CEU eTD Collection T C HE In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts OOPERATING I NCENTIVES AND Department of and European Studies W HERE DO M Supervisor: Professor Erin Professor K.Jenne Supervisor: OVEMENTS IN M Central European University European Central R OVEMENTS IN E FFECTS OF EGIONALIST AND Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Submitted 15 178Words Béla Filep 2007 By T T RANSYLVANIA RANSNATIONAL E UROPE A S TAND UTONOMY N ? ETWORKS CEU eTD Collection Alliance, which is a conglomeration of mainly small regionalist parties in parties ismainly of Europe. a which small Free Alliance, conglomeration regionalist European as the smallalliancessuch prefer support andexternal little domestic parties with external supportchoosetoforge big alliances with mainstream while parties, political small movement’s bargaining at supranational power the level its and towards own . itdomesticenjoys support and which external the actors, lobbying increase might the (ethnic) the movement, the of size the on depends choose movements particular cooperation of type the that show to in order movement, regionalist Romanian a and autonomist havelook at Specifically, established. I two movements in Transylvania, aHungarian movements these which networks, transnational the of effects and incentives the on focusing by in Europe movements autonomy and regionalist of cooperation the analyses thesis The The result of the inquiry is that (ethnic) hegemonic parties with large domestic and largedomestic with parties inquiry(ethnic) hegemonic is of The result the that A BSTRACT i CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 46 Conclusions...... 39 Chapter 4: The Romanian Regionalist Movementin Transylvania...... 33 Chapter 3: The Hungarian Autonomy Movement in Transylvania...... 18 Europe...... 15 in Transnational 2:Historical&Autonomy to Background Chapter Cooperation Regionalist Chapter 9 1: Theoretical Framework ...... and Methodology 1 Introduction...... ii Table of Content...... i Abstract...... 5.3 Transylvanian Autonomy Movements and ...... 43 Ethnic Mobilization 5.2 Transylvanian Autonomy Movements and European Party-Cooperation ...... 42 5.1 Transylvanian Autonomy Movements and Transnational ...... 39 Networks 4.4 Transylvanian Romanian Regionalists and Ethnic ...... 38 Mobilization 4.3 Transylvanian Romanian Regionalists and European Party-Cooperation...... 37 4.2 Transylvanian Romanian Regionalists and Transnational Networks...... 36 ...... 33 4.1 Introduction 3.4 Transylvanian Hungarian Autonomists and Ethnic ...... 30 Mobilization 3.3 Transylvanian Hungarian Autonomists and European Party-Cooperation...... 28 3.2 Transylvanian Hungarian Autonomists and Transnational Networks...... 22 . nrdcin...... 18 3.1 Introduction 2.5 Methodology...... 14 ...... 13 2.4 My Argument 2.3 Nationalist/Ethnic Mobilization and the Interconnection of Movements...... 12 2.2 The Incentives of European ...... 10 Party-Cooperation 2.1 9 Transnational (Advocacy) Networks...... 1.3 Research Questions, 7 Purpose and Structure ...... of the Thesis 3 ...... 1.2 Literature Review 1.1 Transnationalization 1 and its 'Glocal' Consequences...... oai ...... 34 Liga4.1.2 Europa & Pro Provincia –for aregionalized,multicultural,'European' 4.1.1 The Liga Transilvania Banat – a Romanian regionalist party in ...... 33 Transylvania 3.1.2 3.1.2 Internal Hungarian Division Concerning Autonomy in the 21 3.1.1 The Hungarian Autonomy Movementin the 1990s...... 18 T ABLE OF ii C ONTENT st Cnuy...... 20 Century CEU eTD Collection claims for were not transnationalized, but simply internationalized. That is to say, is to That simply internationalized. but transnationalized, not were for secession claims Kosovo, In caseof the matters. domestic change influence and to borders) national across of (cooperation cooperation isittransnational purpose theessence and worldwide. Indeed, intensivethe 'glocal' exchangeof haveknowledgethus andinformation dueto consequences can Local conflicts conflicts. located onelsewhere effects mightindirect have days,and these Romania andSlovakia would also have theright toindependence. UN Security Council by saying in that Kosovo ,case of the Hungarians in independent.Moreover, Serbian Premier Kostunica Vojislav 'frightened' membersof the the becomes if Kosovo from state secede Bosnian the to right the should have Srpska Republika thatthe saying Bosnia-Herzegovina, break-up of the with community international Turkey Tibet, for for Kurdish the , and Ethnic soon. Serbs,too,threaten the fearsitsby for in The'Federation' break-away Hungarians Russian Transylvania. , claims independence he Kosovo’s rejects instance, point-blank, because fears“secessionist” movementssecessionist in their own country.Traian TheRomanian forBasescu,president, might(potentially) set aprecedentfor from Serbia partition Kosovo’s have nervous: become states but other also only fornot , the Serbia solution viable andonly constructive independence isthe that stated Security Council, tothe his inAhtisaari, report Envoy, Martin UNSpecial the Since mightbut haveglobal repercussions. also regional consequences, or debate on the status of the province; it has to take a decision on the status that will have local community TheUN anew. Security Council willsoonhavepaid put to 'never-ending' tothe ismillion people, – almostyearsafter eight supervision of UN – shaking uptheinternational Kosovo, the small province1.1 Transnationalization and its 'Glocal' Consequences in the South of Serbia with a population of approximately two The example of Kosovo shows how local political issues enjoy international significance I NTRODUCTION 1 CEU eTD Collection 3 2 autonomy was basically declared a domestic affair and not an object of international of an object not and affair a domestic declared basically was autonomy 4 1 1921 autonomous following the Autonomy Act of 1920 and adecision by Leaguethe of in 6 5 self-determination. internal or autonomy to than full importancepeoples to much of greater and attached and self-determination Countries, Assembly signed the1960Declaration on Grantingthe Colonial of to Independence Peoples called uponAustria andItaly settleto their differences Tyrol andSouth interfered Åland the Islands twice: only a decision of the UN Security Council. territory for almost eightyears. Third, the UN made the Kosovo conflict its issue to solve – by UN-administered internationally, an became Kosovo war; the after remained internationals intervention. for a reason 'externals' the and level international the at befor whole destabilizingto importance Kosovo the whichgave the conflict region, issue the considered These 'externals' involved. were – states USAandEUmember the actors external other many –among in which Kosovo, in fought awar was there all, of First succeed? lobbied for their they United Nations; the i.e. to community, international tothe arequest directed immediately cause at the Kosovarsthe did notseek support from movementssecessionist in state countries,other but and not the sub-state level. But why did this strategy After the First World War externals decided on the autonomy-like status of the cities of Memel (convention signed by Magyar Nemzet Online (2007): Kostunica: Joguk van a magyaroknak is önrendelkezésre, ha... 27 April 2007. Nordquist, Kjell-Ake (1998): Autonomy as a Conflict-Solving Mechanism – An Overview. In: Suksi, Makku (ed.): This interpretation was not least a consequence of the Yugoslav wars in the early 1990s, in which the 'West' unmistakably Hannikainen, Lauri (1998): Self-Determination and Autonomy in International Law. In: Suksi, Makku (Ed): Autonomy: Südtiroler Volkspartei (2003): Zurück in die Zukunft. Südtirols Erfolgsgeschichte. In: Zukunft in Südtirol. regional autonomy of the Kurds in Iraq, imposed by the UN, or the Palestiniangovernment significant (ethnic)autonomiesautonomy. of SouthTyrol and the ÅlandIslands.Non-European examples include the 1939. However, these two examples cannot be compared to the territorially and with regard to the level of self- Lithuania andFrance, and Japan) andDanzig (League of Nations),lasting until GErmanthe invasion of Poland in Autonomy: Applications and Implications. Kluwer Law International, The Hague. Applications and Implications. Kluwer Law International, The Hague. cut a sorry figure. In the case of (territorial) autonomy claims in 'Europe', the international community international the in 'Europe', claims autonomy In thecaseof (territorial) 4 . On the issue of South in United. On Tyrol,South Nations the 1960,which passed issueof aresolution the 2 2 6 In this sense, the issue of territorial 5 . At the same time, the UN General 3 . The Åland Islands became Islands Åland The . 1 Second, the Second, CEU eTD Collection 8 7 Theau- implications. of aspects and its autonomy mine supranational) (and international the ons” resol- to ving between minority disputes and majority “Autonomy:groups. contribute Applications and Implicati- might arrangements constitutional domestic and law international which siders the of differentHurst Hannum’s “Autonomy, and Self-Determination” (1990) autonomies around movements. autonomy and regionalist on lot the a published have world.scholars context, European Hannum examines the ways in in is Especially West literature on There the andregionalism. issuesof alarge the autonomy 1.2 Literature Review widelevel toachieve in order their political goals. regionalistand groups movements, andautonomy alliances aEurope- parties, haveformed on addition, In government. central the against fight movement's autonomy or regionalist any for strategies of acquirement and improvement development, the enabling platforms information; networks have, first of all,served as platforms for the exchange of experience, knowledge and These networks. transnational forged therefore have countries European mainly different, of movements autonomy and regionalist issues, their internationalize To level. supranational and international the at heard not were claims autonomy involvement, international has remained an internal affair of , as in the case of in . autonomy to certain minoritiesor within their borders. The Basque issue, forinstance, territorial grant to states member its bind not does UN– the to alternative as an Union – European The yet. a change brought not have and of promotion involvementand The support. growingimportance of European the Union andits (internal) Suksi, Makku (ed.) (2003): Autonomy: Applications and Implications. Kluwer Law International, The Hague. Hannum, Hurst (1990): Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination. The Accommodation of Conflicting Rights. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. 8 (2003) is a compilation of different authors investigating the autonomy issue. They exa- They issue. autonomy the investigating authors different of compilation is a (2003) So, even representatives though the of individualmovementsthe have lobbied for 3 7 , for instance, con- CEU eTD Collection 14 De Winter, Lieven & Huri Türsan (ed.) (1998): Regionalist Parties in Western Europe. Routledge, London & New York. & New London Routledge, Europe. Western in Parties Regionalist (1998): (ed.) Türsan &Huri Lieven Winter, De 14 13 12 11 10 9 (1998) inWestern Europe” Parties on “Regionalist abook edited have Türsan Huri and Winter de Lieven these. within and of movements the and regions, and autonomies between cooperation onthe written been has little in Europe, regionalisms of path violence, have chosenamore whileCatalans accommodating andstrategy. peaceful havetaken the violence why Basques and inexplaining the of political of sources the state the role the values importance of , forand the Heargues autonomies. of development the and Catalan Nationalist Mobilization” (1997) to Routes Spain, Alternative and points out common and the features “The Basques, Conversi’s is Daniele strategies on its focus due to analysis as well as the main (Keating 1996 differences in includesEuropean examples Central European andautonomies andautonomy East attempts. twelve regionalist parties in the Basque country, , Corsica, , French- Flanders, Corsica, Catalonia, country, Basque inthe parties twelve regionalist tonómiák ésAutonómiatörekvések” gionalism A legal is in articles publication paragraphs,third a collection Europe. andof “Au- thors also give examples of different types of autonomy and applications of autonomy and re- Csapó I. József (2001): Autonómiák és Autonómiatörekvések ( Conversi, Daniele (1997): The Basques, the Catalans and Spain. Alternative Routes to Nationalist Mobilization. Hurst & Warasin, Markus (ed.) (2002): Unsere Sache gerecht.ist ( Csíkszereda. Press, Cambridge. Ghai, Yash (ed.): Autonomy and Ethnicity. Negotiating Competing Claims in Multi-EthnicCompany,London. Seealso: States.Conversi Daniele (2000): Autonomous Cambridge Communities andthe Ethnic Settlement University Spain. in In: Europe. in autonomy of examples prime of the one Tyrol, South in claims autonomy the of history expected. be can movements autonomy regional for support which under conditions cultural and economic Theory of Regional Autonomy Movements. Paperpresented atStanford University. They present aformal model ofthe Van Houten, Pieter and James Fearon (2002): The Politicization of Cultural andEconomic Difference: A Return to the support base of nationalism. characteristics of nationalism, asfor instance language and culture, economy, civilMacmillan Press, society, London. a collectionis This external of cases,inwhich hecompares relations different factors influencing or and the Keating, Michael (1996): Nations against the State: The New Politics of Nationalism in , Catalonia and . However, while there is a significant literature on the characteristics of autonomies and Other books present case study analysis, some undertaken on a comparative basis comparative a on undertaken some analysis, study case present books Other 10 ; van Houten & Fearon 2002 9 by József I. Csapó (2003), who in the who I.CsapóWest byJózsef addition (2003), to 11 4 , Warasin 2002 Our cause is just Autonomies and Autonomy Attempts) ). Verlagsanstalt Athesia, Bozen. This is a 13 12 . The authorcompares Basque ). An interesting study for my for study An interesting ). 