EducatingȱinȱanȱEraȱofȱOrwellianȱSpin:ȱCriticalȱ MediaȱLiteracyȱinȱtheȱClassroomȱ ȱ PaulȱOrlowskiȱ ȱ ȱ Canadiansȱ liveȱ inȱ aȱ worldȱ ofȱ megaȬspinȱ whereȱ publicȱ relationsȱ corporateȱ lobbyistsȱ playȱanȱincreasinglyȱlargerȱroleȱinȱnewsȬmaking.ȱȱToȱresistȱthisȱtrend,ȱIȱhaveȱstudiedȱ politicalȱ ideologyȱ toȱ understandȱ theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ corporateȱ mediaȱ andȱ systemsȱofȱsocial,ȱeconomic,ȱandȱpoliticalȱpower,ȱandȱtheirȱhegemonicȱfunction,ȱandȱ indicateȱtheȱbiasȱinherentȱinȱtheȱmedia,ȱaȱcontentionȱthatȱassumesȱtheȱepistemologicalȱ positionȱ thatȱ allȱ knowledgeȱ isȱ sociallyȱ constructed.ȱȱȱIȱ demonstrateȱ howȱ preserviceȱ educationȱ studentsȱ canȱ acquireȱ thisȱ understandingȱ byȱ reframingȱ politicalȱ discourseȱ fromȱdifferentȱideologicalȱperspectives,ȱandȱhowȱteachersȱcanȱintegrateȱcriticalȱmediaȱ literacyȱintoȱhighȬschoolȱsocialȱstudiesȱcourses.ȱ ȱ Keyȱwords:ȱsocialȱstudies,ȱteacherȱeducation,ȱideologyȱcritiqueȱ ȱ Lesȱ Canadiensȱ viventȱ dansȱ unȱ mondeȱ oùȱ lobbyistesȱ etȱ spécialistesȱ desȱ relationsȱ publiquesȱ d’entreprisesȱ jouentȱ unȱ rôleȱ deȱ plusȱ enȱ plusȱ prépondérantȱ dansȱ lesȱ nouvellesȱ quiȱ leurȱ sontȱ présentées.ȱȱSoucieuxȱ deȱ résisterȱ àȱ cetteȱ tendance,ȱ l’auteurȱ analyseȱl’idéologieȱpolitiqueȱenȱvueȱdeȱmettreȱenȱlumièreȱlaȱrelationȱentreȱlesȱmédiasȱ etȱlesȱsystèmesȱdeȱpouvoirȱsociopolitiqueȱetȱéconomiqueȱetȱleurȱrôleȱhégémonique.ȱȱIlȱ faitȱ enȱ outreȱ ressortirȱ laȱ partialitéȱ desȱ médias,ȱ uneȱ affirmationȱ quiȱ reposeȱ surȱ leȱ principeȱépistémologiqueȱselonȱlequelȱleȱdéveloppementȱdeȱtouteȱconnaissanceȱestȱdeȱ natureȱ sociale.ȱȱL’auteurȱ montreȱ commentȱ desȱ étudiantsȱ enȱ sciencesȱ deȱ l’éducationȱ peuventȱ seȱ sensibiliserȱ àȱ cetteȱ réalitéȱ enȱ resituantȱ leȱ discoursȱ politiqueȱ auȱ seinȱ deȱ diversesȱ perspectivesȱ idéologiquesȱ etȱ commentȱ lesȱ enseignantsȱ peuventȱ intégrerȱ l’initiationȱauxȱmédiasȱetȱlaȱpromotionȱdeȱl’espritȱcritiqueȱdansȱlesȱcoursȱdeȱsciencesȱ humainesȱauȱsecondaire.ȱ ȱ Motsȱclésȱ:ȱsciencesȱhumaines,ȱformationȱàȱl’enseignement,ȱcritiqueȱdesȱidéologiesȱ
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CANADIANȱJOURNALȱOFȱEDUCATIONȱ29,ȱ1ȱ(2006):ȱ176Ȭ198ȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 177ȱȱȱ
