, allegedallegedalleged thatthatthat thethethe wordwordword hashashas nonono meaningmeaningmeaning ononon itsitsits own,own,own, butbutbut cancancan bebebe tracedtracedtraced Lidzbarski tototo bebebe likelikelike thethethe GreekGreekGreekReligions σωτηιασωτηιασωτηια 2018 (soteria),(soteria),(soteria),, 9, x FOR indicating indicatingindicatingPEER REVIEW salvationsalvationsalvation (((Lidzbarski 19221922,,, pp.pp.pp. 8585––96)96)... MeirMeir BravmanBravman 4 of 10 decideddecided thatthat nonenone ofof thesethese explanationsexplanations waswas convincinconvincingg andand relatedrelated thethe termterm toto ““gihād”,gihād”, renderingrendering ititit asasas “defiance“defiance“defiance ofofof deathdeathdeathpeacefulness”,,, selfselfself---sacrificesacrifice—this (for(for of course thethe sakesake being ofof God Godachieved andand his hisby subjectingprophet),prophet), or oroneself “readiness“readiness to the obligationsforfor thethe required by God defiancedefiance ofof death” death”(n.d, ((BravmannBravmann vol 7, p. 702,,, 20092009). ,,, pp.1pp.1---3838).).). Both Both Both David David David Kuntslinger Kuntslinger Kuntslinger and and and Helmer Helmer Helmer Ringgren Ringgren Ringgren examinedexamined HebrewHebrew andand AramaicSomeAramaic W estern cognatescognates-based ofof thethe analyses word,word, withwith have thethe offered formerformer pointingtrulypointing far out-outfetched thatthat somesome interpretations. usages usages Margoliouth derived (((KüntslingerKüntslinger word “Muslim”,,, 19351935,,, pp.pp.pp. has 128128 little––37).37). to RinggrendoRinggren with the refersrefers Arabic toto various variousroot to which it is usually שלוםשלום ininin thethethe Qur’ānQur’ānQur’ān matchmatchmatchasserted thethethe HebrewHebrewHebrew that the partsparts ofof Qur’ānQur’ān andandtraced, versesverses but ofof that ancientancient it was poetrypoetry instead toto show showderived that,that, from whilewhile the he hename optedopted Musailima, forfor aa generalgeneral the false meaningmeaning prophet ofof of a monotheistic submissionsubmission andand surrender,surrender,sect (Margoliouth, therethere areare 1903 otherother, pp. usagesusages 467– (83).(RinggrenRinggren Mark ,Lidzbarski,, 19491949,,, pp.pp.pp. 1debunked1––27).27). Q2:66,Q2:66, Margoliouth’s forfor example,example, allegation, and then, “mussalamatun“mussalamatun lalafollowing shīyatashīyata fihā”,fihā”, the borrowing indicatesindicates aconcept,a heiferheifer thatthat alleged isis perfectperfect that the andand word freefree has fromfrom no blemish. blemish. meaning In In Q37:82 Q37:82on its own,andand but can be traced 26:89,26:89, hehe alsoalso pointspointsto outbeout like thatthat the itit means meansGreek σωτηια“sound”“sound” (soteria), asas inin QalbQalb indicating SalīmSalīm (1949).(1949). salvation HeHe drewdrew (Lidzbarski uponupon Isaiah Isaiah1922, pp.38:338:3 85 toto– 96). Meir Bravman thatthatthat explanations ininin contextcontextcontext meansmeansmeanswas convincin ““wholewhole andgand and undivided”undivided” related the (( RinRintermggrenggren to “,,, gihād”, rendering ((( ל לtheseםֵ֔ םֵ֔ ששshowshow anan almostalmost identicalidenticaldecided expressionexpression that none ((of 19491949).).). Incidentally,Incidentally,Incidentally,it ininin as ArabicArabicArabic “defiance parsing,parsing,parsing, of death thethethe termtermterm, self “sālim”-“sālim”“sālim”sacrifice isisis (for usedusedused the tototo denotesakedenotedenote of aaaGod nounnounnoun and (or(or(or his itsitsits pluralprophet),pluralplural form)form)form) or ,,“readiness, for the whichwhich isisis ““sound”,sound”, defiance i.e.,i.e., adheringadhering of death” toto allall thethe (Bravmann qualitiesqualities , of of2009 aa noun,noun,, pp.1 asas- 38 inin ). thethe Both wordword David “Qā’ilūn”,“Qā’ilūn”, Kuntslinger whereinwherein and thethe Helmer Ringgren formformform ofofof thethethe pluralpluralplural suffixsuffixsuffixexamined indicatesindicatesindicates Hebrew thatthatthat and iiittt isisis Aramaic aaa soundsoundsound cognates masculinemasculinemasculine of plural:plural:plural:the word, “jam“jam withʽʽʽ mudhakkarmudhakkar the former sālim” sālim”pointing (Ibn(Ibn out that some usages Küntslinger, 1935, pp. 128–37). Ringgren refers to various) שלום HishāmHishām,,, 2003).2003). in the Qur’ān match the Hebrew TheThe background backgroundparts that that of Qur’ān Ringgren Ringgren and andverses and Kuntslinger Kuntslinger of ancient poetry provide provide todd show isisis certainly certainly certainly that, while useful, useful, useful, he opted but but but forwhenwhen a general meaning of examiningexamining bothboth thethesubmission HebrewHebrew andand and ArabicArabic surrender, cognatescognates there,,, theytheythey are seemseemseem othereded usages tototo overlookoverlookoverlook (Ringgren certaincertaincertain, 1949 simplesimplesimple, pp. facts.facts.facts. 1–27). TheTheThe Q2:66, for example, firstfirstfirst isisis thatthatthat thethethe Qur’ānQur’ānQur’ān“mussalamatun occasionallyoccasionallyoccasionally la reportsreportsreports shīyata BiblicalBiblicalBiblical fihā”, storiesstoriesindicatesstories withwithwith a heifer itsitsits ownownown that——obviously obviouslyis perfect Arabic Arabic and free——renditionrendition from blemish. In Q37:82 and ofof thethe actualactual dialogue.dialogue.26:89, TheThe he also secondsecond points isis that thatout ,that,, ininin thethetheit means ArabianArabianArabian “sound” environment,environment,environment, as in Qalb asasas Salīm notednotednoted (1949). earlierearlierearlier He ininin drew SifreSifreSifre upon Isaiah 38:3 to ,werewere) that atat in leastleast context partialpartial means translationstranslations “whole and ofof thetheundivided” (Ringgren ל םֵ֔ ש) midrashmidrash toto DeuteDeuteronomyronomyshow an 32:2,32:2, almost therethere identical isis evidenceevidence expression thatthat therethere TorahTorah inin Arabic.Arabic. MostMost1949 likely,likely,). Incidentally, suchsuch translationstranslations in Arabic wouldwould parsing, havehave the originatedoriginated term “sālim” tootootoo fromfromfromis used thethethe to AramaicAramaicAramaic denote a TargumTargumTargum noun (or its plural form), ratherrather thanthan thethe HebrewHebrewwhich text.text. is “ Thesound”,The thirdthird i.e., isis that thatadhering,,, ininin thethethe to Qur’ān,Qur’ān,Qur’ān, all the AbrahamqualitiesAbrahamAbraham of isisis a thethethe noun, prototypeprototypeprototype as in the ofofof word thethethe perfectperfectperfect “Qā’ilūn”, wherein the worshipper.worshipper. Indeed,Indeed,form thethe of Qur’ānQur’ān the plural 2:1352:135 suffix revisitsrevisits indicates thethe argumentargument that it is thatthat a sound JewsJews andmasculineand ChristiansChristians plural: havehave “jam engagedengagedʽ mudhakkar sālim” (Ibn ininin overoverover thethethe identityidentityidentityHishām ofofof AbrahamAbrahamAbraham, 2003). withwithwith ,,, “They“They say,say, ‘Be‘Be JewsJews oror Christians,Christians, andand youyou willwill bebe guided.’guided.’ SaySay ‘Rather‘Rather‘Rather thethethe pathpathpath ofofof Abraham,Abraham,Abraham,The background aa ḥḥanīf;anīf; hehe waswas that not not Ringgren oneone ofof thethe and polytheists.”polytheists.” Kuntslinger TheThe provide Qur’ānQur’ānd 2:1282:128is certainly alsoalso hashas useful, but when AbrahamAbraham andand IshmaelIshmaelexamining layinglaying both thethe foundationsfoundations the Hebrew andofof thethe Arabic KaKaʽʽʽabaaba cognates inin MeccaMecca, they andand seem askingaskinged to GodGod overlook thatthat theythey certain bebe simple facts. The Muslim.Muslim. first is that the Qur’ān occasionally reports Biblical stories with its own—obviously Arabic—rendition CharlesCharles TorreyTorreyof pointedpointedthe actual outout dialogue. thatthat MuhammadMuhammad The second diddid notnotis that considerconsider, in the IslāmIslām Arabian asas aa new newenvironment, religionreligion (((Torrey,Torrey, as noted earlier in Sifre 19671967,,, p.64p.64),),), referringreferringreferringmidrash tototo thethethe to identificationidentificationidentificationDeuteronomy of ofof32:2, AbrahamAbrahamAbraham there is ininevidencein thethethe Qur’ān,Qur’ān,Qur’ān, that there notnotnot onlyonlywereonly asasasat leastMMuslimuslim partial,,, but but but translations of the exhortingexhorting hishis offspringoffspringTorah toto in bebe Arabic. suchsuch (QMost(Q 2:132).2:132). likely, RatherRather such translations strangely,strangely, TorreyTorrey would makes makeshave originated nono mentionmention too ofof from verseverse the Aramaic Targum Q2:131.Q2:131. HeHe thenthen statestateratherss thatthatthat than theretherethere the was waswasHebrew nonono realrealreal text. equivalenequivalenequivalen The thirdttt inininis thatAramaicAramaicAramaic, in the ororor Qur’ān, SyriacSyriacSyriac (( (AbrahamTorreyTorrey,,, 19671967 is the,,, p.101p.101 prototype),),), of the perfect andand asas such,such, hehe attributedattributedworshipper. thethe wordword Indeed, toto aa the genuinegenuine Qur’ān ArabicArabic 2:135 usageusage revisits... WW thehilehile argument disputingdisputing that thethe interpretationinterpretationJews and Christians ofof have engaged “submission”“submission”,,, hehehe offersinoffers over thethe the meaningmeaning identity ofof “yieldingAbraham“yielding to towith thethe, will“Theywill ofof God.”say,God.” ‘Be ThisThis Jews isis or wherewhere Christians, Q2:131Q2:131 and becomesbecomes you will be guided.’ Say soso importaimportantnt toto us:us:‘Rather IdhIdh qālaqāla the lahūlahū path RabbuhūRabbuhū of Abraham, “Aslim.”“Aslim.” a ḥanīf; Qāla,Qāla, he “Aslamto“Aslamto was not one lili rabbilrabbil of the alamīn.”alamīn.” polytheists.” TheThe Qur’ānQur’ān The Qur’ān is is 2:128 also has obviouslyobviously referringreferringAbraham toto GenesisGenesis and 17.1,17.1, Ishmael whereinwherein laying thethe the partlypartly foundations---translatedtranslatedtranslated of thetexttexttext Ka readsreadsreadsʽaba,,, “Whenin“When Mecca AbramAbram and asking waswas God that they be ninetyninety---ninenine yearsyears old,old,Muslim. TheThe Lord Lord appearedappeared beforebefore himhim andand saidsaid II amam GodGod AlAlmighty.mighty. WalkWalk beforebefore meme ,differentlydifferently did not consider::: somesome asas Islām “blameless”“blameless” as a new,,, religion (Torrey םיִֽםיִֽמָשמָש tamīm).(tamīm).(tamīm). TheTheTheCharles variousvariousvarious Torrey translatorstranslatorstranslators pointed havehavehave out thatrenderedrenderedrendered Muhammad) םיִֽםיִֽמָשמָש andand bebe othersothers asas “whole“whole---hearted.”hearted.”1967, p.64 WW),hile hilereferring therethere isisto agreement agreementthe identification thatthat inin order orderof Abraham tototo obeyobey God’sGod’sin the edicts,edicts,Qur’ān, oneone not mustmust only as Muslim, but submit,submit, thethe wordword ininexhorting contextcontext hashas his nonooffspring directdirect connotationconnotation to be such of(Qof submission; submission;2:132). Rather ratherrather strangely,,,, ititit indicatesindicatesindicates Torrey thethethe makes attemptattemptattempt no mention of verse toto bebe perfect,perfect, toto bebe withoutwithout blemish,blemish, toto bebe sinceresincere andand loyal.loyal. TheThe ArabicArabic contextualcontextual rendition,rendition, workingworking toReligions be perfect,2018, 9, to 293 be Q2:131.without Heblemish, then state to bes sincere that there and was loyal. no Thereal Arabicequivalen contextualt in Aramaic rendition, or Syriac working5 of (Torrey 10 , 1967, p.101), Arabic(((atmimatmim usage).).). SinceSinceSince. While thethethe disputing ArabsArabsArabs werewerewere the interpretation ofأتمم أتممأتمم the (Kun(Kun(Kun word tamāman)tamāman)tamāman) to a genuine ororor تماماتماماتماما كنكن offoff thethe HebrewHebrew cognate,cognate,and as wouldwould such, bebehe eithereitherattributed moremore familiarfamiliar withwith“submission” thethe AramaicAramaic Targum,Targum,, he offers thethe the moremore meaning significantsignificant of “yielding word,word, astoas inthein Onkelos,Onkelos, will of God.” wouldwould This havehave is beenwherebeen Q2:131 becomes lahū (tam)(tam)(tam) Rabbuhū ofof of thethe the HebrewHebrew Hebrew“Aslim.” BibleBible Bible Qāla, isisis “Aslamto generallygenerally generally li renderedrenderedrendered rabbil alamīn.” asas as The Qur’ān isםי םישש shalīm).(shalīm).(shalīm).(shal¯ım). ItItIt It isisis isso ratherratherrather rather importa noteworthynoteworthynoteworthy nt to us: Idh thatthatthat qāla) םי םי ֵ֔ ֵ֔ ָשָש ִֽווש ֵֵ֔֔א םי ֵ֔ ָש without(without(without-translated blemish).blemish).blemish). text reads , “When Abram was) ִֽוש theֵֵ֔֔ partlyא exceptexcept in in a a few fewobviously cases, cases, suchsuchreferring asas inin Job toJob Genesis 1:1, where where 17.1, it becomes becomeswherein ,,,םי ֵ֔ ָש If we are to acceptninety the-nine Midrash years old, in Sifre, The Lord as earlier appeared mentioned, before thehim Arabic and said version I am God would Almighty. seem Walk before me ,”differently The effective: some as “blameless. םיִֽמָש to (tamīm). the Aramaic The various cognate translators rather than have the rendered Hebrew םיִֽמָש to be more obviouslyand relatedbe

translation then ofothers Q 2:131 as is: “whole “His Lord-hearted.” said to W him;hile ‘Bethere whole is agreement (without blemish)’.that in order He responded,to obey God’s ‘I edicts, one must will (seek to) be whole/withoutsubmit, the word blemish in context for the has Lord no direct of the connotation Worlds.’” Since of submission; the Qur’an¯ summarizesrather, it indicates the attempt the entire episode,to it subsumesbe perfect, the to be rest without of the Genesis blemish, narrative to be sincere in Q2:132: and loyal. Abraham The Arabic bequeathed contextual unto rendition, working die(atmim unless). you Since the Arabs were أتمم for you(Kun the tamāman) d¯ın; do not or تماما كن his offspring, as didoff Jacob, the Hebrew “O our cognate, children. would God hasbe either purified are in a state of beingmore without familiar blemish.” with the Being Aramaic whole Targum, or without the more blemish, significant in context, word, would as in Onkelos, be only would have been tam) of already the Hebrew made, forBible example is generally rendered as) םיreferences ש God’s(shalīm). edicts. It is This rather is underlined noteworthy by that the םי ֵ֔ ָשachievable by following .(without has blemish) ִֽוQuran ש theֵ֔ ֵ֔א except his lord in “bia few Qalbin cases, Sal such¯ım”—a as in perfect Job 1:1, heart where (Q37:82). it becomes What ,םי ֵ֔ ָשto Abraham approaching effectively done then, is to simply use a word that would have been known to the Arabs with the presence of Jewish and Christian tribes. I have no reason as to why Western-based researchers have overlooked Q2:131. It is obvious, however, that in so doing, they missed the element of understanding the term Islam.¯ Jane Smith focused on how Muslim exegetes interpreted the term. Since their discussion, as noted earlier, focused upon the term solely from an Arabic linguistic perspective and creedal foundations, they largely opted for a meaning of submission. Relying upon the general use of the word from the root salima, Ringgren noted that it would appear that the general meaning is one of “wholeness, entirety, or totality... something that is whole, unbroken, and undivided and therefore sound and healthy, or peaceful and harmonious” (Ringgren 1949, pp. 1–35). Surprisingly, he still opted for a meaning of submission. Given the milieu to which Muhammad arrived, it would seem unlikely that Muhammad would have chosen a term that has the concept of submission as its primary meaning, since the polytheist gods also demanded submission (Baneth 2001, pp. 85–92). Abraham, as portrayed in Genesis, while subjecting himself to God’s commands, is not an example of abject submission: he questions and reasons with God. Were the primary meaning to be submission, the word would most likely have been istislam,¯ and that would not have been sourced to Genesis 17:1. A derived noun from istIslam,¯ mustaslimun,¯ occurs as a hapax legomenon in 37:26, where the connotation is clearly one of abject submission, describing the condition of the contumacious folk who, having mocked the concept of a day of reckoning, would now be gathered for sentencing. The long discourse on the meaning of Islam¯ does not contain much reference to Muslim exegetes who—at least the ones whose works I have examined—did not try to find the Hebrew Bible reference of Q2:131 to buttress their explanations. Since it is clear then that the Qur’an¯ was working off a Biblical reference for its coinage, this segues into the discussion about ¯ıman,¯ that I, as do most other researchers on the subject, translate as “faith” or “belief”. Q49:14 makes a clear distinction between Islam¯ and ¯ıman:¯ the bedu Arabs say, “We have believed!” Say, “You have not believed; say rather, ‘we have professed Islam,’¯ for faith has not entered your hearts.” Kazi(1966) and Smith(1975) excellently investigated the terms to the point where a summary of their findings will suffice for our purposes. The Muslim savants of the second and third hijri centuries debated over what removed a person from being considered a ‘mu’min” (believer). The Khawarij, Mu’tazilites, and Shi’as set the most rigid standards, insisting that ¯ıman¯ was basically belief professed by the tongue and felt in the heart, and manifested in abstinence from sin—although they differed regarding the extent of the sin that would expel someone from being a mu’min (Kazi 1966, pp. 227–37). With the spread of Asharite theology, ¯ıman¯ was deemed as restricted to belief, and not necessarily manifested in conduct (Kazi 1966, pp. 227–37). This lessening of standards was not accepted by everyone, and thus a more appropriate nomenclature was sought for those who did not merit the designation of mu’min; “muslim” seems to have been the appropriate choice. By the end of the Umayyad period (circa 750), the scholars had identified Islam¯ as the religion of the Arabs, and “Muslim” as the designation for the followers of this religion (McAuliffe and Clare 2001, pp. 398–417). Religions 2018, 9, 293 6 of 10