14 , which looks in detail at in detail looks which , . Pro-Print, . CEU eTD Collection (1998) Sikkink and Keck As initiatives. society civic instance for as movements, regionalist and ethnic he parties. Furthermore, examines partiesonly political excludes autonomy and other However, he does not parties. of regionalist cooperation dealexplain to transnational the attempts membership, with the Central and East European regionalist in movements case of Transylvania. two movements and intestin which goingto about Iam transnational the strategies of Europe, parties regionalist EFA.the forbutis my important Lynch'swork not makes he analysis, assumptionssince mainly looksatthe historical developmentof European the political parties andfederations, and Pippa Pridham “Transnational Party-Cooperation and European and “Transnational Pippa Integration”Party-Cooperation European Pridham (1981) and the civil the society by examining the Transylvanian case, whereHungarians both and are not simply seen as a political project but also as a cultural, religious, ethnic orsocial one. if attempts these movement, of the part isarelevant society civil regionalism, and autonomy states from outside and bybypassing thestate seeking international allies. With regard to on domesticthe groups levelhave it realizedthat isbring to pressureon their due toglobalization andthe information. of experience,exchange knowledge and The civil 7 Keck, Margaret E. and Kathryn17 Sikkink (1998): Activists beyond borders. Advocacy Networks in International Politics. 16 15 European Alliance” European Free Union: The Level European the the of at Parties betweenRegionalist “Co-operation article His level. supranational European, the at cooperation their at looks Lynch, Peter volume, in the author one only But . and Tyrol South Scotland, Italy, North , speaking Pridham,Geoffrey and Pippa (1981): Transnational Party-Cooperation and European Integration.George Allen & Lynch, Peter(1998): Co-operation between Regionalist Parties at the Level of the European Union. The European Free Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London. Unwin, London. New York. Alliance. In: De Winter, Lieven andHuri Türsan(ed.): Regionalist Parties Western in Europe. Routledge, London& Lynch’s article, which focuses on the and its West its European Free Allianceand focuses on European the which Lynch’s article, In my thesis, Iwouldlike tofill the gap concerning Central and East European as well as 17 show, the transnational networks of civil action have grown in importance these days these importance in grown have action civil of networks transnational the show, 15 can actually be regarded as the completion of a book of of book Geoffrey a of as thecompletion be regarded can actually 5 16 that CEU eTD Collection 20 19 18 Therefore Beissinger's work is conceptually very relevant for my thesis. for relevant very is conceptually work Beissinger's Therefore movementsregionalist have influenced others and encouragedtostrive for autonomy. mutual influence expects network, one excluded andisnotit some autonomy that and encourage andinfluence othermovements strive independence.to for In a transnational movements somehow ethnic out points Union. He inthe Soviet movements secessionist State” (2002) Soviet the CollapseMobilization of and the “Nationalist Beissinger’s Mark movements, regionalist of topic the on specifically is Whilemovements. work no there of regionalist andinterdependence interconnections movements. individual for leverage of sources as serve also might which movements, regionalist and autonomy of linkages transnational at the look not does she However, states. relations the on withdepending time, over change might thewhich claims, autonomy at hostlooks also analysis government and the Her countries. post-communist different from andrepresentatives parties minority ethnic support of external lobbyingarguments for autonomy claimsin Central JenneandEurope. Eastern compares strategies of actors, mostly (2007) Paradox Jenne’s “Ethnic The of Bargaining. Minority Empowerment” kin K. Erin my analysis. for information detailed contains and in Transylvania claims regionalist Siebenbürgen” (2006a) Konstruktion des ungarisch-rumänischen Miteinander, Nebeneinander undin Gegeneinander linkages of autonomy movementsand regionalist in BélaEurope. Filep’s“Zur diskursiven transnational of study the for interesting cases their makes which support, transnational have made claims for autonomy or regionalization. Both have also sought supra- and Beissinger, Mark R. (2002): Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State. Cambridge University Jenne, Erin K.Press. (2007): Ethnic Bargaining. The Paradox of Minority Empowerment. Cornell University Press, London. BélaFilep, (2006a): diskursiven Zur Konstruktion ungarisch-rumanischendes Miteinander, Nebeneinander und Geographisches Institut der Universität Bern, Bern. Gegeneinander ( If we assume that other movements might support or influence others, we mustlook at the On the Discursive Construction ofthe Hungarian-Romanian Living Transylvania in 18 includes an analytical and empirical part on the autonomy and 6 20 examines the interdependence examines the of 19 also provides ) . CEU eTD Collection 21 Regionalist movements claim more (territorial) autonomy for a specific region, while claims of autonomy movements are with respect to all regionalist and autonomy movements autonomy and regionalist all to respect with have been. Due to the limited length of the thesis,I am notable answerto the questions below movements individual on cooperation of effects the transnational emerged what and networks The purpose of this thesis1.3 Research Questions, Purpose and Structure of the Thesis is to show how and why transnational autonomy and regionalist leads to two further totwo leads andmore questions: specific andthey whatextent to expect supportfrom they movements.expect other Thisfirst question arelikelyand forge groups andto expect why,support from, they who whatkind of support ethnic of networks kind regionalist parties and In examine case I will what Transylvanian the cooperate. networks andautonomy in howregionalist the transnational ideas promoted by 'West'the and movementsthe located there. But first of all,I am interested of diffusion the about information might provide being'Europeanized', region apparently a Europe, andEastern in located Central are movements fact these that the Furthermore, cooperation.makes case my peculiarandfor This to of analysis.Transylvania interesting transnational of ways different chosen have they show), will I (which reasons several to due However, support. external sought have movements both and Romania; of regionalization or autonomization the namely goals, similar have They movement. regionalist Romanian a and case of Transylvania as an example, Iwill try to infer patterns that apply to other movements. within a particular state. not necessarily related to a specific territory, but can be limited to one ethnic or national community (often minority) x x In Transylvania, there exist two different movements, a Hungarian autonomist movement autonomist a Hungarian movements, different two exist there Transylvania, In from the exchange of information or the do theyseeotheropportunities inatransnational information exchange from of Only First,why cooperate? from? dothesemovements Whatcaneach ofthemprofit say, dothemovements eachother?lobby for there amongstmutual support theregionalistsautonomists or in Europe?Thatis to Are thenetworks simplyplatformsformeetingsandexchange or ofinformation is 7 21 in Europe. However, taking the taking However, in Europe. CEU eTD Collection cooperation in Europe asawhole. in Europe cooperation the analysis of this particularautonomy andregionalist Romanian the Finally, claims. draw some –through conclusions I case – for cooperation.the Third, I will the Transylvanian analyze looking Hungarianthe case, atboth actions of the regionalistandautonomy regionalist transnational European of background the historical give a movements and their vicinity. immediate their outside others can influence movements extent what is to here question The versa. vice and Europe Eastern and Central instance,mightforhave theautonomy influencedand in encouraged and regionalistattempts beenmovements, influenced by partiesother in groups Models or inWestern Europe. Europe, These ask questions theTransylvanian whether autonomy movementsand regionalisthave Free Alliance. European instance the as for inothers cooperate not but networks, transnational insome cooperate they is why here puzzle The asprofitable. this perceive they cooperate, must seekingto resources earned significant Here, Iam asking why movements seek Transylvanian the transnational cooperation. If they x As for the structure of the thesis, Inext present the theoretical framework. Second, I will differentiate between leadingandlearningmovements? differentiate whom? eachweand towhat other?Whoencourages extent dotheyinfluence Can their ? How are the andautonomy regionalist attempts interconnected Second, ifthereis whatmutual support, it of ontheir are the effects ability tolobby network? On the otherhand,why dosome movements notsearch forcooperation? 8 CEU eTD Collection since theiruse information aim strategies motivateto beliefs politicaland use to action and to information itself, but the interpretation and strategic use of information is very important, movements in thirdthe category.As Keck and for not Sikkinknetworks, these argue, only the information andservices” are, moreover, which networks, orvalues,marily transnational by principled ideas advocacy called shared “boundsal ideas, such as scientific epistemic groups or motivated communities; andthird,those pri- together motivatedprimarilybysharedcau- those banks; and second, corporations cially transnational espe- goals, instrumental essentially with those First, motivations. their on based categories by different (...)three into networks transnational place can we Sikkink, and Keck to According a common 2.1 Transnational (Advocacy) Networks discourse Union. Soviet of the and collapse the mobilization and dense European isUnion; and theMarkBeissinger’s third (2002) exchanges LynchPeter (1998) of networks elaborated by Keck elaborated andKathrin Margaret Sikkinknetworks (1998) advocacy of transnational is concept a first The thesis. of the part analytical the apply to to try I which argumentation, of strands and concepts different chosen have I analysis. my frames theory that or is concept nosingle review, there in literature the indicated As Ihave 25 24 23 22 Keck, Margaret E. and Kathryn Sikkink (1998). p. 2. Beissinger, Mark R. (2002): Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State. Cambridge University Press, Lynch, Peter(1998): Co-operation between Regionalist Parties at the Level of the European Union. The European Free Keck, Margaret E. and Kathryn Sikkink (1998): Activists beyond borders. Advocacy Networks inInternational Politics. Cambridge. New York. Alliance.In: De Winter, Lieven and Huri Türsan (ed.): Regionalist Parties in Western Europe.Routledge, London and Cambridge. Press, University Cambridge Activism. International and Media, Cornell University IthacaPress, andLondon.also See Bob, Clifford (2005): The Marketing of Rebellion. Insurgents, C HAPTER 23 on the co-operation between regionalist parties at the level of the 1: T 25 HEORETICAL I would put transnational networks of regionalist and autonomy F RAMEWORK AND 9 M ETHODOLOGY 24 22 theory of nationalist of theory , the second a work of awork second the , CEU eTD Collection the face of domestic despotism and international indifference.” international face the and despotism of domestic 1 Lynch, Peter 31 (1998). Bob, Clifford (2005).30 p. 4. Keck, Margaret E. and 29 Kathryn Sikkink (1998). p. 12. If State A blocks28 redress to organizations within it, they activate their transnational network, whose members 27 Keck, Margaret E. and 26 Kathryn Sikkink (1998). p.30. regionalism, which aim at explaining party-cooperation of regionalists in the European Union. do they notwhich incentives, and characteristics specific some has party-cooperation looktransnational at.While Keckand aswellBobmainly Sikkink and socialdeal networks with activist NGOs, Peter 2.2 The Incentives of EuropeanLynch Party-Cooperation maybe conflict fruitless.” an not arduous that and cares world the that alone, not is movement a that demonstrating by psychologically, materially,only infusions though money, of equipment, and knowledge, butalso Bob, “deter state violence and force change (...) andit can strengthen challengers, not internationalUnion)for or their support cause.This involvementcan,external according to European (e.g. supranational search for transnational, likely to are latter the movements, these are willingnegotiate with states Ifnationalizing not leadersof movements. the to autonomy states from the outside. groups bypass the state and search out international allies to try to bring pressure on their conflict, settingmotionconflict, into pattern 'boomerang of influence' the fora resolving ineffective are such channels where or hampered or blocked are governments isSikkink, thatthey issuesdevelop around where channels between groupsanddomestic their strategies difficult and “risky these at looks gainleverage more to of support institutions. the powerful Bob, Clifford (2005). Clifford Bob, pressure their own States B and (if relevant) a third-party organization, which in turn pressure State A. State pressure turn in which organization, athird-party (if relevant) B and States own their pressure An important feature of transnational advocacy networks, as describedfeature byKeck of networks, An important and transnational advocacy 29 This logic might be perfectly applied to the case of regionalist and regionalist of case the to applied perfectly be might logic This 31 , however, has elaborated arguments for transnational for arguments elaborated has however, , 30 [ movements 10 ] deploy deploy galvanizeto external help in 26 Clifford Bob Clifford Bob (2005) specifically 27 28 . That is to say, domestic CEU eTD Collection 33 32 encouraged other movements to strive for autonomy or regionalization.and influenced have networks their or movements regionalist and autonomy whether examine not does Lynch Furthermore, network. transnational a in participation their despite with regionalistsindividualwhat have cooperationthe movements thanks achievedintheirhome countries to and havebeen, networks say effectsof the these what not However,he cooperate. does Europe autonomistsLynch’s arguments might partly give an answer to the questionoutside as whyto regionalist parties in state borders, nor what they failed to achieve party cooperation in general – by thegiving European Free Alliance (EFA) asan example: The first three propositions While the latter three propositions are EU-related, the following the two areEU-related, threepropositions While thelatter (EP): Parliament European of the incentives tothe related Ibid. Lynch, Peter (1998). 