Teachingȱbyȱitsȱveryȱnatureȱisȱaȱpoliticalȱact,ȱandȱteachingȱmediaȱliteracyȱ isȱespeciallyȱso.ȱKnowledgeȱisȱsociallyȱconstructed,ȱofȱcourse,ȱincludingȱ whatȱisȱinȱtheȱcurriculumȱ(Apple,ȱ1990).ȱTheȱissuesȱtheȱmediaȱfocusȱon,ȱ theȱlanguageȱusedȱtoȱframeȱtheȱdebates,ȱandȱwhatȱisȱomittedȱfromȱtheseȱ debatesȱareȱalsoȱsociallyȱconstructed.ȱItȱisȱmyȱcontentionȱthatȱtheȱgeneralȱ publicȱinȱCanadaȱhasȱaȱlimitedȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱmediaȱinȱ influencingȱ andȱ controllingȱ discourse,ȱ particularlyȱ aroundȱ importantȱ social,ȱ political,ȱ andȱ economicȱ issues.ȱ Theȱ changingȱ Northȱ Americanȱ politicalȱclimate,ȱparticularlyȱwithȱtheȱriseȱofȱaȱcorporateȱconservatismȱinȱ theȱ Unitedȱ States,ȱ pressesȱ uponȱ meȱ theȱ urgencyȱ forȱ educatorsȱ toȱ helpȱ studentsȱunderstandȱpowerfulȱsocialȱforcesȱandȱtheȱroleȱthatȱtheȱmediaȱ playȱinȱallȱofȱthis.ȱThroughȱmyȱexperienceȱasȱaȱteacherȱofȱhighȬschoolȱandȱ teacherȬeducationȱ socialȱ studiesȱ courses,ȱ Iȱ haveȱ foundȱ thatȱ ideologyȱ critiqueȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ mostȱ usefulȱ conceptȱ toȱ illuminateȱ theȱ media’sȱ hegemonicȱfunction.ȱȱ Forȱ18ȱofȱtheȱpastȱ20ȱyears,ȱIȱhaveȱtaughtȱinȱprimarilyȱworkingȬclassȱ schoolsȱ inȱ ruralȱ Britishȱ Columbiaȱ andȱ Vancouver’sȱ multiculturalȱ eastȱ end.ȱIȱamȱcurrentlyȱteachingȱsocialȱstudiesȱinȱaȱhighȱschoolȱmadeȱupȱofȱ mostlyȱprivilegedȱmiddleȬclassȱstudents,ȱaȱschoolȱthatȱJeanȱAnyonȱ(1981)ȱ wouldȱ characterizeȱ asȱ “affluentȱ professional,”ȱ locatedȱ inȱ Vancouver’sȱ westȱ side.ȱ Asȱ well,ȱ forȱ theȱ pastȱ sixȱ yearsȱ Iȱ haveȱ beenȱ anȱ instructorȱ ofȱ socialȱ studiesȱ methodsȱ inȱ theȱ Teacherȱ Educationȱ Programȱ atȱ theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Britishȱ Columbia.ȱ Sixȱ ofȱ theȱ coursesȱ Iȱ haveȱ taughtȱ thereȱ haveȱbeenȱtoȱpreserviceȱsocialȱstudiesȱteachers.ȱȱ AȱBRIEFȱDISCUSSIONȱONȱCRITICALȱMEDIAȱLITERACYȱȱ InȱMediaȱEducation,ȱBuckinghamȱ(2003)ȱhasȱmappedȱoutȱtheȱevolutionȱofȱ theȱfieldȱinȱtheȱBritishȱcontext.ȱHeȱstatedȱthatȱtheȱstartingȱpointȱforȱmediaȱ educationȱ beganȱ withȱ Cultureȱ andȱ Environment:ȱ Theȱ Trainingȱ ofȱ Criticalȱ Awarenessȱ (Leavisȱ &ȱ Thompson,ȱ 1933),ȱ whichȱ madeȱ aȱ caseȱ toȱ resistȱ popularȱculturalȱformsȱemanatingȱfromȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱandȱtheȱBritishȱ workingȱclass.ȱȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheirȱprojectȱwasȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱliteraryȱ heritageȱofȱBritishȱhighȱculture.ȱCulturalȱstudiesȱcameȱtoȱtheȱforeȱinȱtheȱ 1950s,ȱchallengingȱthisȱelitistȱview,ȱpositingȱthatȱcultureȱwasȱmuchȱmoreȱ inclusiveȱandȱcentralȱtoȱeverydayȱlife.ȱByȱtheȱ1980s,ȱtheȱcentralȱtenetȱofȱ mediaȱ educationȱ hadȱ evolvedȱ intoȱ whatȱ Buckinghamȱ refersȱ toȱ asȱ 178ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ
“demystification,”ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱ“fundamentalȱaimȱ…ȱwasȱtoȱrevealȱtheȱ constructedȱ natureȱ ofȱ mediaȱ texts,ȱ andȱ therebyȱ showȱ howȱ mediaȱ representationsȱ reinforcedȱ theȱ ideologiesȱ ofȱ dominantȱ groupsȱ withinȱ society”ȱ (p.ȱ 8).ȱ Buckinghamȱ furtherȱ arguedȱ thatȱ teachingȱ studentsȱ toȱ becomeȱcriticalȱofȱmediaȱmessagesȱisȱflawedȱunlessȱtheyȱareȱalsoȱtaughtȱ toȱbeȱcreativeȱandȱengageȱinȱmediaȱproductionȱ(p.ȱ122).ȱAlthoughȱIȱagreeȱ withȱ thisȱ assertion,ȱ Iȱ amȱ notȱ ableȱ toȱ includeȱ studentȱ participationȱ inȱ mediaȱproductionȱwhereȱIȱteach.ȱMyȱconceptionȱofȱmediaȱliteracyȱ(linkedȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ toȱ socialȱ studiesȱ andȱ itsȱ purposeȱ toȱ fosterȱ criticalȱ thinking,ȱ resistance,ȱandȱaction)ȱsolelyȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱhegemonicȱroleȱofȱcorporateȱ media.ȱȱ InȱNews,ȱPublicȱRelationsȱandȱPower,ȱCottleȱ(2003)ȱmappedȱtheȱmediaȱ educationȱ fieldȱ somewhatȱ differentlyȱ thanȱ Buckingham.ȱ Heȱ notedȱ thatȱ muchȱ ofȱ mediaȱ educationȱ isȱ concernedȱ withȱ traditionalȱ liberalȱ democraticȱ concernsȱ ofȱ diversityȱ andȱ voicesȱ ofȱ dissent.ȱ Onceȱ again,ȱ Iȱ agreeȱ withȱ suchȱ concerns.ȱ Yet,ȱ Iȱ considerȱ theȱ majorȱ goalsȱ ofȱ mediaȱ literacyȱ toȱ beȱ focusedȱ onȱ whatȱ Cottleȱ callsȱ criticalȱ “mediaȬsourceȱ interactionȱ andȱ participation”ȱ approachesȱ (p.ȱ 7).ȱ Oneȱ approach,ȱ theȱ sociologicalȱ paradigm,ȱ isȱ concernedȱ withȱ howȱ variousȱ sourcesȱ consciouslyȱ striveȱ forȱ aȱ “definitionalȱ advantage”ȱ byȱ utilizingȱ mediaȱ access,ȱaȱpointȱthatȱisȱcrucialȱforȱstudentsȱtoȱcomprehendȱhowȱdominantȱ groupsȱ controlȱ discourse.ȱ Byȱ comparison,ȱ theȱ culturalȱ paradigmȱ isȱ focusedȱonȱissuesȱofȱrepresentationȱandȱ“symbolicȱpower”ȱ(p.ȱ7).ȱBothȱofȱ theseȱ criticalȱ paradigmsȱ assumeȱ theȱ socialȱ constructionȱ ofȱ knowledgeȱ andȱtheȱmedia’sȱrelationshipȱtoȱ“widerȱstructuresȱandȱsystemsȱofȱpower”ȱ (p.ȱ3).