Abu Hanifa, in differentiating between Islam¯ and ¯ıman,¯ considered the former term as indicating submission and subjection and the latter denoting confirmation and belief; yet, he noted that one Religionswas not 2018 possibleReligions, 9, x FOR 2018 without PEER, 9, x REVIEW FOR the PEER other REVIEW (Kazi 1966, pp. 227–37). By the sixth century hijri, Al-Shahristani6 of 10 6 of 10 (d. 548/1158) had come up with what is now accepted as the majoritarian view: Islam¯ denotes outward submission,submission,submission, and and both both aand a mu’min mu’min both aand andmu’min a ahypocrite hypocrite and a hypocrite(Al (Al-Shahristani-Shahristani (Al-Shahristani, 19101910, pp. pp., 531910 53–54)–54), pp. can can 53 practice practice–54) can it. it. practice A A it. A mu’min,mu’min, from frommu’min, this this outlook,from outlook, this denotes denotes outlook, one denotes who who sincerely sincerelyone who believes,sincerely andand believes, whowho acts and accordingaccording who acts toaccording to the dictates dictates to the dictates ofof the the faith. faith.of the faith. JaneJane Smith SmithJane examined examined Smith examined the the two two terms the terms two in inthe terms the 14 14 hadiths in hadiths the 14 and hadiths and concluded concluded and concluded that that there there that is a is clearthere a clear line is a line ofclear line of demarcationof demarcationdemarcation drawn drawn between drawn between Islāmbetween Islam ¯and andIslām īmān.¯ım andan.¯ Islām Islīmān.am¯ consists consists Islām ofconsists ofperforming performing of performing five five specific specific five ritualsspecific rituals rituals (sh(shahahādah,adah,¯ (sh ṣs.alāt,ahādah,alat,¯ zakāt, zakat, ¯ṣalāt, sṣ.awm, zakāt, and ṣawm, hḥ. ajj), whereasandwhereas ḥajj),¯ım īmān whereasan¯ is is faith faith īmān in in various isvarious faith elementsin elements various that that elementsare are mentioned that are mentioned inin the the Qur’ān Qur’in an¯the and and Qur’ān traditional traditional and traditional literature, literature, literature, such such as as God, God, such the the as messengers, God, messengers, the messengers, Muhammad, Muhammad, Muhammad, angels, angels, Heaven, Heaven, angels, Heaven, Hell,Hell, Reckoning, Reckoning,Hell, Reckoning, and and divine divine and decree decree divine (Smith ( Smithdecree, 1975). 1975 (Smith). Like Like, 1975). Kazi Kazi, ,Like she she Kazifound found, she a aclear clearfound distinction distinction a clear distinction was was not not was not alwaysalways made madealways and and made that that the theand terms terms that thewere were terms deemed deemed were to todeemed have have an an to interlocking interlocking have an interlocking relationship relationship relationship ( (Smith ,1975 1975). (Smith). , 1975). derivativesderivatives) and its derivatives are are far far more more are frequent frequentfar more in in thefrequent the Qur’ Qur’ānan¯ in (859)the (859) Qur’ān than than salima (859) salima andthan salima آمن)āmana) and itsits آمن ) TheThe root root āmanaamanaThe¯ root andits derivatives its derivativesand its (157). derivatives (157). This This frequency, (157). frequency, This Kazi frequency, convincingly Kazi convincingly Kazi contends, convincingly contends, as well contends, as thewell Kharijite as as the well Kharijite and as Mu’tazilethe andKharijite and Mu’tazilerefusal to Mu’tazilerefusal consider to sinnersrefusalconsider asto sinners consider mu’min as¯ın, sinners mu’minīn indicate as thatmu’minīn, indicate the earliest that, indicate the followers earliest that the of followers theearliest Prophet followersof the were Prophet called of the Prophet weremu’min calledun¯were mu’minūn (Kazi called 1966 mu’minūn ,( pp.Kazi 227–37)., 1966 (Kazi, pp. It, is2271966 significant–37)., pp. It 227 is toosignificant–37). that It is the significant too caliphs that the from too caliphs that the timethe from caliphs of the Umar time from were of the time of Umarcalled were amUmar¯ır called al-mu’min were amīr called¯ın, al- notmu’minīn, amīr “amir al- al-muslimmu’minīn, not “amir¯ın”. not al- Inmuslimīn “amir Q 2:62, al- themuslimīn”. In Qur’ Q 2:62,an¯ ” juxtaposes. theIn Q Qur’ān 2:62, “thosethe juxtaposes Qur’ān who juxtaposes believe” “those “those who(alladh believe”¯ınawhoaman¯ (alladhīna believe”u)¯ against (alladhīna āmanū) Jews andagainst āmanū) Christians, Jews against and instead Christians,Jews and of using Christians, instead the term of instead using “those the of who usingterm profess “those the term Isl whoam”¯ “those who profess(alladh ¯ınaIslām”profess aslam (alladhīnau), ¯Islām” thus (alladhīna underliningaslamū), thus aslamū), Kazi’s underlining contention.thus underlining Kazi’s contention. Kazi’s contention. KaziKazi however howeverKazi asserts however asserts that that asserts the the expression expressionthat the expression āmanuamanu¯ was was āmanu new, new, wassince since new, there there since was was there “no “no background backgroundwas “no background to to to itsits usage usage inits in the usage the pre pre-Isl -inIslāmic theamic¯ pre Arabic Arabic-Islāmic language” language” Arabic language” (Kazi (Kazi, 19661966 (Kazi,, pp. pp., 2271966 227–37).–37)., pp. Kazi’s 227 Kazi’s–37). assessment assessment Kazi’s assessment is is highly highly is highly questionable,questionable,questionable, as as we we simply simply as we do do simply not not have have do accessnot access have to to accesswritten written to material materialwritten tomaterial to make make such to such make an an authoritative such authoritative an authoritative pronouncement.pronouncement.pronouncement. Even Even the the foreign Even foreign the etymology etymology foreign etymology proponent, proponent, proponent, Arthur Arthur Jeffrey, Jeffery Arthur agrees (Jeffery Jeffrey, that 2007 agrees by), Muhammad’s agrees that by that Muhammad’s by time,Muhammad’s the wordtime, time,wasthe word in the normal word was wasin usage, normal in normal albeit usage, usage,with albeit several albeit with with shades several several of shadesmeaning shades of of (meaning meaningPregill, 2007). (PregillPregill We ,2007 2007). do). We do knowWe do that knowknow long that beforethat long long Muhammad, before before Muhammad, Muhammad, the Jews and the the JewsChristians Jews and and ChristiansChristians said “Āmen” said said, “ derived“Āmen”Amen”,¯ from, derived derived the Hebrew fromfrom thethe Hebrew emunah) (emunah)at the end at of at the prayers, the end end of offrom prayers, prayers, whence from from comes whence whence the comes Islamic comes the Āmīn, the Islamic Islamic and Āmīn, weAm¯ can ¯ın,and ass and weume can we that canass ume that) אמנןה(Hebrew (emunahאמנןה thoseassume who thatthose lived those who in the who lived Hijaz lived in usedthe in theHijaz the Hijaz Arabic used used the equivalent. theArabic Arabic equivalent. equivalent. PsalmPsalm 15 15 states:Psalm states: 15 states: 1. LORD, who may dwell in your sacred tent? 1.1.L LORDORD, who, who may may dwell dwell in in your your sacred sacred tent? tent? WhoWho may mayWho live live on may on your your live holy holyon yourmountain? mountain? holy mountain? 2. The one who walks uprightly (blamelessly), 2. The one2. whoThe walks one who uprightly walks uprightly(blamelessly), (blamelessly), Who does what is righteous, WhoWho does speaksWho what the does is truth righteous, what from is righteous, their heart; 3. WhoWhose speaks tongueWho the speaks utterstruth fro nothem slander, truth their fro heart;m their heart; 3. WhoseWho3. does tongueWhose no wrongutters tongue no to slander,autters neighbor, no slander, and casts no slur on others; 4. WhoWho does despisesWho no wrong does a vile noto person awrong neighbor, to a neighbor, and casts no slur on others; andbut casts honors no thoseslur on who others; fear the LORD; 4. WhoWho 4despises. keeps Who an a despises oathvile person even a vile when person it hurts, and does not change their mind; but honorsbut those honors who those fear the who L ORDfear; the LORD; 5. Who lends money to the poor without interest; Who keepsWho an oath keeps even an oathwhen even it hurts, when it hurts, Who does not accept a bribe against the innocent. and does notand change does not their change mind; their mind; Whoever does these things 5. Whowill 5lends never. Who money be shaken.lends to moneythe poor to without the poor interest; without interest;