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) the case of autonomy and self-government through forming a collective voice. acollective forming through self-government and ofautonomy case the The parties view co-operationand membership of transnational groups as part of a strategy to publicise organisation. the within parties successful electorally more larger, the from learn and resources withfew organisational resources at theirdisposal. Membership of the EFA allows themto share The development of a transnational federationsuch as the EFA is useful forsmall regionalist parties often been able to achieve greater levels of electoral success in European than in national . in national than European in success electoral of levels greater achieve to able been often have which parties, small to opportunities offered has elections ofEuropean nature second-order The goals. electoral ofdomestic extension asimple as be seen can elections inEuropean participation The between regionalist parties that fitted nicely with the political logic of seeking transnational links. and within the parliament itself, and suchfactors have created afinancial logic forco-operation elections European in parties between co-operation encourage to procedures funding operates EP The 32 say that transnational party-cooperation in the EU is closely 11 33 explain regionalist explain CEU eTD Collection autonomy and regionalist movements are interconnected and how they affect each how andother. they areinterconnected affect movements regionalist and autonomy Beissinger’s analysismineimportant for is since wantknow howI theindividual to European reasons.” strategic similarly for of from others actions the generated tide the ride to attempt[ed] agents other whereas temporally, and spatially contention contain or spread as to so influences tidal foster to [sought] consciously agents “some that shows Beissinger Furthermore, transnationally. for contention opportunities nationalist spreading andideologiesoffered institutional by characteristics common interconnectedness produced the case, Soviet the here.In role critical a played constraints institutional and conditions todisrupt.” contention current attempts and forge casesof factorswhich connections between prior successful to those challengers allow on depends tides into waves and nationalism of waves into build events “whether However, independence.for strive to influenced othermovements andencouraged movements ethnic 38 37 36 Ibid. p. 35 37. 34 of from others” actions the emanating “the effects on others, movement(s) particular theory of nationalist/ethnic mobilization explaining the“tidal” influence of one ormore others.” mobilization, by nationalist assuccessful action evoked subsequent group by one efforts expandedperiod first, tentatively “subsequently at a intogrowing transnational of tide glasnost’ in the acts contentious how shows he Union Soviet in the movements secessionist without the effects of tidal influences of one nationalism on another.” on nationalism one of influences tidal of effects the without argument of his book is that the “disintegration of the Soviet state could not have taken placeMark Beissingermuch morelooks at ofinfluence the aspects and Thebasicencouragement. 2.3 Nationalist/Ethnic Mobilization andthe Interconnection ofMovements Ibid. p. 29. Beissinger, Mark (2002): Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York. p. 36. Ibid. p.32. Ibid. p.33. 35 He regards nationalism as a “tide” that ran across the Soviet Union, where some 36 As Beissinger points out, pre-existing out, As structural points Beissinger 12 37 In brief,he provides a 34 On the basis of 38 . CEU eTD Collection have sought have 0 See the boomerang pattern of40 influence by Keck and Sikkink (1998). Here, one has to consider 39 the possibility that other autonomy and regionalist movements have influenced or encouraged for a“tide” of regionalism, has encouraged both movements in their attempts. institutional constraint an or condition structural pre-existing as a potential andsubsidiarity, cally, manifesting psychology- movements the strengthen also networks The government. their fight to and that help they are not alone.galvanize to external strategies have acquired information, they and of knowledge experience, Furthermore, the EU’s hasinfluencedEurope the Transylvanian movements. encouraged and Through exchangethe promotion of regionalism from outside. the states on the bring totry to pressure allies international out search and state their bypassed both have they say, to is That support. transnational Romanian regionalists,lacking marginalised the why explains argument latter The in Transylvania. movement autonomy Hungarian suchasthe movements or hegemonic parties to small than parties to attractive (EFA) European FreeAlliance wayscooperation thanthe of and external lobbyingactors a of presence the that I argue cooperation. of transnational the presence of a the cases, both In in Transylvania. movement regionalist Romanian the and movement autonomy Hungarian the movements, two compare will I above, mentioned have I As 2.4 MyArgument European Union as an incentive or argument. or incentive an as Union European the Transylvanian movements, as well as other external factors did, for instance the principle of subsidiarity of the existence of autonomy and regionalist movementselsewhere andregionalist existence ofautonomy However, Hungarian autonomists and Romanian regionalists have chosen different ways different chosen have regionalists Romanian and autonomists Hungarian However, Finally, I argue that the existence of regionalist and autonomy movements inWestern movements andautonomy of regionalist existence the that Finally, Iargue cooperation in the EFA cooperation in reluctant central governmentwith regardtoautonomy or regionalization in the Hungarian case has resulted in the search for in search the hasresulted case in Hungarian the large (ethnic) domestic large (ethnic) domestic supportandexternal lobbying actors and not in other transnational networks. transnational in other not and 13 large (ethnic) domesticsupport . The EFA is assumingly more assumingly is EFA The . 39 , resulted in for search the 40 alternative , and , , CEU eTD Collection cooperation of Hungarianthe autonomists and Romanianregionalists. support andexternal lobbyingactors Consequently, if Iwill examine have the identified I ( key factors in the first set butis present that factor inasingle only differ not sets and the not, does circumstances setof another in the second,and phenomenon, a given to leads circumstances of set thenif one that says which difference, the phenomenon can methodbe of use the Iam to going level. Therefore the transnational at strategies different attributed to that factor. buthavinggovernment, samefacing the reluctant in located country, thesame and goals, one similar with movements regionalist/autonomy two of analysis comparative is a work My 2.5 Methodology ) responsible for the different ways of transnational 14 large (ethnic) domestic CEU eTD Collection elections in the European in However, only elections in1979. Parliamentthe European the examine the prospects for political cooperation forming a loose alliance for the first direct to agreed parties nine regionalist later, years Two organization. a political than rather office its affiliates to contest the European“The formanifesto Europeanelections. some common EFA asa positions policy encouraged elections and to form of development andthe political group a regionalist of theestablishment facilitate EP to the electoral alliances to increaseAmongst thethe goals of this cooperation were the increased number of regionalist partiesBrussels, adeeper reflecting between levelof cooperation political withinregionalists. European Rassemblement Wallon Nations joined Bureauof Unrepresented the Catalans Welsh, Basquesand Bretons, more the time. In1977, however, took of Europe, parties regionalist between networks cooperative of The establishment Parliament. European strengthened mutual theirrepresenting cooperation politicaland support, blocs in the have groups few. Since party then, these tonamebuta Parties inEurope, Democrat European People’s Party, the Party of European Socialists or the Federation of Liberal and main political 'families' had established transnational federations and political groups Westof European war period. inpolitics the Already post most by of 1970s, the Europe’s The of development transnational networks political and parties has beenfeature aconsistent 43 Not to confuse42 with the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO), founded in 1991. The latter is an 41 Lynch, Peter(1998): Co-operation between Regionalist Parties at the Level of the European Union. The European Free Leonardi, R.andC.Paraskevopoulos (1996):Capital Social andLearning InstitutionalNetworks: Making Senseof world’s principal international organizations, such as the United Nations.internationalorganization created by nations and peoples around the world, who are not represented as such in the Subsidiarity in European Regional Policy. The European Institute, London School of Economics, London. of Economics, School London Institute, European The Policy. Regional European in Subsidiarity New York. Alliance.In: De Winter, Lieven and Huri Türsan (ed.): Regionalist Parties in Western Europe.Routledge, London and Finally, in 1981, the European foundedataconferenceFree Alliance Finally,in in European was 1981,the (EFA) T RANSNATIONAL C made it EP. into the HAPTER R EGIONALIST 2: H ISTORICAL & A 42 15 UTONOMY , set up in, setup Brussels B ACKGROUND TO C OOPERATION IN 43 ; but was this a lobbying Volksunie E UROPE and the and 41 : the : CEU eTD Collection 7 Lynch, Peter 47 (1998). Lynch, Peter (1998). The related objectives46 of the EFA are the following: “Securing the participation of the regions 45 44 fall of the Iron Curtain, regionalistEU, the EFA sought new member parties outside the EU. members the the within supply of potential had exhausted since itFrance. Asafinalstrategy, and autonomysought movements electoral alliances with EFA the Furthermore, below). (seealso intheir hegemonic regions parties themselves as reemergedthe Greens in the EP as well inasmainstream ideological within instead groups joining the of EP the EFA – since they regarded at theCEE. domestic Somelevel, e.g. inNacionalista Vasco regionalist parties, andCatalan largeBasque the European regional minoritypolicy languages. or integration,for instance,European issues except, Parliament, taken up by European the various the on position common a establish to been difficult always ithas disparate, are very government for their country or region. However, since ideologically the EFA member parties belief infull either some independencepolitical or (statehood), form self- of or of geographical the wouldarea they inevitably be excluded from represent, arena. that European politics partiesto which,by virtue of the ,their own size or the size enough, the EFA perceives itself as a platform for small parties: The “EFA ensures the role in Interestingly level. European the at voices movements’ autonomy and regionalist individual regionalist component in the EP.” European Free Alliance (2007), www.e-f-a.org. (2007), Alliance Free European Lynch,(1998):Peter Co-operation between RegionalistParties atthe LevelofEuropean the Union.The European Free Committee of the Regions; defending and safeguarding the linguistic and cultural diversity of the EU.” (www.e-f-a.org) EU.” of the diversity cultural and linguistic the of the role ofthe safeguarding and defending strengthening the Regions; and the of Committee Institutions European of the reforms democratic Justice; of Court the to regions competence, inorder to enhance the recognition of historical nations an