ȱ Inȱthisȱarticle,ȱIȱmakeȱaȱcaseȱforȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱeducatorsȱtoȱstepȱ upȱ effortsȱ ofȱ teachingȱ forȱ criticalȱ mediaȱ literacyȱ inȱ theȱ socialȱ studiesȱ classroom,ȱ particularlyȱ atȱ thisȱ junctureȱ inȱ sociopoliticalȱ relations,ȱ aȱ periodȱ thatȱ Cottleȱ (2003)ȱ describesȱ asȱ “increasinglyȱ promotionalȱ times”ȱ (p.ȱ 3).ȱ Manyȱ ofȱ theȱ examplesȱ Iȱ useȱ areȱ American,ȱ anȱ obviousȱ resultȱ ofȱ livingȱ inȱ aȱ countryȱ inundatedȱ withȱ Americanȱ sociopoliticalȱ newsȱ andȱ viewpoints.ȱ Aȱ focusȱ onȱ politicalȱ ideologyȱ isȱ essentialȱ pedagogyȱ forȱ studentsȱ toȱ gainȱ anȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ hegemonicȱ functionȱ ofȱ corporateȱmedia.ȱȱ Iȱ amȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ significantȱ numberȱ ofȱ educatorsȱ whoȱ believeȱ inȱ theȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 179ȱȱȱ capacityȱofȱpublicȱeducationȱtoȱhelpȱmakeȱaȱbetterȱworldȱforȱeveryone,ȱaȱ sourceȱ ofȱ hope,ȱ aȱ siteȱ whereȱ itȱ isȱ possibleȱ forȱ theȱ seedsȱ ofȱ positiveȱ transformationȱtoȱtakeȱrootȱ(Dewey,ȱ1916;ȱFreire,ȱ1973;ȱSleeterȱ&ȱGrant,ȱ 1994).ȱ Criticalȱ mediaȱ literacyȱ fostersȱ theȱ transformativeȱ potentialȱ ofȱ publicȱeducation;ȱyet,ȱmanyȱremainȱunconvincedȱthatȱthisȱisȱaȱroleȱforȱtheȱ school.ȱ THEȱCASEȱFORȱCRITICALȱMEDIAȱLITERACYȱ Theȱ twoȱ mainȱ sourcesȱ ofȱ informationȱ inȱ societyȱ areȱ theȱ mainstreamȱ corporateȱ mediaȱ andȱ theȱ publicȱ educationȱ system.ȱ Becauseȱ Canadianȱ corporateȱmediaȱhaveȱmovedȱtoȱtheȱright,ȱasȱsomeȱhaveȱsuggestedȱ(e.g.,ȱ Martin,ȱ2003),ȱIȱbelieveȱitȱisȱtheȱresponsibilityȱofȱeducatorsȱtoȱprovideȱaȱ counterbalanceȱbyȱprovidingȱaȱvenueȱforȱcounterȬhegemonicȱdiscoursesȱ toȱtakeȱrootȱandȱdevelop.ȱItȱisȱimperativeȱthat,ȱasȱaȱsociety,ȱweȱsupportȱ theȱDeweyianȱnotionȱofȱdevelopingȱaȱcriticallyȱthinkingȱcitizenryȱcapableȱ ofȱ understandingȱ whatȱ isȱ inȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ everybody.ȱ Feinbergȱ (1990)ȱexplainsȱthisȱ“moralȱresponsibility”:ȱȱ ȱ Thereȱisȱanotherȱimportantȱroleȱthatȱteachersȱneedȱtoȱplayȱinȱhelpingȱtoȱconstituteȱ aȱ public;ȱ thisȱ involvesȱ theirȱ collectiveȱ abilityȱ toȱ identifyȱ conditionsȱ thatȱ inhibitȱ childrenȱ fromȱ developingȱ theȱ skillsȱ neededȱ toȱ becomeȱ participantsȱ inȱ aȱ selfȬ formingȱpublic.ȱThisȱroleȱinvolvesȱtheȱrecognitionȱthatȱasȱimportantȱasȱtheȱschoolȱ mayȱbeȱinȱhelpingȱsomeȱyoungstersȱenterȱtheȱpublicȱconversation,ȱultimatelyȱitȱisȱ butȱoneȱagentȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱpublicȱrenewal.ȱTheȱqualityȱofȱotherȱinstitutions,ȱ suchȱasȱtheȱmedia,ȱtheȱcourts,ȱandȱtheȱinstrumentsȱofȱincomeȱdistribution,ȱhaveȱ muchȱ toȱ doȱ withȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱ publicȱ discussion.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ responsibilityȱ ofȱ teachersȱ mustȱ extendȱ beyondȱ theȱ schoolȱ toȱ aȱ collectiveȱ critiqueȱ ofȱ theȱ institutionsȱ thatȱ contributeȱtoȱtheȱqualityȱofȱtheȱpublicȬformingȱprocess.ȱ(p.ȱ83,ȱmyȱemphasis)ȱ ȱ Feinbergȱ isȱ callingȱ forȱ teachersȱ toȱ developȱ students’ȱ analyticalȱ skillsȱ aroundȱ theȱ waysȱ theȱ mediaȱ influencesȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱ publicȱ discourseȱ and,ȱ inȱ manyȱ cases,ȱ controlsȱ it.ȱ Heȱ isȱ takingȱ sidesȱ inȱ theȱ oldȱ debateȱ aroundȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱschool:ȱtoȱmaintainȱtheȱstatusȱquoȱorȱtoȱtransformȱ it?ȱTheȱcurrentȱsituationȱwithȱtheȱCanadianȱcorporateȱmediaȱprovidesȱaȱ greatȱsenseȱofȱurgencyȱtoȱFeinberg’sȱappeal.ȱ Inȱ Mediaȱ Think,ȱ Winterȱ (2002)ȱ makesȱ aȱ powerfulȱ caseȱ thatȱ theȱ concentrationȱ ofȱ Canadianȱ mediaȱ ownershipȱ toȱ aȱ shrinkingȱ groupȱ ofȱ 180ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ powerfulȱ corporateȱ entitiesȱ hasȱ resultedȱ inȱ aȱ blatantȱ shiftȱ ofȱ theȱ mediaȱ towardȱ championingȱ theȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ eliteȱ byȱ aȱ consistentȱ andȱ constantȱrepetitionȱofȱhegemonicȱdiscourses.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱconcentrationȱofȱ mediaȱownershipȱsoȱeasilyȱmarginalizesȱcounterȬhegemonicȱdiscourses.ȱ Winterȱ basesȱ hisȱ notionȱ ofȱ mediaȱ thinkȱ onȱ whatȱ Georgeȱ Orwell,ȱ writingȱinȱtheȱ1940s,ȱreferredȱtoȱasȱtheȱprevailingȱorthodoxy.ȱȱȱ ȱ Atȱanyȱgivenȱmomentȱthereȱisȱanȱorthodoxy,ȱaȱbodyȱofȱideasȱwhichȱitȱisȱassumedȱ thatȱ allȱ rightȬthinkingȱ peopleȱ willȱ acceptȱ withoutȱ questionȱ …ȱ .ȱ Anyoneȱ whoȱ challengesȱ theȱ prevailingȱ orthodoxyȱ findsȱ himselfȱ silencedȱ withȱ surprisingȱ effectiveness.ȱ Aȱ genuinelyȱ unfashionableȱ opinionȱ isȱ almostȱ neverȱ givenȱ aȱ fairȱ hearing,ȱeitherȱinȱtheȱpopularȱpressȱorȱinȱtheȱhighbrowȱperiodicals.ȱ(Orwell,ȱcitedȱ inȱWinter,ȱ2002,ȱp.ȱxxvi)ȱ ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Winter,ȱ Orwellȱ madeȱ itȱ clearȱ thatȱ hegemonicȱ discoursesȱ wereȱ entrenchedȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ concentrationȱ ofȱ mediaȱ ownership.