WhoRabbi does Simlai,Who not accept indoes Makkot not a bribe accept 24a, against a a Talmudic bribe the against innocent. tractate the that innocent. predates Muhammad, offers the following explanation.Whoever ThedoesWhoever Gemara these does things analyzes these things theseverses: “He that walketh uprightly”: this is referring to one whowill conducts neverwill be himself shaken. never like be shaken. our forefather Abraham, as it is written concerning him: “Walk before MeRabbi and be Simlai, thouRabbi whole-hearted” in Simlai,Makkot in 24a, Makkot a (Genesis Talmudic 24a, 17).a Talmudic tractate The commentary that tractate predates that continues, Muhammad, predates basedMuhammad, offers upon the Habakkuk followingoffers the following explanationexplanation. The Gemar. Thea analyzes Gemara these analyzes verses: these “He verses: that walketh “He that uprightly” walketh uprightly”: this is referring: this is toreferring one to one who conductswho himselfconducts like himself our forefather like our forefather Abraham, Abraham, as it is written as it isconcerning written concerning him: “Walk him: before “Walk Me before Me and be thouand whole be thou-hearted” whole -(hearted”Genesis 17 (Genesis). The commentary 17). The commentary continues, continues, based upon based Habakkuk upon Habakkuk2:4, that 2:4, that ,be emunatu) by his faith” by his(Epstein faith”, 1935).(Epstein Another, 1935). tractate, Another tractate ,באִֽו(emunatuנ םוbe) ,באlive ִֽונםוBut the righteous“But the righteousshall live (shall“ בנָ ִֽאִָֽנ ָבש נָ —ִֽאִָֽנ”iָminש —ShabbathShabbath 97a, has God 97a, referring has God toreferring the Jewish to the people Jewish as people“mam iasnim “mam bnei imamnim bneiimin” mam believers,the children the of children believers of (Epsteinbelievers, 1935).(Epstein Faith, 1935). is elemental Faith is elemental to the Christian to the Christianfaith faith —ִֽאִָֽנָ,believersש—ִֽאִָֽנָש

ReligionsReligions 2018 2018, 9, ,x 9 FOR, x FOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW 6 of6 10 of 10 Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10 submission,submission, and and both both a mu’min a mu’min and and a hypocrite a hypocrite (Al (-AlShahristani-Shahristani, 1910, 1910, pp., pp. 53 –5354)–54) can can practice practice it. Ait. A submission, and both a mu’min and a hypocrite (Al-Shahristani, 1910, pp. 53–54) can practice it.mu’min, A mu’min, from from this this outlook, outlook, denotes denotes one one who who sincerely sincerely believes, believes, and and who who acts acts according according to the to the dictates dictates mu’min, from this outlook, denotes one who sincerely believes, and who acts according to the dictatesof ofthe the faith. faith. of the faith. JaneJane Smith Smith examined examined the the two two terms terms in thein the 14 14hadiths hadiths and and concluded concluded that that there there is ais clear a clear line line of of Jane Smith examined the two terms in the 14 hadiths and concluded that there is a clear line demarcationof demarcation drawn drawn between between Islām Islām and and īmān. īmān. Islām Islām consists consists of ofperforming performing five five specific specific rituals rituals demarcation drawn between Islām and īmān. Islām consists of performing five specific rituals(sh (shahādah,ahādah, ṣalāt, ṣalāt, zakāt, zakāt, ṣawm, ṣawm, and and ḥajj), ḥajj), whereas whereas īmān īmān is faithis faith in variousin various elements elements that that are are mentioned mentioned (shahādah, ṣalāt, zakāt, ṣawm, and ḥajj), whereas īmān is faith in various elements that are mentionedin inthe the Qur’ān Qur’ān and and traditional traditional literature, literature, such such as asGod, God, the the messengers, messengers, Muhammad, Muhammad, angels, angels, Heaven, Heaven, in the Qur’ān and traditional literature, such as God, the messengers, Muhammad, angels, Heaven,Hell, Hell, Reckoning, Reckoning, and and divine divine decree decree (Smith (Smith, 1975)., 1975). Like Like Kazi Kazi, she, she found found a clear a clear distinction distinction was was not not Hell, Reckoning, and divine decree (Smith, 1975). Like Kazi, she found a clear distinction was notalways always made made and and that that the the terms terms were were deemed deemed to haveto have an an interlocking interlocking relationship relationship (Smith (Smith, 1975)., 1975). and) and its its derivatives derivatives are are far f amorer more frequent frequent in inthe the Qur’ān Qur’ān (859) (859) than than salima salima (آمن) آمن) always made and that the terms were deemed to have an interlocking relationship (Smith, 1975). TheThe root root āmana āmana and its derivatives are far more frequent in the Qur’ān (859) than salimaand and its its derivatives derivatives (157). (157). This This frequency, frequency, Kazi Kazi convincingly convincingly contends, contends, as aswell well as asthe the Kharijite Kharijite and and (آمن) The root āmana and its derivatives (157). This frequency, Kazi convincingly contends, as well as the Kharijite andMu’tazile Mu’tazile refusal refusal to considerto consider sinners sinners as asmu’minīn mu’minīn, indicate, indicate that that the the earliest earliest followers followers of theof the Prophet Prophet Mu’tazile refusal to consider sinners as mu’minīn, indicate that the earliest followers of the Prophetwere were called called mu’minūn mu’minūn (Kazi (Kazi, 1966, 1966, pp., pp. 227 227–37).–37). It is It significantis significant too too that that the the caliphs caliphs from from the the time time of of were called mu’minūn (Kazi, 1966, pp. 227–37). It is significant too that the caliphs from the time Umarof Umar were were called called amīr amīr al- almu’minīn,-mu’minīn, not not “amir “amir al- almuslimīn-muslimīn”. In”. QIn 2:62,Q 2:62, the the Qur’ān Qur’ān juxtaposes juxtaposes “those “those Umar were called amīr al-mu’minīn, not “amir al-muslimīn”. In Q 2:62, the Qur’ān juxtaposes “thosewho who believe” believe” (alladhīna (alladhīna āmanū) āmanū) against against Jews Jews and and Christians, Christians, instead instead of ofusing using the the term term “those “those who who who believe” (alladhīna āmanū) against Jews and Christians, instead of using the term “those whoprofess profess Islām” Islām” (alladhīna (alladhīna aslamū), aslamū), thus thus underlining underlining Kazi’s Kazi’s contention. contention. profess Islām” (alladhīna aslamū), thus underlining Kazi’s contention. KaziKazi however however asserts asserts that that the the expression expression āmanu āmanu was was new, new, since since there there was was “no “no background background to to Kazi however asserts that the expression āmanu was new, since there was “no background itsto its usage usage in thein the pre pre-Islāmic-Islāmic Arabic Arabic language” language” (Kazi (Kazi, 1966, 1966, pp., pp. 227 227–37).–37). Kazi’s Kazi’s assessment assessment is highlyis highly its usage in the pre-Islāmic Arabic language” (Kazi, 1966, pp. 227–37). Kazi’s assessment is highlyquestionable, questionable, as aswe we simply simply do do not not have have access access to towritten written material material to tomake make such such an an authoritative authoritative questionable, as we simply do not have access to written material to make such an authoritativepronouncement. pronouncement. Even Even the the foreign foreign etymology etymology proponent, proponent, Arthur Arthur Jeffrey, Jeffrey, agrees agrees that that by by Muhammad’s Muhammad’s pronouncement. Even the foreign etymology proponent, Arthur Jeffrey, agrees that by Muhammad’stime, time, the the word word was was in innormal normal usage, usage, albeit albeit with with several several shades shades of ofmeaning meaning (Pregill (Pregill, 2007)., 2007). We We do do time, the word was in normal usage, albeit with several shades of meaning (Pregill, 2007). We doknow know that that long long before before Muhammad, Muhammad, the the Jews Jews and and Christians Christians said said “Āmen” “Āmen”, derived, derived from from the the Hebrew Hebrew emunah) (emunah) at theat the end end of prayers,of prayers, from from whence whence comes comes the the Islamic Islamic Āmīn, Āmīn, and and we we can can ass assumeume that that) אמנןה אמנןהknow that long before Muhammad, the Jews and Christians said “Āmen”, derived from the Hebrew .emunah) at the end of prayers, from whence comes the Islamic Āmīn, and we can assume thatthose those who who lived lived in thein the Hijaz Hijaz used used the the Arabic Arabic equivalent. equivalent) אמנןה those who lived in the Hijaz used the Arabic equivalent. PsalmPsalm 15 15states: states: Psalm 15 states: 1. 1. LORDLORD, who, who may may dwell dwell in inyour your sacred sacred tent? tent? 1. LORD, who may dwell in your sacred tent? WhoWho may may live live on on your your holy holy mountain? mountain? Who may live on your holy mountain? 2. 2. TheThe one one who who walks walks uprightly uprightly (blamelessly), (blamelessly), 2. The one who walks uprightly (blamelessly), WhoWho does does what what is righteous,is righteous, Who does what is righteous, WhoWho speaks speaks the the truth truth fro from theirm their heart; heart; Who speaks the truth from their heart; Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10 3. 