regions; a directwhich access have of constitutionalhistorical nations powers an inmeetings of the Council of Ministers which relate to matters that fall within their New York. Alliance.In: De Winter, Lieven and Huri Türsan (ed.): Regionalist Parties in Western Europe.Routledge, London and One source of new members was post-communist Central and Eastern Europe. After the Europe. and Central Eastern newmembers of waspost-communist source One The basic common position and common identity of the European Free Alliance is the Alliance Free European the of identity common and position common basic The (PNV), decided –when (PNV), Spain entered EC–toassociatethe with 44 Thatis to say, the established network was to strengthen 16 46 Convergència IUnió Convergència A disappointment to EFA was also when 47 (CiU) and the 45 Partido CEU eTD Collection identity, diverse our characteristics; ourcultural, political and economic independence.” involves threats to smaller regional communities. Only together we will succeed toensure our also Europe future united because the (...) necessary, is minority autonomies cooperation of as in headLuis Durnmwalder, of Tyrol,intensifiedgovernment South stresses: “An lobbying forautonomy notinevitablydoes a require regionalist faction in the EP.Crucial is, Kinga Gál, a Hungarian MEPUnió DemocraticadeCatalunya with Transylvania origins in the EPP faction, has shown that 49 48 Party; as did the injoinedPeople’s forinstance, andtheRMDSZCoalition in European the Slovakia Romania, they simply decided to joindid onenot ofput the forward big party-groups their claims in onEurope. an international The Party of attempts, sinceplatform.Hungarian these groups are more powerful in the EP than the EFA. Similar to the them moreif they succeed in gaining their party fellow members tosupport them inCiU their and PNV, with mainstream ideological within groups Parliament.” the European associate andsoughtto within regions parties ashegemonic their “sawthemselves Lynch argues in the case Westof European regionalist parties that did notjoin EFA that these Alliance. Free in European the apply formembership not did formsautonomy, of different are all small,insignificant parties. The big ethnic parties in CEE, although striving for inleast Butthese Party havegainedat observerEFA. status Federalist (Slovakia) Hungarian and the (Romania) Banat Transilvania Liga the ), Democratic(Czech Party Moravian the Moreover, Poland). in (Silesians Slaska Autonomii Ruch the or Party regionalistmovements or parties have indeed joined EFA. The Lithuanian Polish People’s Lynch, Peter (1998). Interview with Luis Durnwalder, April 2007. However, thismean doesnot that thebig andethnicparties regionalist in CEE andSEE Christian Democratic and Flemish Christian Democratic and inSpainand the 17 Südtiroler Volkspartei or 48 Mainstreaming helps Mainstreaming in South Tyrol/Italy. South in in Belgium, the Belgium, in 49 CEU eTD Collection political views haddifferent also but in Alliance, the all represented were which – andclericals a artists tuals, place. Pluralism alsointellec- members–politicians, RMDSZ of the origins professional by different the ranteed meant a wide range fest Hungarianunity ofRomanianagainst nationalism at that time. Internal pluralism gua-was ideas with respectmani-into least order Romania, not of all represent Hungarians the to The RMDSZwanted to the social organizations. and political Hungarian all organization andof parent group an interest significantorganization withinperiod ashort of time.was founded It on 25 December 1989as AllianceofHungariansbecame themostHungarians, in RMDSZ(Democratic the Romania) for the As communities. of these interest other and cultural political, the represent to free now were which organizations, of things, establishment the other among Ceausescu, enabled, Romania, Nicolae nationalist-communist in1989andthe the fallof therevolution dictator After decades of oppression and discrimination of Hungarians and other minorities in The Hungarian 3.1.1 Autonomy Movement inthe1990s 3.1 Introduction development. movement’s in the role influential an played have actors external other and in have movements influenced autonomy Europe andencouragedeach andwhich other regionalist the how showing at aim I Finally, context. Transylvanian in the party-cooperation examine I aspectsof seeking kindsof for Second, reasons the European specific cooperation. at the movement’s participationtives and effects of transnational cooperation, is divided into three sub-chapters:in First, I looktransnationalment after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The analytical part, which deals with the incen- networks in move-of the development background and readertothe introduce the I First, Transylvania. general and try to identifyin movement whichis case study, Hungarian autonomy firstthe IpresentIn the this chapter the C HAPTER 3: T HE H UNGARIAN A UTONOMY 18 M OVEMENT IN T RANSYLVANIA CEU eTD Collection On the one hand, the autonomists the hand,On theone order to stay in power. (haveRMDSZ leadership to backseemed step beenforced to) from its autonomy in claims – rights.” our can realize apath in Hungarians] we [the in country,forto create the used these meanswhich, order We level. governmental local the and both the on means, and influence legislative had serious orotherethnicity-specific only more, issueofautonomy butwe deal with any (...) the rights, had coalition strategy consequences on the “Theobviously alliance.the of RMDSZdidnot the entered RMDSZ the that fact The coalition. government the into RMDSZ the invited whenthe the1996parliamentary elections, change after 52 51 50 partner. a political be as presented not RMDSZcould the environment Hungarian-Romanian servedrelations as a basis for Romanian In politics. such a political managing president of managing of president RMDSZ,especiallythe in campaigns the CsabaTakács,the to very According Thepolitical was rights. anti-Hungarian. climate achieveinbasically did not minority anything with of beginning the 1990s the regard to despite being However, in united Hungarians big one party the political and organization, inTransylvania), toremainorder acommunity anationalizingwithin Romanian state. solution for the more than million inmainly1.5 Hungarians Romania livedin (who appropriate themost as autonomy regarded TheHungarian in RMDSZ. the represented autonomy issue, which was on the RMDSZ agenda from the very beginning of the 1990s. I will use the term Ibid. Interview with Csaba Takács, April 2005. discussed below), even though there have also recently been autonomy claims by the RMDSZ. However, the autonomy the However, RMDSZ. the by claims issue does not seem to autonomy be the most been important in current RMDSZ recently policy.also have there though even below), discussed This concession provoked internal fights in the RMDSZ, which led to an internal split: internal an to led which RMDSZ, in the fights internal provoked concession This At that time, platforms promoting cultural or personal and territorial autonomy were both ' autonomists 51 This affected the Thisautonomy issue affected since negatively, especially the ' only for this group of Hungarians (MPSZ, EMNT and SZNT, to be described and described be to SZNT, and EMNT (MPSZ, of Hungarians group this for only 52 around László T László bishop around 19 Democratic ConventionRomania of Ę kés and on the other hand, the hand, other the on and kés ' ethnicissue 50 Thisappearedto ' and the and too, CEU eTD Collection parliament. inof votes Romania, andsotherewouldbeHungarian in no theRomanian representation 5% required receive not the will latter the RMDSZ, for the vote not if itdoes that convinced disadvantages forThe thenew inner-Hungarian Hungarian disadvantages opposition electorate group. autonomy is large, it isoutthat monopoly autonomy 'Hungarian large, the turned more for However, although below). autonomy assertiveinclaiming support (see popular the Alliance (MPSZ), a party-political alternative to the RMDSZ thatin turn has become Civic much Hungarian the founded and RMDSZ left have autonomists the of many that difference The internal in RMDSZhas survivedthedivision turn century,of the the slight with the 3.1.2 Internal Hungarian DivisionConcerning Autonomyin the 21 since spring 2005–the decision has been forpostponed some time. attempt, anRMDSZ proposal foris cultural autonomy, issuein an Romanian the parliament autonomy hasyears.latest regard to within achievedanything not The RMDSZ the 17 56 55 54 53 passed asapolitical andformulated once initsdecision documents.” not mean that does this thebut (...), time RMDSZ and place its has “Everything for criticism: the on some opinion Takács's Csaba reason wants to give up any of its objectives, which it autonomy get as ameans to support of the in ethnicthe Hungarian electorate Romania autonomy issue time onlyatthe therefore misusingelections of and the basedethnically current RMDSZleadershipand around Béla Markó Attila Verestói – bringing upthe Interviews with László T TheHungarian population in Romania is according to the 2002 national census 6.6%. Interview with Csaba Takács, April 2005. There are sharp divisions over the autonomy issue, or at least over the way how and what to claim and at what moment, Romanians (www.figyelo.ro, 14May 2007). since 2005; however, it is still missing around 800 signatures each infive countiespolitical of a that are mainly inhabited by registration the law, Romanian to party According requires 25 000 far. signaturesso from 25counties andBucharest municipality.independents The as MPSZ has beencollecting signatures election the for run to had politicians The Hungarian Civic Alliance (MPSZ) has not been eligible for elections, not even at the local level. The opposition Szeklerland. within the RMDSZ.The leadership Bucharestin has lost the support of many local RMDSZ politicians, especially the in 56 Ę kés (president EMNT), Zsolt Árus (SZNT), András T 20 Ę kés (Vice-President MPSZ), April 2005. ' of the RMDSZ had its st 54 Century The fact is that with 55 is 53 . CEU eTD Collection 9 EMNT has published a book59 including a list of properties that have not been given back to the Hungarian churches since 58 57 demonstrate popularindemonstrate internal support an unofficial and referendum on territorial the SZNTtriedto the constitution. In theRomanian 2006, contradicts territorial autonomy whichby arguedthat wasconstitutional Hungarian autonomy the court, rejected statute Tyroleanmodel for help:as 'Europeanness' a proof the theirclaims not the obviously did based on the model of in 2003, Romanian parliament to the the statute an autonomy Szeklerland,for submitted the South Tyrolean autonomy. churches theHungarian affects However, the reference language restitution education andthird,which intheHungarian of property,principally the to the Southand forautonomy personal Hungarians;rights second,achieve to amoreindependent higher Szeklerland. for the the claims territorial with concerned mainly is SZNT the while Romania, in Hungarians all for claims autonomy preference. party-political the irrespective Council) were founded, in order to promote the autonomy issue on a societal basis and National SZNT(Szekler the and of Transylvania) Council National EMNT (Hungarian main platform main their as of pursuitautonomy the Hungarian proclaimed which established, were organizations Romania, among Hungarians, especially also butIn 2003, abroad. Hungarianthree political autonomists decidedtosearchfor channelsother andmeans of autonomy within promotion The members of the EMNT and the SZNT have not only been politicians but also members of the . According to Hungarian oppositional politicians, there are three main reasons for the establishment of the MPSZ, EMNT watch of the Hungarian National Council of Transylvania. Hungarian National Council of Transylvania, Oradea. of Transylvania, Council National Hungarian Transylvania. of Council National Hungarian of the watch Antal(eds.) (2004): Transylvanian MonitorNo 1, background documents to the periodical minority and human rights the fall of communism. Thelist, updated in2002, consistsof more than2091properties. See: Szilágyi,Zsoltand János respect to the autonomy issue. And third, the continuously nationalist politics of Romanians and its consequences. Hungarians in Transylvania.Second, the unsuccessful politics of the RMDSZ in the last couple of years, particularly with 250 000persons between 1990and 2005 –duetotheincreased emigration from Transylvania andtheassimilation of and SZNT and their intensified demands forautonomy: First, the decrease of the Hungarian population in Romania by The main issues for the EMNT to solve have been, first of all, a legal basis for cultural for basis legal a all, of first been, have solve to EMNT the for issues main The Disagreeing with RMDSZthe leadership's policy and strategy, Hungarian the 57 . While the MPSZ has been the party-political branch of the movement, the movement, the of branch party-political the been has MPSZ the While . 