ȱ Winterȱ claimsȱ thatȱ theȱ corporateȱ mediaȱ haveȱ appliedȱ thisȱ Orwellianȱ orthodoxyȱ toȱ aȱ massiveȱ listȱ ofȱ topicsȱ pertinentȱ toȱ Canadianȱ socialȱ relations:ȱfreeȱtrade,ȱfeminism,ȱnationalȱdebt,ȱtaxȱcuts,ȱvariousȱwars,ȱFirstȱ Nationsȱ issues,ȱ labourȱ unions,ȱ poverty,ȱ andȱ protestersȱ (p.ȱ xxvii).ȱ Buckinghamȱ(2003)ȱcontendedȱthatȱtheȱmediaȱhaveȱovercomeȱtheȱfamily,ȱ church,ȱ andȱ schoolȱ toȱ becomeȱ theȱ dominantȱ socializingȱ influenceȱ inȱ society.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ theȱ “mediaȱ areȱ embeddedȱ inȱ theȱ texturesȱ andȱ routinesȱofȱeverydayȱlife”ȱ(p.ȱ5).ȱȱ Vancouverȱisȱhomeȱtoȱtheȱmostȱconcentratedȱnewspaperȱownershipȱ inȱtheȱcountry.ȱTheȱWinnipegȬbasedȱCanWestȱGlobalȱCorporationȱownsȱ bothȱtheȱVancouverȱSunȱandȱProvinceȱnewspapers,ȱasȱwellȱasȱoneȱofȱtwoȱ nationalȱnewspapers,ȱandȱseveralȱlocalȱpapers.ȱInȱfact,ȱCanWestȱGlobalȱ ownsȱ 11ȱ ofȱ theȱ 20ȱ largestȱ papersȱ inȱ Greaterȱ Vancouverȱ (www.ccna.ca/ȱ ownership),ȱ andȱ televisionȱ andȱ radioȱ outletsȱ inȱ theȱ region.ȱ CanWestȱ Globalȱtrumpetsȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱbigȱbusiness,ȱIsrael,ȱChristianity,ȱandȱaȱ sociallyȱ conservativeȱ Unitedȱ States.ȱ Identicalȱ editorialsȱ withȱ thisȱ conservativeȱbiasȱoftenȱappearȱinȱmanyȱCanWestȱnewspapersȱacrossȱtheȱ country.ȱ Inȱ comparisonȱ toȱ itsȱ overtȱ ideology,ȱ CanWestȱ Globalȱ includesȱ progressiveȱ journalismȱ toȱ anȱ increasinglyȱ minisculeȱ degree.ȱ Inȱ Richȱ Media,ȱ Poorȱ Democracy,ȱ McChesneyȱ (1999)ȱ arguedȱ thatȱ theȱ mediaȱ haveȱ becomeȱ aȱ powerfulȱ antiȬdemocraticȱ forceȱ inȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ andȱ inȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 181ȱȱȱ otherȱWesternȱnations,ȱanȱassertionȱthatȱisȱbecomingȱtrueȱofȱCanada.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ andȱ mirroringȱ developmentsȱ inȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ (seeȱ Lakoff,ȱ 2004;ȱ Mahoney,ȱ 2005)ȱ Canadianȱ “thinkȱ tanks”ȱ likeȱ theȱ Fraserȱ Instituteȱ andȱ theȱ C.ȱ D.ȱ Howeȱ Institute,ȱ whichȱ existȱ primarilyȱ throughȱ corporateȱ andȱ wealthyȱ individualȱ support,ȱ promoteȱ neoliberalȱ andȱ conservativeȱ discoursesȱ throughȱ theirȱ publicationsȱ andȱ throughȱ theȱ CanWestȱ Globalȱ mediaȱ empire.