3. WhoseWhose tongue tongue utters utters no no slander, slander, 3. Whose tongue utters no slander, ArabicWho (e.g.Who does, Q does 12:2, no no wrong 16:103, wrong to 26:195, ato neighbor, a neighbor, 41:44, and 42:7). The derived reasoning was that since God cannot lie, then every word had to literally be from an Arabic source. Who does no wrong to a neighbor, andand casts casts no no slur slur on on others; others; and casts no slur on others; Another problematic concept was the widespread Muslim contention that the previous scriptures4. 4. WhoWho despiseswere despises corrupted a vile a vile person and person therefore not reliable. This is underlined by the idea that reliance upon 4. Who despises a vile person rejectingbutbut honorsJudaic honors traditions those those who who— fearknown fear the the LasORD Lisrā’īliyatORD; ; —would lead to false interpretations (Mohammed, but honors those who fear the LORD; 2015,Who p. Who15) keeps. Rejecting keeps an an oath biblicaloath even even wheninfluence when it hurts,it negatively hurts, affected exegesis, given that, as Reuven Firestone Who keeps an oath even when it hurts, aptly andnoteand doesd, does“the not notQur’ān change change could their their mind;not mind; possibly exist without its scriptural predecessors as subtexts” and does not change their mind; (Firestone, 2004, pp. 1-22). The dynamic influence that the Qur’ān has had upon the Arabic language 5. Who lends money to the poor without interest; has5. alsoWho exacerbated lends money th eto problem. the poor This without is because interest; almost every classical dictionary of Arabic relies 5. Who lends money to the poor without interest; heavilyWho Whoon doesthe does Qur’ān not not accept accept for elucidation,a bribe a bribe against against often the thewithout innocent. innocent. regard to differences between terminological Who does not accept a bribe against the innocent. and quotidianWhoeverWhoever usage.does does these these things things Whoever does these things Iwill relywill never on never some be beshaken. late shaken. discoveries within the field of Islāmic studies to form certain relevant will never be shaken. premises. The recent discovery of what some term as the Birmingham manuscript basically RabbiRabbi Simlai, Simlai, in Makkotin Makkot 24a, 24a, a Talmudic a Talmudic tractate tractate that that predates predates Muhammad, Muhammad, offers offers the the following following vouchsafes what the Muslim tradition has always held: that the Qur’ān goes back to the time of Rabbi Simlai, in Makkot 24a, a Talmudic tractate that predates Muhammad, offers the followingexplanation explanation. The. The Gemar Gemara analyzesa analyzes these these verses: verses: “He “He that that walketh walketh uprightly” uprightly”: this: this is referringis referring to oneto one Religions 2018Muhammad,, 9, 293 unlike the late dating that researchers have claimed, such as Patricia Crone,7 of 10 Michael explanation. The Gemara analyzes these verses: “He that walketh uprightly”: this is referring to onewho who conducts conducts himself himself like like our our forefather forefather Abraham, Abraham, as asit is it writtenis written concerning concerning him: him: “Walk “Walk before before Me Me Cook, and John Wansbrough, for example. The presence of Christian and Jewish tribes in the Arab who conducts himself like our forefather Abraham, as it is written concerning him: “Walk before Meand and be bethou thou whole whole-hearted”-hearted” (Genesis (Genesis 17 ).17 The). The commentary commentary continues, continues, based based upon upon Habakkuk Habakkuk 2:4 2:4, that, that peninsula long before Muhammad’s birth meant that, cognate consideration aside, certain religious ,be, beemunatu) emunatu) emunatu) by by by his his his faith” faith” faith” (Epstein (Epstein (Epstein, 19351935)., 1935).). Another Another tractate, tractate בbe ,אבִֽואנִֽוםונ) םו ) and be thou whole-hearted” (Genesis 17). The commentary continues, based upon Habakkuk2:4, that2:4, that “But“But “But the the righteous righteous shall shall live live concepts, even if they had stemmed from foreign terminology, had become completely Arabized by בנ ָ בִֽנָ אִִָֽֽאנִָָֽשנ ָש— —”be emunatu) by his faith” (Epstein, 1935). Anothertractate, tractate,Shabbath Shabbath 97a, 97a, has has has God God God referring referring referring to to tothe the the Jewish JewishJewish people people as as“mam as “mam “maminiminiminim bnei bnei bnei mam mam mamimin”—imin”imin ,באִֽונםו) But the righteous shall live“ Religions Religions2018, 9, x 2018 FOR, 9PEER,Muhammad’s x FOR REVIEW PEER REVIEW time (Griffith, 2013; Gilliot and Larcher, 2001).1 There is also7 of a 10 midrash 7 of 10 dated to the believers,——believers,believers, the the the children children children of believersof of believers believers (Epstein (Epstein (Epstein, 1935)., 1935). 1935 Faith). Faith Faith is elementalis elemental is elemental to theto the to Christian theChristian faith faithִֽ—אִִָֽֽאנִָָֽש נָבשנָ ִֽאִָֽנָש —”Shabbath 97a, has God referring to the Jewish people as “maminim bnei mamimin second or third century Sifre to Deuteronomy 32:2 that states, “When God revealed Himself to give believers, the children of believers (Epstein, 1935). Faith is elementalas towell, theas and Christian well,Christian reference and faith reference faith to it asoccurs well,to it occursmore and reference than more 230 than to times it 230 occurs in times the more Testament. in thanthe Testament. 230 timesIt is unthinkable in It the is unthinkable Testament. that any It that is of unthinkable any of—ִֽאִָֽנָש the Torah to Israel, He did so not in one language, but in four: in Hebrew, in Greek, in Arabic, and in the Arabicthe Arabic-thatspeaking any-speaking of Christian the Arabic-speaking Christian or Jewish or Christian Jewish tribe would tribe or Jewish would have tribe not have would known not have known the not Arabic the known Arabic word the Arabic in word a word in a in a Aramaic” (Goitein, 1958, pp. 149–63). As Goitein astutely pointed out, whereas such translation was terminologicaltermterminologicalinological context. context. context. probably never committed to writing, it certainly must have been present via an oral method. The Q 2:260Q states: 2:260Q 2:260 states:Abraham states: Abraham Abrahamsaid, “Lord, said, said, “Lord,show “Lord, me show showhow me you me how howgive you youlife give to give the life life dead” to to the the. dead”God dead”. asked,. God God “Doasked, asked, “Do “Do you Arabs were therefore not as unfamiliar with Biblical material as the proponents of the foreign Abraham answered, answered, “Certainly, “Certainly, but just but to justset my to setheart my at heart ease” at. Afterease” . After .”(أولم Abraham .”(تؤمن) أولم تؤمن) ?you notyou believe? not believe not believe?etymology ( camp)”. Abraham might suppose. answered, “Certainly, but just to set my heart at ease”. After which, which, which,God gave God him gave some him directions some directions that he that obeyed. he obeyed. Genesis Genesis 15 seems 15 toseems be the to referencebe the reference for this for this of the (أسلم) ¯God gave himLet some us examine directions the that first he of obeyed. the three Genesis terms: 15 Islām. seems It tois bederived the reference from the for fourth this Qur’ formanic Qur’ānicQur’ānic narrative narrative with the with most the important most important part being part verse being 6 verse which 6 tellswhich us: tells And us: he And (Abraham) he (Abraham) the (salima), most important which occurs part beingin the Qur’ān verse 6 whichin its various tells us: forms And some he (Abraham) 157 times. believed The verb in forms of سلم narrativeverb with It evidentseems evident then that then the that Arabic the Arabic īmān involves īmān involves conviction conviction in the in the .(וי seems ְ מאאItִֽ ו).