59 . The SZNT, in its attempts to achieve territorial autonomy 58 The EMNT stands The EMNT for cultural and personal 21 CEU eTD Collection 60 The origins60 of the Szeklers is a contested issue: Some scholars identify them as the rest of the Huns, who withdraw to Zsolt Szilágyi,Zsolt of vice-president EMNT,givesthe some 'introductory' arguments: seems to represent only a small and notstrongly pushed part in the RMDSZ policy. issue autonomy the while autonomy, Hungarian (ethnic) the to commitment specific and latter group, the 'autonomists', the on focus will I paragraphs since next the In changes. they radical more for are ask more autonomists the relevantwhile for my topic – due to self-interest, its their of out stronggovernment and parliament Romanian in the issue autonomy territorial so-called the practices leadership The RMDSZ camps,dividedtwo into achieve different which pathsconsider as to appropriate autonomy. Romanian and politicians society Romanian of side the on reluctance strong a is there First, toTransylvania. grant Hungariansin claims autonomy Hungarian the of problems main two identify can we far, So autonomy. Second, the3.2 Transylvanian Hungarian Autonomists and Transnational NetworksHungarian political elite elite. political Romanian from of the part change the are its this validity. But wasratherasymbolicgesture an than action aiming at provokingpolicy prove to order in observers international invited also SZNT the referendum – symbolic rather late 19 with ahighlevel for of the autonomy centuries – until Hungarians makeupmore 80 percentof than population the and Szeklerslived the where Szeklerland territorialthe supported claimsinautonomy ahistorical – region, where in the of population Hungarian inthe 90 percent which Szeklerland, autonomy the of regional identity is quite strong, much stronger than in other parts of Transylvania where Hungarians live (Filep 2006b). (Filep live Hungarians where Transylvania of parts other in than stronger much strong, quite is identity regional (Köpeczi 1990). Thesedays,Szeklers perceive themselves & are perceived asof part Hungarianthe , though their Transylvania afterKing Attila's death, others see them as aTurk people thatcame into the Carpathian Basin around 670 intensive dialog with the Romanian political elite and the Romanian society, in which we make clear make we which in society, Romanian the and elite political Romanian the with dialog intensive isenunciated.Second, evolveswish First, that communityto say,the wants an that there it,that is the things: three least at of need the essentially, is, there autonomy the realize to order in that think We in autonomistslogicunderstand Transylvania, Hungarian of to In the the strategic order 22 ' politics of small steps th century. ' andavoids the pushing 60 For this – so far CEU eTD Collection 61 Interview 61 with Zsolt Szilágyi, April 2007. neighboring states of Hungary as a consequence of the Treaty signedin1920. Treaty Trianon of neighboring of Hungary of the as aconsequence states liveminorities Hungarians inthe Hungary as theother who relations kinstate and to tothe Europe. Western European the from Union and third,regionalistother movements, primarily andautonomy in from perceivemotherland, second, from astheir First, Hungary, which they external actors: Hungarian in lacking,have autonomiststhe from powerhasbeen politicians sought support for Romanian integrity.” the from support asdomestic Consequently, as Romanian well as senseless because is is theRomanian debates, this [theperception autonomy] that dangerous struggle, whichhasanyway in debates Romaniaprovoked from beginning, very the from autonomy whole the from aloof keep to “tried autonomists the explains, Szilágyi Zsolt as Therefore, claims. autonomy slightest the even rejects persistently elite political Romanian autonomists do not back down (that sides arehardened: on both attitudes the autonomy, the Hungarian intensive the concerning is what the RMDSZ did) from Second, although dialogthe political has with Romanian the elite society beenquite and their attempts,Hungarians). (among level while domestic the on leeway the autonomists’ the limited has RMDSZ Transylvania autonomy for the the strategy claims. However, of powerthe and political As Ihave withinis mentioned in above, there Hungarian widespreadsupport the population keep them up to date with the things goingon here.” to hard trying are we Transylvania; to number big a such in them invited we why is That issue. this promote – to possibilities own their to – according us help us, of ahead rather are that communities national Europe’s that hope we of three connection this in and region this in happens what about care powers great the also obviously view, of point this From stability. of question the raises which extent, an to country the of restructuring the affect might autonomies the because consent, international the principle in Third, integrity. state's Romanian the against not is this that and is interest our what The first transnational (or rather trans-border) networks established were basically the basically were established networks trans-border) rather (or transnational The first 23 61 CEU eTD Collection 63 Sólyomopenly promotes autonomythe issue ofHungarians abroad, but the promotionof minority rights in 62 The MAÉRTnot did takeplace2005 in and 2006; many Hungarian foundations abroadordealing with the situation of cannotevenbe proud though Europe of sensitivehavingbeen too minority with regard to Thatisissue.say, (...) highest and to important our political ally most supporter is Europe, ourautonomy be concerning than more generous RMDSZ the seems to European Parliament of Hungariansthe have EMNT, the in curiously faced Transylvania in“the asituation, which EU – even though they were skeptical at the sametime. AccordingLászló to T a memberlongwhich the as wasnot asRomania hopeespecially of autonomists putsome the and the president of Hungary, Lászlo Sólyom conservatives while boo, and catcalls of hails by greeted been have Transylvania to politicians liberal and socialist visits of issue. Recently, for their partner a transnational have as to prefer autonomists theHungarian is actor So, it the not weak. rather isalso kin of their ethnic for support the of Hungariansthe in neighboring states the are in latter andthe communists sincebeenpost-communists, famous 2002,havenot power ithow much toprovide (financial) The can orwants support Hungariansabroad. for the effectively – even though,inHungarians abroad particular aswell how thecouldas Hungarian state support latter the first the of interests the ofand interest all national Hungarian the mainly the been have negotiation and Hungarian government2004 ayear.once –theto first of timeparticipated from 1999 Issues in1996,then discussion decides what kind of abroad representatives Hungarian the and inHungary parties the parliamentary government, and is TheMAÉRTwhich asone of 'networks'. asession regarded these at Hungarian the bein established 1996,could (MAÉRT), Állandó Értekezlet TheMagyar worse times. and better seen have they but then, since dissolve not have ties Hungarian-Hungarian These at the official ceremony in Hungary in memory of the 1848 revolution. Transylvania visited he when on thestates, 15 neighboring inthe Hungarians among sympathies won He also whole. a as Europe closed. been have states neighbouring the in Hungarians The second external actor involvedThe is external second inlobbyist) the a potential actor (and Union,European th of March 2007. It was the first time that the president of Hungary did not participate 63 24 seem beto welcome any time. 62 ; and alsolobbying their onbehalf Ę kés, president CEU eTD Collection Sovata where they invited representatives of other regionalist and autonomy movements; movements; as andautonomy regionalist of other where representatives they invited Sovata have strengthened. been contacts these Catalans, Basques, Welsh,conferences,international fora,for instancein hehimself where Brussels, in got with touch Belgian Germans, werebuiltat autonomists Hungarian of the contacts transnational Szilágyi,the to According Albanians and others. cooperation. forand autonomist an regionalist search transnational provoked intensified By visiting each has Union European the inand Hungary government socialist-liberal RMDSZ, current the other, date back to the 1990s back tothe date alliances transnational –their movements and parties autonomist and regionalist Western of the Åland Islands, Switzerland or Belgium, did not change the European Union’s stance. Tyrol, South Catalonia, of autonomies the to by referring claims democratic their justifying self-determination and to right convince theirUnion of leaders, theEuropean mist to trying that (territorial) autonomy is an internal issue of Romania. The attempts of Hungarian autono- in Rehn 2006 Commissionerstated Olli already autonomists European diminishedthe when respect for and protection of minority rights is one of the Copenhagen Criteria. is Copenhagen the oneof minority rights of for andprotection respect the though even – right minority a as autonomy of case the in tool conditionality the of making Romaniainfor use Hungarian the support EUadmitted 2007without autonomy: The 6 ZsoltSzilágyi reports that hefirst66 visited the Åland Islands in 1995 and since then has had regular contact with the 65 It istrue that respect for minority rights does not necessarily mean granting autonomy. However, if one talks about the Interview with László 64 T issues.“ knowledge and information. Aaland politicians, who visit Transylvania on aregular basis and vice versa, above allfor the exchange of experience, Romania still has very nationalizing towards the minorities thatmean autonomy live in(higher) education, inin culture-related Romania. issues, or administration. public even in In connection this protection of minorities one has to consider autonomy as a protective tool against assimilation, first of all. With that I In instance,for 2004, autonomists the organizedan autonomy conference in Szováta/ It isso thatthe It Hungarianjustseek have not recently the support autonomists begunto 64 That was in 2005, and T and That wasin2005, Ę kés, April 2005. 66 . However, the lack of support for autonomy from the part of the Ę kés was obviously right in being skeptical about the EU’s the in being skeptical about kés was right obviously 25 65 The hopes of CEU eTD Collection 70 69 EPP. Participants in the 68 of politician the conferenceTyrolean South included Ebner, SantiagoMichel Liberals, de Compostela European the for (Spain), Tartu politician University Catalan Guardans, NarvaIgnasi College E.g. (Estonia), 67 interests of European minorities in minorities of fieldof the European interests education. the concerning an agreement at arrive to theconference aim of the was also It education. experience andother’s for discussion on aplatform specificthe minority issuehigher of from learn each to Theopportunity wasan Conference by Committee. Initiative Bolyai the Higher Education of inMinoritiesheld National initiatedwas Cluj/Koloszvár/Klausenburg, second Conference on European the November In 2006, comingfrom regions. same the by scholars initiated was level networking A of there. second claims theautonomy learn about EP the of members as well models of administrative institutions.” administrative of models kindpower-sharingmodern stopped the is of societal andthe which about thinking, different froze, basically the because here, thesociety of development an organic about wecannot talk So, frozen communism. during were interests community of development the and culture political the that forget not should “We models. autonomy other the from meetingshave helped Hungarianautonomiststhe in Transylvania insofar astheyhave learnt identify the traps in which other communities fell into.” fell communities other in which traps the identify to “help that allies transnational find to about also is it but movements, other of features about the state of the existing autonomies and the activities of autonomy movements in movements autonomy of activities the and autonomies existing the of state the about Hungarian politicians in Transylvania it would seem they that have knowledge very good Ibid. Interview with Zsolt Szilágyi,April 2007. Marosvásárhely/Targu Mures (Romania). Theological Seminary, Hungarian Technical-Scientific of University Society (Slovakia), of Transylvania,Újvidék/NoviUniversity János Medical Selye Sad & (Serbia),Pharmacy Babes-Bolyai (), University of Comrat University,of U-niversity SapientiaState University,(Norway), Partium ChristianCollege University, Protestant Cardiff University (Wales), Free University of Bozen (South Tyrol), University of Tetova (Macedonia), Sami University Zsolt Szilágyi concludes that so far the different kinds of transnational contacts and contacts transnational of kinds different the far so that concludes Szilágyi Zsolt However, to learn from each other does not simply mean to get to know the positive know the get to mean to simply not does eachother learn from to However, 67 , the Council of Europe who Transylvania to around etc., traveled Europe of , the Council 69 26 68 70 From my interviews with interviews my From CEU eTD Collection 73 Interview with Luis73 Durnwalder, April 2007. 