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ corporateȱ backersȱ ofȱ theȱ Fraserȱ Instituteȱ includeȱ theȱ ownershipȱ ofȱ theȱ mediaȱ giantȱ inȱ Canada,ȱ CanWestȱGlobal,ȱwhichȱsometimesȱhiresȱFraserȱInstituteȱstaffȱtoȱwriteȱforȱ itsȱnewspapersȱ(Winter,ȱ1997).ȱȱȱ Aȱ fewȱ examplesȱ ofȱ howȱ theȱ Fraserȱ Instituteȱ influencesȱ theȱ publicȱ discourseȱ onȱ socialȱ issuesȱ illuminatesȱ thisȱ process.ȱ Communicationsȱ professorȱ Donaldȱ Gutsteinȱ (2005)ȱ exposedȱ aȱ Fraserȱ Instituteȱ division,ȱ knownȱasȱCanStats,ȱasȱanotherȱproȬindustryȱlobbyȱgroupȱthatȱpurportsȱtoȱ serveȱtheȱpublicȱgood.ȱEvenȱtheȱmonikerȱCanStatsȱisȱanȱOrwellianȱtwistȱ onȱ theȱ muchȬrespectedȱ StatsCanȱ organization.ȱ Whereasȱ StatsCanȱ isȱ aȱ longȬstandingȱ federalȱ governmentȱ initiative,ȱ Gutsteinȱ assertsȱ thatȱ CanStatsȱ “isȱ anȱ AmericanȬinspiredȱ organizationȱ withȱ anȱ Americanȱ director,ȱ anȱ Americanȱ agenda,ȱ advisorsȱ fromȱ theȱ [archȬconservative]ȱ AmericanȱEnterpriseȱInstituteȱandȱaȱCanadianȱtargetȱaudience.”ȱGutsteinȱ furtherȱcontendedȱthatȱCanStatsȱusesȱpseudoȬscienceȱtoȱtwistȱfindingsȱinȱ favourȱofȱindustry.ȱTheirȱpositionȱonȱtheȱcontentiousȱdebateȱinȱsupportȱ ofȱB.C.ȱfishȱfarmsȱdemonstratesȱtheirȱantiȬenvironmentalȱagenda.ȱ Theȱ Fraserȱ Instituteȱ hasȱ alsoȱ beenȱ engagedȱ inȱ neoliberalȱ attacksȱ onȱ theȱpublicȱeducationȱsystemȱforȱcloseȱtoȱ30ȱyears.ȱTheyȱroutinelyȱpublishȱ theirȱReportȱCardȱonȱBCȱSchoolsȱinȱtheȱCanWestȱGlobalȱnewspapers.ȱTheseȱ reportȱcardsȱtendȱtoȱpitȱoneȱschoolȱagainstȱanotherȱinȱcompetitionȱbasedȱ onȱ academicȱ performanceȱ onȱ standardizedȱ tests.ȱ Criticsȱ ofȱ theȱ Fraserȱ Institute’sȱworkȱclaimȱthatȱ“theȱFraserȱInstituteȱthinksȱthatȱpublicȱschoolsȱ shouldȱ beȱ rewardedȱ becauseȱ theyȱ happenȱ toȱ beȱ inȱ anȱ affluentȱ neighbourhood”ȱ(Repoȱ2005,ȱp.ȱ24).ȱȱTheȱFraserȱInstituteȱhighlightsȱtheȱ meritȱofȱtheȱprivateȱschoolȱsystemȱoverȱtheȱpublicȱsystem,ȱaȱsmokescreenȱ forȱ whatȱ Repoȱ saysȱ boilsȱ downȱ toȱ theȱ measureȱ ofȱ theȱ “socioeconomicȱ intakeȱofȱtheȱschool”ȱ(p.ȱ24).ȱAlthoughȱthisȱprogramȱmightȱbeȱbeneficialȱ toȱtheseȱstudents,ȱRepoȱstatesȱthatȱ“purposeȱ[ofȱthisȱreport]ȱisȱtoȱactȱasȱ propagandaȱ forȱ spendingȱ publicȱ moneyȱ toȱ sendȱ studentsȱ toȱ privateȱ 182ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ schools”ȱ(p.ȱ25).ȱȱ Indeed,ȱ thisȱ situationȱ servesȱ toȱ atȱ leastȱ partiallyȱ explainȱ whyȱ Canadiansȱ haveȱ witnessedȱ theȱ significantȱ swingȱ toȱ theȱ rightȱ inȱ pressȱ coverageȱthatȱMartinȱ(2003)ȱdescribed.