( וי ְ מאאLordִֽ ו) believedbelieved in the Lord in the occur). It22 seems times, evident and the then noun, that Islām, the Arabicfrom that¯ıman¯ verb, involves is found conviction in eight inverses. the heart, The meanings and of ) أسلمthe Lord heart, andheart, not and simply not simply an outward an outward declaration declaration of belief of in belief God. in This God. certainly This certainly supports supports the findings the findings of of not simplyvarious an outward verb forms declaration of a common of belief root in God. in Arabic This certainlycan seem supports unrelated the to findings each other. of Professors The second form ProfessorsProfessors Fred Donner Fred Donner and Robert and Robert Shedinger Shedinger that Muhammad that Muhammad and his and early his followers early followers saw saw Fred Donnerof salima, and Robertfor example, Shedinger sallama, that Muhammadused transitively, and hismeans early to followers hand over saw or themselvesto give over assomething. a themselvesthemselves as a community as a community of believers, of believers, including including Jews, Christians, Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians Zoroastrians, and other, and other communityUsed of with believers, a preposition, including it Jews,means Christians, to greet, as Zoroastrians, in Sallama alaihi. and other One monotheists, must avoid arbitrarily rather than selecting monotheists,monotheists, rather thanrather as than a “new as a or “new separate or separate religious religious confession” confession” (Donner (Donner, 2010, p., 2010 69; Shedinger, p. 69; Shedinger, , as a “newa ormeaning separate from religious any particular confession” root (Donner simply 2010 because, p. 69; itShedinger fulfills a 2012 cherished, p. 81). objective; Muhammad an offered 2012, p.2012 81)., Muhammad p. 81). Muhammad declared declared that he that was heno was innovator no innovator among among the apostles, the apostles, meaning meaning that he was that he was declaredexplanation that he was should no innovator be accompanied among the by apostles, incontrovertible meaning proof(s). that he was not bringing anything not bringingnot bringing anything anything new or newdifferent or different from what from they what had they delivered had delivered (Q46:9). (Q46:9). Professor Professor Donner Donnersums sums new or differentJane from Smith, what in her they 1975 had doctoral delivered dissertation, (Q46:9). Professor noted that Donner, “[W] sumsithin it the up Muslim as follows: community itself, it up asit follows: up as follows: there has been a change in the understanding and interpretation of Islām, i.e., that the word connotes BelieversBelievers then,Believers whatever then, then, whatever religious whatever religious confession religious confession they confession may they have theymay belonged havemay havebelonged to— belongedwhether to—whether to—whether (non- (non- to Muslims of the current century something different (or additional to) what it meant to those of the trinitarian)trinitarian)(non-trinitarian) Christians, Christians, Jews, Christians,or Jews, what or we what Jews,might we orcall might what “Qur’ānic call we “Qur’ānic might monotheists” call monotheists” “Qur’ recentanic¯ monotheists” converts recent converts from recent from early centuries of Islām” (Smith, 1975, pp. 2–3). After 9/11, some Muslim apologists, trying to distance paganismpaganism—convertswere— expectedwere from expected paganism—were to live strictly to live strictly by expected the lawby the that to law live God that strictly has God revealed by has the revealed law to their that to Godcommunities. their has communities. revealed to their faith from the stereotype of violence, tried to focus on one derivative of Salima (as opposed to Jews shouldJewstheir should obey communities. the obey laws the of laws the Jews Torah; of the should Torah;Christians obey Christians the those laws of ofthose the the Gospels of Torah; the Gospels Christians; and those; and those who those ofwere who the not Gospels; were not its fourth form, aslama) to insist that Islām comes from the word ‘salam’ and means peace (see for membersmembers ofand one those of of the one who preexisting of the were preexisting not monotheist members monotheist of communities one of communities the preexisting should should object monotheist theobject injunctions the communities injunctions of the should of the example, Balogun, 2014). Our task then is specific: it is not to simply look for the root, but to examine Qur’ān.Qur’ān. Theobject general The the general term injunctions for term these for of new thethese Qur’Qur’ānic newan.¯ Qur’ānic The monotheists general monotheists term was for M uslimwas these M new(uslimDonner, Qur’ (Donner, 2010anic¯ monotheists, p.71 2010). , p.71). the word’s usage and if possible, refer to a narrative or concept already known to the Arabs. Donner’sDonner’s statementwas Muslim. statement is supported (Donner is supported 2010by Q, 5:48: p.71) by Q“For 5:48: each “For among each among you, we you, have we made have a made sharī aʽa sharī and ʽa and Several lexicons provide a gamut of meanings, including “safety” as well as “freedom from a program”a program”. The Qur’ān. The Qur’ān also takes also time takes to time chastise to chastise those who those do who not observedo not observe the sabbath the sabbath with full with full Donner’sblemish,” statement but end is up supported referring by to Q the 5:48: Qur’ān “For eachto proffer among Islām you, as we submission have made (khu a sharḍū¯ıʽ)a orand accepting devotiondevotion (2:65). (2:65).The idea The of idea conquest of conquest by the bysword the —swordat least—at in least early in Islām early— Islāmand of— andopposition of opposition to to a program”.what The the Qur’Prophetan¯ also has takesbrought time (al to-Jawhari chastise, those1957; whoal-Isfahani do not, observe1961, pp. the 240 sabbath–1; Ibn withManẓ fullūr n.d., pp. what wewhat deem we Islāmic deem Islāmic principles, principles, seem problematic seem problematic given t givenhe absence the absence of any ofsignificant any significant polemic polemic devotion342 (2:65).–50). TheIsma’il idea al of-Jawhari conquest (d.c. by 400), the in sword—at his Tāj al least-Lugha in, earlydeduced Islam—and¯ that the aslama of opposition and istaslama to forms againstagainst Muhammad’s Muhammad’s movement movement for at leastfor at a leastcentury a century after his after death his (Donnerdeath (Donner, 2010)., The2010). later The later what weare deem contextually Islamic¯ principles, equivalent seem and problematictherefore underline given thed the absence meaning of any as significant“submission” polemic (1957). The MuslimMuslim descriptions descriptions of bloody of bloody conquests conquests are based are largelybased largely on hadith on hadithliterature, literature, a genre a that genre often that often against Muhammad’sgeneral trend movementin the tafsirs for is at not least different, a century as after noted his in death Jane (Donner Smith’s 2010 study). The of 14 later major Muslim exegetes, to tells ustells more us about more howabout th eirhow writers their writers wanted wanted the past the to past be than to be what than it what was. itCertainly, was. Certainly, there were there were descriptionsrepresent of bloody the explanation conquests areover based a 14-century largely onperiod hadith (Smith literature,, 1975, pp. a genre 218– that26). Interestingly, often tells us she cites battles,battles, but the but spread the spread of Muhammad’s of Muhammad’s movement movement seemed, seemed, at least at in least the early in the stages, early stages, before the before rise the rise more aboutal-Rāzī how who, their among writers other wanted definitions, the past to offer be thaned that what the it term was. Certainly,means “entering there were into battles, wholeness or of a distinct reconstruction of the term “Islām”, not so much to convert as to impose a political of a distinctbut reconstruction the spread of of Muhammad’s the term “Islām” movement, not so seemed, much to at convert least in theas to early impose stages, a political before the rise of a hegemonyhegemony (Donner (Donner, 2010, p.109, 2010)., p.109). distinct reconstruction of the term “Isl am”,¯ not so much to convert as to impose a political hegemony The lastThe term last of term our analysisof our analysis is dīn. Inis dīn.Hebrew, In Hebrew, Aramaic Aramaic and Arabic, and Arabic, the word the seems word toseems deal to deal (Donner 12010 See, p. for 109). example, Sidney Griffith. 