72 Interview with Zsolt 71 Szilágyi, April 2007. experts established close transnational especially Europe, inÅlandTyrol South and Hungarianshave the Islands. in Transylvania relations with South Tyrol – with politicians as well as with is strength” “unity says: Durnwalder Luis as –or in general autonomists and regionalists the of solidarity the to thanks that hopes Szilágyi But movements. two the between networks institutionalized non- and loose only are there that fact the to mainly due andconferences, meetings common of andtheorganization yet of information exchange of exceeded the level inall not all autonomists and drafted submitted Romanianto the parliament. South Tyrol Council. UNSecurity the of in front Szeklerautonomy the has also served European AtCommission. the same time South he the Tyroleanasked vice-premier support to as a modelTyroleanmembers EP topersistently theSzekler insupport autonomy EPandinthe the for the April get2006, he lobbyingfrom autonomy alsosupport tried to Tyrol. South Csapóaskedthe South proposal that the Hungarian autonomists try use to most possible channelslobbying, of mainly supranationalat the level. Hungarian Until establishment, agency’s the non-compliance. in caseof anycountry,against opportunity lobby to influenceand the actions of this agency,suggestsanctions established to membercomply states with would It politicalthe standards. give theminorities the existinginstitution, isbe which supposed establishedto in wouldVienna, control whether the yet not This countries. EU in the rights) minority (including issues rights human monitoring problemthe of EUiscurrentlythe it hasnoinstitution factthatthe is that supervising and out, points Szilágyi As issues. minority for basis legal and institutional the improve to have www.erdely.ma, 17April 2006. However, the cooperation between Hungarians in Transylvania and South has Tyroleans andTransylvania between South in Hungarians cooperation the However, 71 . As it turned out from a visit of the SZNT president József Csapó to South Tyrol in 73 – and as a consequence of their permanent lobbying, the European –andlobbying, European the Union asa will consequence of their permanent 27 72 As I have mentioned above, mentioned have I As CEU eTD Collection that he wouldthat most likely faction Party injoinPeople's European the EP. the theEP for candidate independentelections of in already Romania announced 2007, autumn 75 The The RMDSZ joined has EPP in the 1993 and the EP elections75 inautumn 2007 will not change position.this 74 Liberals and the EFA. Szilágyi mentions the Catalans, who have representatives in the EPP, among the European is not in itself a rejection of the EFA's aims.As Zsolt Szilágyi explains: president EMNT and European Free Alliance,the whichmany belong to. autonomy parties regionalist László T autonomists would apply for prefermembership in to European the inPeople's Party and not their intention organizations for lobbying of irrespective autonomy preferences party-political notisand it to join a European party. Second, despite their sympathy for the EFA, the as a inRomania party a political as registered officially being with struggling still is MPSZ the that simply is this for reason One members they are notyet networks, a European party. of transnational regionalist/autonomy While the Hungarian autonomists have soughtsupport from and in cooperation different 3.3 Transylvanian Hungarian Autonomists and European Party-Cooperation 76 Interview with Zsolt76 Szilágyi, April 2007. However, in case of great support for László T László for support great of case in However, Interview withZsolt Szilágyi, April 2007. regard to the important autonomy issue. He would undoubtedly be astrong minority representation inthe EP. respected personality among Hungarians inRomania, and who is knownfor intransigence, his not least with Hungarian votes atnational elections so far, this time its plans might not work out, since T show if this stance of commonthelist of all HungariansRMDSZ forthe EP elections, was but the RMDSZ cleverrejected. The elections in autumn will orParliament. not. Inorder to avoidWhile this situation, the autonomists the suggested presentingRMDSZ a commonprogram and a could have been sure of the entire “If there“If isanally,even mayonefactif itissmall, that itisa not rejectit.However, community’s alongpolitical interests It . is justgood, if it can attach.” cause. Becausebest haveto both in the EPP andin or otherthe EFA one the personwho supports theHungarian the be would it Well, decisions. in say a I have essentially am can groups political and notparliamentary bigger sure if it is necessary to (...) bind the representation of the national Ę kés, the protagonist of the autonomists, who is going to run as an “That is not a bad construction bad a not is “That 74 ; while the EMNT and the SZNT are ethnic political are ethnic SZNT andthe ; while EMNT the Ę kés, the RMDSZ might not to be represented in the European the in represented be to not might RMDSZ the kés, 28 , if , influence they want to bigger 76 75 However, this However, Ę kés is a highly [only] the CEU eTD Collection 9 It is not excluded 79 that Hungarian autonomists would agree with territorial autonomy for Transylvania, where 78 77 awhole. as Transylvania the caseis it as majority, is minority the where municipalities in for status special a and theTransylvania), Hungarianterritorial autonomy for ethnically the Szeklerland homogeneous (arelatively small part of minority claim they Second, live. in Romania Hungarians of majority vast the where Transylvania, law; in especially but but in Romania, Hungarians all for autonomy personal and they cultural claim do not claimthe claims of the Hungarians autonomists territorial autonomyregionalist and minority parties which have no support from politiciansfor in other states. (non-hegemonic) small for attractive rather Lynch, to according is, that alliance small level European the be thaninand wouldmore is the influential which EFA, acomparatively much more from at Hungarians Romania effectively could and Hungary, cooperate Slovakia joining a bigger alliancealso seek toimprove theirsituation as ina minority state they live.the by Consequently, in the who Hungary of states Europeanneighboring in other Hungarians of presence the third, And attempts. Parliament, such as theRomania.itis Second, the of existence a kinstate, which is support supposed to them in their European People’s words a domestic among inorder potentially hegemonic support, in ethnicHungarians status Party, yetlarge electorally not(ethnic) but proven – isfirsttheirin –potential my the EFA, parties low. are rather in EP the representation of chances pluralistic the and Catalans’, the number million (1.5 compared 7million to their Catalans) situation is notascomfortable as decisions.” AsI have mentioned above: I By autonomistsmembers mean the of theinner-Hungarian opposition RMDSZ, to the i.e. different roles in the whole autonomy movement. autonomy whole the in roles different membersthe of EMNT, SZNT and MPSZ. These organisations cannot betaken separately, even though they have Interview withZsolt Szilágyi, April 2007. Another reason for non-membership in the European Free Alliance (EFA) might be that might (EFA) Alliance Free European the in non-membership for reason Another Whatmakes the Hungarian autonomists distinctfrom most of the regionalist and autono- 77 However, due to fact that Hungarians in Transylvania are comparatively fact However,fewin due Hungarians to in that arecomparatively Transylvania 79 Consequently, if an forautonomist party Szeklerland, the which 78 are located on several levels. First of all, they 29 they make CEU eTD Collection 80 the autonomy claims in Transylvania. claims autonomy the andhow focustheirand stance supranational hasaffected onthetransnational changing actors when government, indemandinanalyzing the changes HungariansTransylvania, of the I of demands.Hungarians in their claims and how their stance hasinfluenced in changes strategy and level While the encouraged haveinfluencedand and regionalists autonomists especially other actors, Jenneexternal extent what to and how is here, answer to try will I questions The Transylvania. in (2007), autonomists Hungarian the on had have movements their and autonomies other especially but for instance,Hungarian autonomists. In this sub-chapter Iwill show what effects external actors in general,the for represent networks such incentives the about rather was It networks. transnational looksdifferent in see they chances and purpose what and chosen have they strategies what at the formed, have autonomists stance Hungarian the alliances transnational learned what far have So we of 3.4 Transylvanianthe Hungarian Autonomists and Ethnic Mobilization Hungarian system introduce the of inautonomy Romania.” isitto wethink necessary that Therefore (…) in Transylvania. of Hungarians the existence for the important as arejust autonomy cultural and personal The autonomy. Szekler with the only be solved not would in Romania Hungarians of issue “The mentions: Szilágyi as Zsolt that, to alternative nosee –butthey arecomplex autonomists Hungarian the claims of see, the would not be suitable as a regionalist party, since its claims are non-territorial.As one can EMNT, for instance, as a possible representation of all HungariansThe in Transylvania,Alliance. in the however, underrepresented be would autonomy personal and cultural for claims membershipexist for notin Transylvania-wide wouldpresent, apply the does theEFA, at Interview with Zsolt Szilágyi,April 2007. historical inChairs the (Szék) and ignores the restores currenteven administrative borders.instance, for structure, organizational SZNT's The centuries). for autonomous significance of the historical Szeklerautonomy in the autonomists’ mind (the Szeklerland used to be majority anautonomousin Szeklerland. So, itisabout ethnic self-government. One may not neglect the up approximately 20% of population.the However, they still a minority,are while they would (large) bethe 30 80 CEU eTD Collection 83 Ibid. 82 81 economic growth in South Tyrol that occurred Tyrol South and Adige. Transylvania Trentino-Alto replaces Szilágyi mentions the then thanks to the autonomous status replaces Szeklerland casethe Hungarian the In Adige. Trentino-Alto of region Italian whole of the region cultural the autonomy of the German speaking populationadministration, (as well as the Ladins and )autonomous its concerns the with unit territorial autonomous an is Tyrol South says: While “autonomy Szilágyi an as because ittissue”, actually represents Transylvania, for model be perfect the to isconsidered autonomy Tyrolean South the seems as the end of the 19 phenomenon.” a new not absolutely is autonomy say,idea That of is territorial Banat. the to for the autonomy territorial guarantee the Romanians proclaim ofin which their Iulia], [Alba own Gyulafehérvár motion of declaration the in as theAs well accessiontoo. Principles, Wilson of Transylvania to Romania, they the took authorities Romanian the inVersailles, negotiations peace the in with that connection has autonomy been a needfor Treaty Hungarians“We sincethe of forget shouldTrianon. not Szilágyi, Zsolt to According inTransylvania. autonomy of necessity a historical to often refer terms] before submitting the autonomy statute to the Romanian parliament.” Romanian the to statute autonomy the submitting before terms] [in “helped alotitconceptual us that he autonomy,admits Tyrolean South the to Referring movement. autonomy Hungarian the on actors external other and movements other of for this cause.” fought whoconsequently of those achievement has not beeninfluenced by but autonomies wasahistoricalother andan development movement’s claims?”is assumingly similar theto following: “The South Tyrolean autonomy Interview with Zsolt Szilágyi,April 2007. Interviewwith Luis Durnwalder, April 2007. The first answer of most autonomists to the question “what has influenced your autonomy your influenced has “what question the to autonomists most of answer first The At samethe deny time,Zsolt EMNT’svice-president the not Szilágyi does influencethe th century. 82 Not to talk about the Szekler autonomy that lasted until lasted that autonomy Szekler the about talk to Not 31 81 The Hungarian autonomists Hungarian The 83 Anyway, it Anyway, CEU eTD Collection 84 InterviewLászló with T 'Europe' willdemocratic them. support that the Europeanbelieve countries and East in EUhasthe led Central autonomists autonomy, and rights minority of issue the on inconsistent quite been has EU the that shows have been created to enforce the Hungarian autonomy claims.” autonomy Hungarian enforce the to been created have conditions optimal anew when integration, of European the apropos now as circumstances political favorable and such accession itsNATO Council Europe, to the of accession 7Ę refers László wasone Hereto of them. ofEUaccession prospect that the canassume one establishmentof Hungarian the autonomist organizations (MPSZ,andin EMNT SZNT) 2003, the for responsible were circumstances several though Even (re)emphasized. been have beginning of negotiationsRomania’s with European the Union, (ethnic) the autonomy claims regionalism, the principle of subsidiarity and minority increasedof bargaining in power front of Romanianthe government. rights standards. Especiallyleast hasafeeling hadisat cooperation transnational i.e. effectthe the them psychologically, from the supported into enter they relations transnational the that we canjustassume Furthermore, followexample. their –to their them thatencouraged existence – simplywith Europe autonomists muchvery themselvesoriented towardssuccessful inautonomies Western autonomy isFrom implemented. this paragraphwe can conclude that the Hungarian and he expects a similar development in the Szeklerland (and in Transylvania), as soon as the kés’ criticism of the RMDSZ: “We let pass such favorable circumstances likeRomania’s circumstances “Weletpasssuchfavorable kés’ of RMDSZ: criticism the Another point of Another pointof hasbeen reference Union and European itsthe promotion of Ę kés, Aprilkés, 2005. 32 84 So, even though experience though even So, CEU eTD Collection unconstitutional. “The Romanian constitution does not forbidunconstitutional.