2013. The Bible in Arabic: The Scriptures of the People of the Book in the Language with justice.with justice. From Hebrew From Hebrew and Aramaic and Aramaic, we have, we the have term the beth term din beth to refer din to to refer a place to a where place judgment where judgment The lastofterm Islam of. Princeton: our analysis Princeton is d¯ın. University In Hebrew, Press Aramaic, pp. 1–53. and Arabic, the word seems to deal with is issued, and several verses in the Tanakh refer to this type of usage as in Genesis 6:3, 15:14, 49:16, is issued, andjustice. several From verses Hebrew in the and Tanakh Aramaic, refer we to havethis type the termof usage beth as din in toGenesis refer to 6:3, a place 15:14, where 49:16, judgment is and Deuteronomyand Deuteronomy 32:36. The32:36. Qur’ān The Qur’ān speaks speaks of the yawm of the alyawm-din, aland-din, describes and describes the happenings the happenings on on issued, and several verses in the Tanakh refer to this type of usage as in Genesis 6:3, 15:14, 49:16, and that day in terms that are akin to a courthouse scenario. People appear with a record of their deeds that day in Deuteronomyterms that are32:36. akin to The a courthouse Qur’an¯ speaks scenario. of the yawmPeopleal-din, appear and with describes a record the of happeningstheir deeds on that day (Q84): their(Q84): body their parts body testify parts testifyagainst against them (Q36:64); them (Q36:64); the good the are good separated are separated from the from evil the and evil each and each in terms that are akin to a courthouse scenario. People appear with a record of their deeds (Q84): their group gets its just reward (Q82). The scenario is also known as YawmḤ al-Ḥisāb (Day of reckoning), in group gets itsbody just parts reward testify (Q82). against The scenario them (Q36:64); is also known the good as areYawm separated al- isāb from (Day the of evilreckoning), and each in group gets which thewhich rendering the rendering of judgments of judgments implies implies “din” as“din” the generalas the general body of body commandments of commandments that the that the its just reward (Q82). The scenario is also known as Yawm al-H. isab¯ (Day of reckoning), in which the Divine requires of worshippers. “Din”, as religion, is a modern rendition that misrepresents the Divine requiresrendering of worshippers. of judgments “Din” implies, as “din”religion as, the is generala modern body rendition of commandments that misrepresents that the Divinethe requires ArabicArabic term, probably term, probably used only used to onlyconvey to convey a sense a of sense consistency of consistency in translation in translation (Brodeur (Brodeur, 2001), given, 2001), given of worshippers. “Din”, as religion, is a modern rendition that misrepresents the Arabic term, probably that even in the broader sphere of religion studies, there is no agreed-upon definition of the word. that even inused the broader only to convey sphere a of sense religion of consistency studies, there in translation is no agreed (Brodeur-upon 2001 definition), given of that the even word. in the broader As BrodeurAs Brodeur further further pointed point out, edthe out, term the seems term toseems more to represent more represent “God’s “God’s right path right for path human for beingshuman beings sphere of religion studies, there is no agreed-upon definition of the word. As Brodeur further pointed on earth at all times” and a “prescribed set of behaviors” (McAuliffe and Clare, 2001). A far closer on earth at out,all times” the term and seems a “prescribed to more represent set of behaviors” “God’s right (McAuliffe path for humanand Clare beings, 2001 on). earthA far atclose all times”r and a word toword the idea to the of idea“religion of “religion”, per qur’ānic”, per qur’ānic usage, wouldusage, bewould milla, be as milla, in “millat as in “millat Ibrahim” Ibrahim”, the response, the response “prescribed set of behaviors” (McAuliffe and Clare 2001). A far closer word to the idea of “religion”, that the Qur’ān 2:135 directs Muhammad to provide when asked to become a Jew or a Christian. that the Qur’ānper qur’ 2:135anic¯ directs usage, Muhammad would be milla, to provide as in “millatwhen asked Ibrahim”, to become the response a Jew or that a Christian. the Qur’an¯ 2:135 directs This bringsThis bringsus then us to then two versesto two, verses Q 3:19, andQ 3:19 5:3 and, that 5:3 are, that generally are generally translated translated as, as, Muhammad to provide when asked to become a Jew or a Christian. Q3:19: Q3:19:Indeed, Indeed, the dīn the with dīn God with is GodIslām. is ThoseIslām. whoThose were who given were the given Book the before Book beforeyou did you not did not differ untildiffer after until knowledge after knowledge had come had to come them, to outthem, of mutualout of mutual envy. And envy. whosever And whosever rejects rethejects the signs ofsigns God, of then God, God then is Godswift is in swift calling in callingto account. to account. Q 5:3: ThisQ 5:3: day This I have day perfected I have perfected your dīn your for dīnyou, for and you, made and complete made complete my bounty my bounty unto you, unto and you, and have chosenhave chosen for you for Islām you as Islām a dīn. as a dīn.

Religions 2018, 9, 293 8 of 10

This brings us then to two verses, Q 3:19 and 5:3, that are generally translated as,

Q3:19: Indeed, the d¯ın with God is Islam.¯ Those who were given the Book before you did not differ until after knowledge had come to them, out of mutual envy. And whosever rejects the signs of God, then God is swift in calling to account. Q 5:3: This day I have perfected your d¯ın for you, and made complete my bounty unto you, and have chosen for you Islam¯ as a d¯ın.

The first verse is preceded by an outline of whom the pious are: those who are patient, observe the commandments of God, and are steadfast in prayer, and followed by the idea that God is just. This sets up the conclusion that the right form of comportment is to seek to follow the edicts of the various Sharias that God has imposed upon the different communities, all of which seek to adhere to the desire to be without blemish, to be whole. The verse is not a proclamation of a specific, distinct religion from that followed by Jews and Christians. If it were, Q2:62 would be meaningless: Those who believe, and the Jews and the Christians and the Sabians, whoever believes in God and the last day, and does good deeds, for them is their reward with their Lord: on them shall be no fear nor shall they grieve”. As Kazi notes, “... Muslim is applicable to the followers of the previous prophets also, whether before or after the revelation of the Qur’an”¯ (Kazi 1966). This verse has no juxtaposition, as pointed our earlier, between Muslims and the other communities. It seems to indicate, therefore, that God will judge every community according to their various sharias that the Divine had enjoined upon them to achieve wholeness and blamelessness. This includes Muhammad’s followers, the mu’minun;¯ the verse then is not a particularistic one. The other verse, Q 5:3, is in line with Q3:19, establishing textual consistency. The right “din” with God would include all those who follow their different sharias, since to every different nation, the Divine had sent a prophet, and with this came different laws and programs, concordant with their tribal and cultural differences. Islam¯ is the term covering all of those people, as all the prophets, according to the Qur’an, followed that path based on Genesis 17:1, the reference for Q2: 131. Were the Hebrew version of Genesis 17:1 directly translated to Arabic rather than via an Aramaic intermediary, as I have earlier surmised, then the religion we now know as Islam¯ would most likely have been instead called Itmam.¯ The foregoing research not only fulfilled the goals of my inquiry but also demonstrated two other points. Firstly, when one reads the Qur’an¯ as an intertext with the Hebrew writings, the former document is quite understandable, without need for any great reliance on the tafsir or hadith literature. Secondly, Abraham Geiger was not entirely incorrect when he declared that the Qur’an was unoriginal. The paradox is that the Qur’an’s¯ originality is structured on that lack of originality—in that, Muhammad’s purpose was acknowledged a path that covered all monotheists, without claiming singular salvation for one group. That most of his later followers diverged from that path of pluralism is something that makes modern research into the intertextual relationships of the Abrahamic religions so vital.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

Balogun, Yahya. 2014. Islam¯ Means Peace. Available online: https://www.Islamicity.org/5648/¯ Islam-means-peace/¯ (accessed on 21 August 2018). Baneth, David. 2001. What Did Muhammad mean when he called his Religion “Islam?”¯ The Original Meaning of Aslama and its Derivatives. In The Qur’an:¯ Style and Contents. Edited by Andrew Rippin. Burlington: Ashgate, pp. 85–92. Bellamy, James. 1993. Some Proposed Emendations in the Text of the Qur’an.¯ Journal of the American Oriental Society 113: 562–73. [CrossRef] Bravmann, Meir. 2009. The Spiritual Background of Early Islam:¯ Studies in Ancient Arab Concepts. Leiden: Brill, pp. 1–38. Brodeur, Patrice. 2001. Din. In Encyclopedia of the Qur’an¯ . Edited by Jane McAuliffe. Leiden: Brill, vol. 1, pp. 395–98. Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10

Arabic (e.g., Q 12:2, 16:103, 26:195, 41:44, and 42:7). The derived reasoning was that since God cannot lie, then every word had to literally be from an Arabic source. Another problematic concept was the widespread Muslim contention that the previous scriptures were corrupted and therefore not reliable. This is underlined by the idea that reliance upon rejecting Judaic traditions—known as isrā’īliyat—would lead to false interpretations (Mohammed, 2015, p. 15). Rejecting biblical influence negatively affected exegesis, given that, as Reuven Firestone aptly noted, “the Qur’ān could not possibly exist without its scriptural predecessors as subtexts” (Firestone, 2004, pp. 1-22). The dynamic influence that the Qur’ān has had upon the Arabic language has also exacerbated the problem. This is because almost every classical dictionary of Arabic relies heavily on the Qur’ān for elucidation, often without regard to differences between terminological and quotidian usage. I rely on some late discoveries within the field of Islāmic studies to form certain relevant premises. The recent discovery of what some term as the Birmingham manuscript basically vouchsafes what the Muslim tradition has always held: that the Qur’ān goes back to the time of Muhammad, unlike the late dating that researchers have claimed, such as Patricia Crone, Michael Cook, and John Wansbrough, for example. The presence of Christian and Jewish tribes in the Arab peninsula long before Muhammad’s birth meant that, cognate consideration aside, certain religious concepts, even if they had stemmed from foreign terminology, had become completely Arabized by Muhammad’s time (Griffith, 2013; Gilliot and Larcher, 2001).1 There is also a midrash dated to the second or third century Sifre to Deuteronomy 32:2 that states, “When God revealed Himself to give the Torah to Israel, He did so not in one language, but in four: in Hebrew, in Greek, in Arabic, and in Aramaic” (Goitein, 1958, pp. 149–63). As Goitein astutely pointed out, whereas such translation was probably never committed to writing, it certainly must have been present via an oral method. The Arabs were therefore not as unfamiliar with Biblical material as the proponents of the foreign etymology camp might suppose. of the (أسلم) Let us examine the first of the three terms: Islām. It is derived from the fourth form salima), which occurs in the Qur’ān in its various forms some 157 times. The verb forms of) سلم verb occur, 9, 293 22 times, and the noun, Islām, from that verb, is found in eight verses. The meanings9 of 10 of 2018أسلمReligions various verb forms of a common root in Arabic can seem unrelated to each other. The second form of salima, for example, sallama, used transitively, means to hand over or to give over something. Donner, Fred. 2010. Muhammad and the Believers. London and Cambridge: Belnap Press Harvard. Used with a preposition, it means to greet, as in Sallama alaihi. One must avoid arbitrarily selecting Epstein, Isidor, ed. 1935. The Babylonian Talmud. London: The Soncino Press. a meaning from any particular root simply because it fulfills a cherished objective; an offered Fatani, Afnan. 2006. Language and the Qu’ran. In The Qur’an:¯ An Encyclopedia. Edited by Oliver Leaman. London andexplanation New York: should Routledge, be accompanied pp. 356–71. by incontrovertible proof(s). Firestone, Reuven.Jane Smith, 2004. in The her Qur’ 1975an¯ doctoral and the Bible: dissertation, Some Modern noted Studies that, “[W] of Theirithin Relationship. the Muslim IncommunityBible and itself, Qur’therean:¯ has Essays been in Scripturala change Intertextuality in the understanding. Edited by Johnand interpretation C. Reeves. Leiden: of Islām, Brill, pp. i.e. 1–22., that the word connotes Geiger,to Abraham. Muslims 1970. of theJudaism current and century Islam¯ . New something York: Ktav different Publishing (or House, additional p. 44. to) what it meant to those of the Gilliot,early Claude, centuries and Pierre of Islām” Larcher. ( 2001.Smith Language, 1975, pp. and 2– Style3). After of the 9/11, Qur’ an.¯some In EncyclopediaMuslim apologists, of the Qur’ tryingan¯ . Edited to distance bytheir Jane faith McAuliffe. from the Leiden: stereotype Brill, vol. of 3, violence, pp. 109–31. tried to focus on one derivative of Salima (as opposed to Goitein,its Shlomo fourth D. form, 1958. aslama) Muhammad’s to insist Inspiration that Islām by Judaism. comes fromJournal the of Semiticword ‘salam’ Studies 9: and 149–63. means peace (see for Griffith,example, Sidney. 2013.BalogunThe Bible, 2014). in Arabic: Our task The then Scriptures is specific: of the People it is ofnot the to Book simply in the look Language for the of Islroot,am¯ . Princeton:but to examine Princetonthe word’s University usage and Press, if pp.possible, 1–53. refer to a narrative or concept already known to the Arabs. Hirschfeld, Hartwig.Several lexicons 1878. Jüdische provide Elemente a gamut im Koran of. meanings, Berlin: Im Selbstverlag. including “safety” as well as “freedom from Ibn Hishblemish,”am,¯ Jamal but al-Din end Abdullah. up referring 2003. toAwda theh. al-MasQur’ānaik¯ to ila¯ proffer Alfiyat Ibn Islām Malik¯ as. Beirut: submission Dar¯ al-Kutub (khuḍ al-ūʽ)Ilm or¯ıyyah, accepting vol.what 1, p.the 39. Prophet has brought (al-Jawhari, 1957; al-Isfahani, 1961, pp. 240–1; Ibn Manẓūr n.d., pp. Ibn Manzur,342–50). Muhammad Isma’il al- IbnJawhari Mukarram. (d.c. 400), n.d. inLis hisan¯ Tāj al-‘Arab al-Lugha. Beirut:, deduced Dar¯ Ih. thatya¯ al-Tur the aslamaath¯ al- Araband istaslama¯ı, vol. 6, forms pp.are 342–50. contextually equivalent and therefore underlined the meaning as “submission” (1957). The Al-Isfahani,general Abu’l trend Qasim in the al-Husayn tafsirs is b. not Muhammad different, al-R as aghib.¯noted 1961.in Jane Al-Mufradat Smith’s study fi Ghar of¯ıb 14 al-Qur’ majoran.¯ exegetes airo: , to Mustafarepresent al-Bab the al-Halabi. explanation over a 14-century period (Smith, 1975, pp. 218–26). Interestingly, she cites Al-Jawhari,al-Rāzī Isma who,¯ıl b. among H. ammad.¯ other 1957. definitions,Taj¯ al-Lughah offer wa S. ihahed that al-Arabiyyah the term. Cairo: means Dar¯ “entering al-Kitab¯ al-‘Arab into ¯ı.wholeness or Jeffery, Arthur. 2007. The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur’an¯ . Leiden: Brill. Katsh, Abraham. 1954. Judaism and the Koran . New York: A.S. Barnes and Company, Inc. Kazi, Abdul Khaliq. 1966. The Meaning of Iman¯ and Islam¯ in the Qur’an.¯ Islamic¯ Studies 5: 227–37. 1 See for example, Sidney Griffith. 2013. The Bible in Arabic: The Scriptures of the People of the Book in the Language Kopf, Lothar. 1956. Religious Influence on Medieval Arabic Philology. Studia Islamica¯ 5: 33–59. [CrossRef] of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 1–53. Küntslinger, David. 1935. “Islam”,¯ “Muslim”, “Aslama” im Kuran.¯ Rocznik Orjentalistyczny XI: 128–37.

Lassner, Jacob. 1999. Abraham Geiger: A Nineteenth Century Jewish Reformer on the Origins of Islam.¯ In The Jewish Discovery of Islam¯ . Edited by Martin Kramer. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, pp. 103–35. Lidzbarski, Mark. 1922. Salam and Islam.¯ Zeitschrift für Semitistik und Verwandte Gebiete 1: 85–96. Luxenberg, Christopher. 2000. Die syro-aramäische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag zur Entschlüsselung der Koransprache. Berlin: Hans Schiller. Margoliouth, David. 1903. On the Origin and Import of the Names Muslim and Hanif. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 35: 467–93. McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, and Wilde Clare. 2001. Religious Pluralism. In Encyclopedia of the Qur’an¯ . Edited by Jane McAuliffe. Leiden: Brill, vol. 4, pp. 398–417. Mohammed, Khaleel. 2015. David in the Muslim Tradition: the Bathsheba Affair. London and Lanham: Lexington, p. 15. Pfanmuller, Gustav. 1923. Handbuch der Islam-Literatur¯ . Berlin and Leipzig: Walter De Gruyter & Co., p. 108. Pregill, Michael. 2007. The Hebrew Bible and the Qur’an:¯ The Problem of Jewish ‘Influence’ on Islam’.¯ Religion Compass 1: 643–59. [CrossRef] Al-Raz¯ ¯ı, Fakhr al-Din Muhammad. n.d. Al-Tafsir al-Kabir. Cairo: al-Maktabat al Tawqifiyya, vol. 7, p. 202. Ringgren, Helmer. 1949. Islam,¯ ‘Aslama and Muslim. Horae Soederblomianae 11. Uppsala: C.W.K. Gleerup, Lund, pp. 1–35. Saleh, Walid. 2010. The Etymological Fallacy and Qur’anic¯ Studies: Muhammad, Paradise and Late Antiquity. In The Qur’an¯ in Context. Edited by Angelica Neuwirth, Nicolai Sinai and Michael Marx. Leiden: Brill, pp. 649–98. Sawma, Gabriel. 2006. The Qur’an:¯ Misinterpreted, Mistranslated and Misread: The Aramaic Language of the Qur’an¯ . Plainsboro: Gabriel Sawma, p. 14. Al-Shahristani, Muhammad. 1910. Kitab al Milal wa’l-Nihal. Edited by Muhammad Badran. Cairo: Al-Azhar Press, vol. 1, pp. 53–54. Shedinger, Robert. 2012. Radically Open: Transcending Religious Identity in an Age of Anxiety. Eugene: Cascade Books, p. 81. Smith, Jane. 1975. An Historical and Semantic Study of the Term “Islam”¯ as Seen in a Sequence of Qur’an¯ Commentaries. Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Religions 2018, 9, 293 10 of 10

Stillman, Norman. 1974. The Story of Can and Abel in the Qur’an¯ and the Muslim Commentators: Some Observations. Journal of Semitic Studies 19: 231–9. [CrossRef] Torrey, Charles. 1967. The Jewish Foundation of Islam¯ . New York: Jewish Institute of Religion. Waldman, Marilyn. 1985. Biblical Materials in the Qur’an.¯ Muslim World 75: 1–13. [CrossRef] Wellhausen, Julius. 1961. Reste Arabischen Heidentums, 3rd ed. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., p. 205.

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