“The not Romanian constitution but courtsaidthe does the regions, initiativeconsideredhave court this However, as creating should been counties the revised. law of The1968 historical the regions. and the of regionalization Romania parliamentary elections in 2004 itwas noteligible. The program party of the included the LTB'sthe for president “his Transylvania”. as fights and in 2002 (LTB) Banat Transilvania Liga the of founder the was multiculturalism, and lost his job politicians byRomanian mainly treason of at accused immediately the was Gherman Transylvania. TVR. Gherman, who sees hasdecentralizedthat Romania,attempt an been mainly by in pursued Hungarians himself as a TransylvanianTransylvaniawas Itbeginningthe Romania. initiativewithin of a Romanian for a and promotes moreof autonomy for andcalled of Bucharest centralism the criticized of manifesto, the publication before the Româna) (Televiziunea TVR for thepublictelevision was ajournalist by manifesto caused Gherman Sabin in astirpublished 1998 that in Romania. Gherman, who M-am s 4.1.1 The LigaTransilvania –a Banat Romanian regionalist party inTransylvania regionalization)(and thus of Romania. promoting alsothe Europeanization the Pro Europa –aRomanian-Hungarian NGO, and the played arole inthismovements: The Liga– aregionalist Banat Transilvania Liga party, the have that groups end atthe arethree arose of 1990s.There the in regionalists Transylvania in of Romanian attempts 1989, the dictatorship nationalist-communist Ceausescu’s fall of Nicolae the after which reemerged claims, autonomy Hungarian the to Compared 4.1 Introduction However, the party was denied registration as a political party and so also at the last the at also so and party apolitical as registration denied was party the However, C HAPTER ΁ turat deRomânia! 4: T HE R OMANIAN – I am fed up with Romania! –Iamfedup with isthe title ofapolitical This R EGIONALIST 33 Provincia M OVEMENT IN group – a group –agroup of group T RANSYLVANIA CEU eTD Collection 86 “The central programmes of the Pro Europa League, implemented predominantly in Transylvania, are based on the Interview85 with Sabin Gherman, April 2005. not want that” that in the constitution it is written: county (judet), municipalities and cities, no regions, we do Europa regionalizationSabinSimilar considers to hisGherman the andEuropa Liga Transilvania Banat, Liga Pro 4.1.2 LigaPro Europa & a contributionTransylvanian identity, which is actually based on former.the specific a emphasizes and multiculturalism Transylvanian the to promotes Gherman Second, a multiculturaldivided into regions,have which largewould in competences of most policy the areas. So, the Liga hasbasicallyTransilvania Banat mainRomaniatwo messages:First, should be Transylvania. However, the Liga Pro : or majorityEspeciallynot autonomy, favor in caseof the do Transylvania, Romanians of the while the promotion of while the later inintroduced of regionalism promotion was secondhalf the of 1990s. To- the tothe intellectualsand idea committed andpluralism, values of the Pan-European promotion of interculturalism, human rights and minority rights, on civic education and on preventing conflicts.” values, the values of the minorities are… are hostile complementary multicultural, the All (…) minorities. the with praxis mutual isno there Bucharest For Germans. and Hungarians the with space common a is Transylvania me, for But territory. contested isa still Transylvania mindset their in Because Why? officials. the for bell alarm an is this Transylvania, about talk to want we When officials. of the problem mental a is “This Romania.” only exist, not exist; not exist, not does Transylvania Transylvania? problem.Butwould ifyou like to talk about Transylvania, there is irrevocably a sign: Moldavia, there no is problem. In Dobrogea,if youwould like to talk Dobrogea,about no “In Romania it is aquestion of… a blocked mentality. In Moldavia, if you would like to talk about 86 was already established in was established already 1989 asone firstthe of by NGOs inRomania of a group 85 . Gherman also suspects that the court considered his party to be his separatist. considered court party the to . Gherman suspects that also Provincia – for a regionalized, –for a multicultural, 'European'Romania 34 [ to the majority ] , per definition.” CEU eTD Collection others are reluctant. However, shehopes that the EU membership of Romania will change the Hungarians, only some would Liberals beof in favor LPE’sthe regionalization plan, while enjoy from besidesEuropa Ligathe the little society; Romanian only the Pro support ideas of The cautiously optimistic. but pessimistic is not Enache Romania, of regionalization it was invented, just that the Szeklerland cannot beitself.” aregion for Szeklerland just the cannot that itwas invented, “In inhas Szeklerland belongs. reality the course never there such history of existed a region; regions, they are artificial;has its problems: Although not statisticalthe regions do overstep bordersthe of historicalthe for instance the Centrum region (Alba Iulia), to which also the plans nor of plans nor of funds.the From viewpoint that of just they on existpaper” development the of neither dispose They power. no have regions “the that notes Enache area. reforms inthis after in Romania to European Union the 1998 pushed were created already and andpensive, bureaucratic improper, management the of public means is transparent. not 90 89 88 Ibid. 87 local despot” like a territory the governed party. This local one of the communist ausescuas thepresident “a smallCe- he of which put top atthe 42smallcreate counties, to when Ceausescudecided is in stuck 1968, structure in Romania Enache, territorial-administrative its According to Moldova, Oltenia. and Muntenia Bukovina, Dobrogea, Banat, – sub-region the Szeklerland – with ThesearebesidesTransylvania haveashistorical provinces. since they existed already “donot havebe to 'invented'” elaborated a RomaniainPro Europa Regionsseven proposal, that whichdivides upregions. gether with the Ibid. Ibid. Interviewwith Smaranda Enache, April 2005. Moreover, Smaranda Enache criticizes the newly-created statistical regions (NUTS 2)that (NUTS regions statistical newly-created the criticizes Smaranda Enache Moreover, 88 . The problem with the current system is the enormous centralism, which is ex- Provincia group, acircle group, of Hungarian and intellectuals, Romanian theLiga 87 , as the Liga Pro Europa’s co-president Smaranda Enache says, 35 89 . Also the division the Also . 90 In view of a CEU eTD Collection Banat volvedmovement. While inthe by political movementrepresented the the ans. The main reason for this is, according tomy observation, the small amount of people in- least theHungari- comparedlimited –at beenvery to have vitiesRomanian regionalists of acti- transnational the this aspect to irrespective However, Union. European suchasthe actors two kinds ofpotential regionalistsand orsupranational other movements partners: autonomy Since –in tothe Hungarianscontrast –theyhaveethnic abroad, no kin there state remain only itself)seek support. Romanian regionalistsnot theexpect movement wouldexternal the to we 91 several reasons for this in the introduction of this chapter. regionalization ideas come from Romanians and not from Hungarians. I have mentioned the the Romanian regionalists has been the been has regionalists Romanian the main of the for Hungarians, obstacle the However, as reforms. necessity the suggested the of by political economic debate, becould Transylvanian the or which population persuadedof a not and discourse an been rather has regionalization Romania’s on debate the enjoy large supportwithin the Hungariancommunity in Romania.So,asfor Romanians,the ideas whose Hungarian in tothe autonomists, contrast society, in Romanian the marginalized To start with, one4.2 Transylvanian Romanian Regionalists and Transnational Networks has to point Brussels.” of initiative the on then government, the of initiative out that the on not if in Romania; effect its have also will pluralism the for autonomy, local for respect Romanian majority’s stance, evenifittakes some time: “theEuropean way of European the thinking, regionalists in Transylvania are Interviewwith Smaranda Enache, April 2005. government Consequently, due to the Consequently, to due can show a certain degree of transnational cooperation with the regionalist parties of parties regionalist with the cooperation of transnational degree acertain can show in opening a discussion on the regionalization issue – even though the lack of domesticlack ofsupport reluctance oftheRomanianpolitical elite 36 (the Hungarians support ideathe but 91 Liga Transilvania including CEU eTD Collection political itprofit could make with EFA cooperation has been limited. the in Romania, asapolitical party yet been hasnot registered since LTB the However, regionalists andtheinputs of regionalistother with movements membership inthe EFA. Liga plan Transilvania the isof ideas Banat, acombination pre-existingthe Romanian of of the president Sabin Gherman, to According Alliance. Free European the with cooperation 92 Interview with is LTB of the The heart hand from could profit EFA’s the in support terms of promotion and conceptual assistance. EFA representatives fullinfluence well asto membersit andgive adviceto as thedecisions However,can try to in the European Parliament. partin afull not LTBcannottake memberof EFA 'observer' EFA,the decisions. the and The Liga Transilvaniathe Liga Transilvania Banat (LTB) applied for and obtained observer status in the EFA.As an Banat on the Alliance, in Free participated European the havenot in While Transylvania Hungarians the other 4.3 Transylvanian Romanian Regionalists and European Party-Cooperation tensive exchange of knowledge andinformation movementswith regionalist abroad is absent. But in general, the Liga Pro Europa is rather preoccupied with domestic projects, while the in- her Education of National Minorities, heldin inCluj/Kolozsvár/Klausenburg November 2006. Hig- on Conference secondEuropean at the instance,also for She participated, cheis present. Ena- international, or is national itwhether aconference, is or a forum there Whenever ment: move- societal of the representatives the among theexception might be Smaranda Enache studied the functioning regions of in butwe other Europe, had little transnational contacts.” tional level. “When we elaborated our proposal for the regionalization of Romania we had cia the EFA (see below), the societal movement represented by the represented movement societal the below), EFA the (see have been rather inactive and so also much less active than the Hungarians at the transna- atthe Hungarians than the active much less so also and inactive been have rather As I have already mentioned, the Liga Transilvania Banat is a very small party and its and party small very is a Banat Transilvania Liga the mentioned, already have I As ù tef Traian, member of the The Decentralization ProcessProject The Decentralization Provincia 37 group, April2007. Liga ProEuropa for Romania, elaborated in elaborated Romania, for and Provin- 92 CEU eTD Collection Romania’s EUaccession, since betweentheEUand negotiations in Romania started 1999. 1999 – fact strongly this tothe that points emergencetheir prospect of tothe isconnected appearance. SabinGherman in his manifesto published 1998, the their of moment the is regionalists Romanian the to respect with point interesting an Finally, go. indicatescountry regionaliststo want theirEuropa inwhichtheRomanian the direction Pro Liga the of name the simply Actually, society. Romanian dominating still nationalism the with sharply conflict which values, 'European' for them represent the'Other' of respect the and multiculturalism as Romania, aswell 'Europeanization' of to the tantamount them almost the words of the Romanian regionalist representatives. The regionalizationregion holding a special status with more competences than other regions of the country.of Romania is to regionalization of Romania as a whole, in which Transylvaniaexamples is one of the regions and not a in other to compared in claims their Thedifference Romania. of historical region as adistinct the 'West' of Transylvania claim status for aspecial them to encouraged of Transylvania tural character such as Spain are multicul-multiethnicEuropa multiethnic. and The Transilvania the Banat and Pro Liga or Italy,Liga of the attempts the that argue could one however, based; ethnically not are regionalists for example, Romanian of the attempts the theinTransylvania, Hungarians claimsof the Comparedto is that they4.4 Transylvanian Romanian Regionalists and Ethnic Mobilization want to see a interest: the promotion of regionalism andautonomy in Europe. aspecific with members small mostly 34 of one least is at it EFA in the while EPP, the as lost here. in LTBparties The holds such probably true big would European get perfectly the parties non-hegemonic and small to attractive more is EFA the that argument Lynch's So, support among Romanians isvery little – and it transnational sought cooperation in EFA. the As in the Hungarian case, the influence of the European Union is very much noticeable in much is Union noticeable very of influence European the the As in case, Hungarian the 38 Provincia was founded in CEU eTD Collection state Hungary. Even though the degree of support has always depended on the stance of the stance of on the always depended support has degree of state Hungary.though the Even only government, Hungarians havethe hada permanent level. supranational the at cause common their for lobby to purpose the with contacts tional transna- consolidated and cooperation transnational intensified have autonomists and nalists regio- Consequently, it. expected movements autonomy and regionalist the as subsidiarity of hand. However, the EU proved to be not as Transylvania other of the Hungarians on theregion autonomy grant handand consistent ontheone to with to respectstate Romanian the force to topower the itshas which Union, promotedEuropean the in see movements principle alliesbring to pressure on the Romanian government. The potentially most powerful ally both international seeking been have regionalists Romanian and autonomists Hungarian nalization, mainstream Romanian parties are notwilling discussto the issues of autonomy and/or region- a that show movement regionalist Romanian the and autonomy Hungarian the Both 5.1 Transylvanian Autonomy Movements and Transnational Networks ingeneral. movements autonomy and regionalist European to the two movements with regard to the different aspects of my analysis and try to infer patterns In Iwill movements. Transylvanian compare the followingthe and sub-chapters, encouraged similar how Furthermore, other goals. Ihave shown haveinfluenced in movements Europe haveinsought differentkinds of toachieve cooperation andtransnational support order examined whyHungarian howand autonomists and Romanian inregionalists Transylvania have movements fall the autonomy (re)emerged after in IronCurtain the of I have 1989, and regionalist where region caseasaEuropean Transylvanian In my the of analysis While both the Hungarian and the Romanian movement have faced a reluctant central a reluctant faced have movement Romanian the and Hungarian the both While is more likely to provoke for externalsearch provoke Since ismore support. likely the to C ONCLUSIONS 39 external lobbyingactor – their kin reluctant CEU eTD Collection 93 the autonomous South Tyrol says: Tyrol South autonomous the inhead AsLuis inof of government community ethnic Durnwalder, any Europe. regional or regionalists as a political interest group in Europe and with that it might improve of the power increases bargaining the movement autonomy the or every regionalist alliances, situation been applied in individual the Third, context. domestic byjoining and these networks have bemight or that strategies movements; of other acquireand strategies to learn about to been has important more and second, terms, conceptual in regionalism and autonomy about experience, knowledgeinformation and with movements.other First of all, they have learned common not and ideasvalues butare bound asanationtogether expects mutual that support. have depended however, Romanians, The EU). as amemberof the level(Hungary supranational the and at on the transnational relations) (Hungarian-Romanian level inter-national the at relations), (Hungarian-Hungarian relations level trans-national levels:atthe several at couldbe activated that partner reliable with regionalists less– more or a – had have autonomists Hungarian the movement, Romanian the to contrast and autonomistsmovement – has influencedwho sharegovernment the development in Hungary, of thethe presenceHungarian's of this strategy. additional That actor is to – say,compared in to the Romanian Interview with Luis Durnwalder, April 2007. sure sure our identity, ourdiverse characteristics; our cultural, political and economic independence.” rope involvesalso to threats smaller regional communities. Only together wewill en-succeed to An intensified cooperation of minority autonomies is necessary, (...)because the future united Eu- ting havecountries developed common strategies andsolutions could be found with the EU. (...) institution nitiesin order to representthe owninterestsmuch through alarger infront population of the big „The cooperation of friendly autonomies andcountriesprovides more security and better opportu- Furthermore, I have shown that both movements have profited from the exchange of exchange the from profited have movements both that shown have I Furthermore, [ the EU ]. As if to say “unity is strength”, in many important areas of life the coopera- 40 93 CEU eTD Collection assimilation without the enforcement of autonomy. of enforcement the without assimilation and fearincreased emigration who than Hungarians, change administrative concerning changeit.innot Moreover, Romania do asthey be Romanianswant seem the to more patient Transylvania, i.e. nottheiridentity but the idea ofa multicultural society is atstake if things multiculturalism. intellectualsgroup idea withof fora democratic having a Romania andpenchant to Butconsequently, their efforts or much stronger. Thethey Romanian regionalists, however, are a small in Romania, minority) (a do community Hungarian the of not survival the for necessary be to as have to fear the loss of and they basically from are excluded discourse. political the the Romanian Romanian society and havebig toget difficulties supportfor ideastheir among Romanians; communitymarginalized inthe are few the regionalists Romanian Hungarian Transylvania, of population in example of Romania shows that the EU’s enforcement has nothappened yet. At 1 The subsidiarity. of principle the to is contradictory it if division administrative their change to itsforce member states must Union sameEuropean the however, the time at cooperation, increased has through been Europe within of regions the power the that There isnodoubt movements’ strength. While the Hungarian autonomists enjoy autonomists Hungarian the While strength. movements’ observer the only show status can Romanians the while education), church, ofpolitics, (e.g. thenetworks different Liga Transilvaniain and levels different at present are Hungarians Romanians. the than support Banatexternal in the EFA. This Transylvania is Hungarians seem the that been havemuch more to might in active galvanizing be connected to the in future. is near tobeexpected autonomization the not or a highly centralist joined Romania the European Union – anddecentralization,regionalization By strength I also mean survive. regardautonomy By strength themovements’ ability to I also Hungarians An interesting aspect in the comparison of the Hungarians and Romanians in Romanians and Hungarians the of comparison in the aspect interesting An 41 large support large st of January from from the CEU eTD Collection 94 Which the RMDSZ is already member of, but the autonomists not (yet). the as in EPPsuch the and parties autonomy 'hegemonic' helpregionalist other of with third, the members and and Slovakia from Hungary Hungarian of EPP other second, with support the (ethnic) domesticsupport influential than the EFA. But the influence within the EPP they can only get, first, with inthe sinceis movement–,however,seegreater opportunities itautonomy EPP, more parties in nationalist Europe. and regionalist of alliance –the in EFA the represented areparticularly which attempts, autonomy or regionalist have movements both though even paths, different chosen have They smallalliance. acomparatively (EFA), FreeAlliance in European the status observer has obtained Banat LigaTransilvania theRomanian Parliament, in European faction the (EPP) Party People's European with the sympathize Hungarians the While party-cooperation. (European) waystransnational of different chosen have movements Romanian and Hungarian the that out pointed have I frame, second the In 5.2 Transylvanian Autonomy Movements and European Party-Cooperation networks as a lobbying group. survival; whilemovements withoutkinstate havetorely simply onthetransnational lobby actor of movementshaving a haveoftenthe advantage namely thenetworks aninstrument toincrease thebargaining power at thesupranational level, EU, whichface they might force their government from outside. Ethnic minority Regionalist andautonomymovements cooperate intransnational becausenetworks, Südtiroler Volkspartei The Hungarians – perceiving themselves asanethnic andnot 'hegemonic' only an as reluctant central governments central reluctant for their cause, characterized byastrong commitment tothenationandits – because the electorate gets them into the European Parliament; into European the them gets electorate the –because or the or Convergència i Unió Convergència i with their claims and because they see in these 42 94 , the biggest , the European Party with a big kin state that have chosen the same path of path same the chosen have that that serves that as an additional large CEU eTD Collection change of experience, knowledge and information within the networks, the Transylvanians the networks, the within information and knowledge experience, of change ments haveTransylvanians supported in inconceptual terms, but addition, through ex-the move- other The admit. movements the of representatives the as – goals own Transylvanians’ haveged themovements, served since Transylvanian and for asexamples references they the encoura- and influenced has movements these of existence the Just Belgium. and Switzerland as states (quasi-)federal or Åland Islands Catalonia, the Tyrol, such South as Europe nia influenced been have by regionalistand in encouraged movements other and autonomy in Transylva- movements Romanian and Hungarian the that shown have I frame, third the In 5.3 Transylvanian Autonomy Movements and Ethnic Mobilization external support from parties in their kin state and ethnic kin abroad. representing largeminorities with claims that are not territoriallylimited enjoy andthat less but parties,Alliance aremore parties attractivefor attractive for small hegemonic analysis supports Lynch’s argument thatregionalist alliances such astheEuropean Free greatest bargaining power possible corresponding to their individual strength. My actors depends on the The decision regionalist orautonomy of movementswhich wayofcooperation tochoose interest. Banat’s LigaTransilvania the emphasizes which particularly party with a specific interest – the regionalization of Romania – it fits better in the EFA, by – it as a Furthermore, position. where an opposite with parties Romanian mainstream faces way – the EPP, the in lost get would it party small a as influential, more definitely is EPP external actors asmall theLigaAs for with Banat, party Tansilvania issues, aswell as it doesnot exclude the exchange of experience, knowledge and information. support of the EFA,transnational party-cooperation. However, thissince path does notexclude cooperation with and the it is always possible to forge alliances with respect to specific ithassuchasakin state or ethnic kinabroad. trytoachieve However, both the such as a kin state, membership in the EFA is more attractive. Although the Although membershipin EFAismore attractive. the such as a state, kin size of the movement size of , the domestic supportdomestic 43 little domestic support itenjoys and the and external lobby no lobbying CEU eTD Collection manifesting they that by are surrounded many movementsother with equal similaror goals. Romania.within However, of Transylvania uniqueness andeconomic cultural, political the emphasize century and they claims, while the Romanian regionalists restore regionalists Romanian the while claims, historical autonomy is anything butnewin very of The that part Europe. Hungarians have taken the Szekerlandfor trigger autonomy the in claims speaking, Historically and regionalist Transylvania. and its autonomous the hasbeen Union European tothe thanks “tide” of regionalism theapparent or elsewhere status as a basisforgetUnion. Notto persistent the reluctance of Romanianthe government. for theirthough territorial it had to chanceenough) to do so,autonomy sinceinterested tonot simply (or enough set persistent not Romania was Union European thethe that fact is the regionalization had great incentivesTransylvanian movements – despite participation in networks – have notbeen successful yet, toof joina country the European why the Onereason in Europe. mobilization andautonomy regionalist leastat or asregionalism a condition for for aninstitutional “tide” aBeissinger-like condition potential or of constraint pre-existing EU membership Union’s– even promotion of regionalism andis needed. movements the other on information more principlein general, movements autonomy and nalist of subsidiarity.indraw apicture in order to for theregion-movements particularthis relationship.However, With that the EU set while learningthe movements, movements theWest European can be as identified leading the a Hungariansheldhave saycase &Romanians the Transylvania of wecan the position that of Inthe movements. individual for the learning effect hashada significant say, cooperation the isThat to fighttheir government. and to help galvanize external to strategies have acquired However, I do not say that the existence of regionalist and autonomy movements autonomy and regionalist of existence the that say not do I However, Furthermore, both movementsFurthermore, both been have by influenced and encouraged European the the networks have strengthened the movements psychologically, movements the strengthened have networks the 44 Transylvanism havingits inroots 19 the th CEU eTD Collection lobby thesupranational institutions as well as other domestic or external actors. autonomist communityinEuropewhole. This bargaining asa powerusedcan be to profit from an increased theenlargement bargaining powerdueto oftheregionalist and government.Furthermore, through transnational cooperation theindividual movements galvanize external movements andtheEU)help (suchasother andtofighttheown movements inconceptual terms butalsowith regard totheacquirement strategies of to Regionalist andautonomy firstcooperation has, ofall,hadlearning effects onindividual 45 CEU eTD Collection Beissinger Bob, Conversi Conversi Filep, Alliance European Free Winter, De Csapó, Filep, Hannikainen, Jenne, Hannum, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York. Activism. Cambridge University Cambridge. Press, Nationalist Mobilization. Hurst & Company, London. Routledge, London& New York. Ethnic States. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Ghai, Autonomy (ed.): Yash Negotiatingand Competing Ethnicity. inMulti- Claims and Romanian Identity in Transylvania. 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