ȱItȱalsoȱpointsȱtoȱtheȱoftȬrepeatedȱ conservativeȱclaimȱthatȱtheȱmediaȱisȱtooȱliberalȱtoȱbeȱnothingȱbutȱaȱmyth.ȱ Aȱrecallȱofȱtheȱdominantȱdiscoursesȱthatȱweȱhaveȱallȱbeenȱsubjectedȱtoȱinȱ recentȱ yearsȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ media’sȱ practiceȱ ofȱ manufacturingȱ consentȱ shouldȱ beȱ enoughȱ toȱ dispelȱ anyȱ notionsȱ ofȱ mediaȱ objectivity.ȱ Winterȱ (2002)ȱstatedȱthatȱduringȱtheȱ1980s,ȱtheȱmediaȱsupportedȱtheȱProgressiveȱ Conservativeȱgovernment’sȱdriveȱandȱcorporateȱdesireȱforȱfreeȱtrade;ȱinȱ theȱearlyȱ1990s,ȱonceȱfreeȱtradeȱwasȱsecured,ȱaȱdeficitȱhysteriaȱappeared.ȱ Winterȱcontendedȱthatȱthisȱmanufacturedȱfearȱofȱgovernmentȱspendingȱ providedȱ theȱ impetusȱ forȱ “reducingȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ governmentȱ inȱ society,ȱ increasingȱ unemployment,ȱ drivingȱ downȱ wages,ȱ emasculatingȱ welfareȱ programs,ȱ underminingȱ publicȱ healthcareȱ andȱ publicȱ education,ȱ andȱ otherwiseȱ attackingȱ theȱ young,ȱ poor,ȱ andȱ downtrodden”ȱ (p.ȱ xxvii).ȱ Winterȱarguedȱthatȱtheȱmediaȱconspiredȱtoȱmanufactureȱconsentȱaroundȱ theȱnextȱissue:ȱglobalization,ȱwhichȱhasȱprovidedȱtheȱgreenȱlightȱtoȱlowerȱ theȱcorporateȱtaxȱrates.ȱLaxerȱ(1998)ȱhasȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱworkingȬclassȱ peopleȱacrossȱtheȱcountryȱhaveȱhadȱtheirȱlivesȱsignificantlyȱdisruptedȱbyȱ thisȱ agendaȱ ofȱ freeȱ trade,ȱ debtȱ reduction,ȱ cutsȱ toȱ socialȱ programs,ȱ andȱ globalization.ȱ THEȱMEDIAȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱMEGAȬSPINȱ WeȱneedȱtoȱunderstandȱourȱparticularȱhistoricalȱmomentȱasȱoneȱofȱwhatȱIȱ willȱ callȱ megaȬspin.ȱȱSpinȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ effectiveȱ mystifyingȱ hegemonicȱ strategiesȱ inȱ society.ȱȱAȱ groupȱ ofȱ Britishȱ scholarsȱ explainsȱ spinȱ asȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ persuasionȱ coupledȱ withȱ someȱ combinationȱ ofȱ rhetoricȱandȱpropaganda.ȱ ȱ Theȱ termȱ ‘spin’ȱ isȱ conventionallyȱ usedȱ toȱ referȱ toȱ theȱ processȱ andȱ productsȱ ofȱ purposivelyȱmanagingȱinformationȱinȱorderȱtoȱpresentȱinstitutions,ȱindividuals,ȱ policies,ȱ practicesȱ and/orȱ ideasȱ inȱ aȱ favourableȱ lightȱ andȱ therebyȱ mobilizeȱ supportȱ forȱ them.ȱ Attemptsȱ toȱ manageȱ newsȱ andȱ politicalȱ communicationsȱ areȱ notȱnew.ȱ(Gewirtz,ȱDickson,ȱ&ȱPower,ȱ2004,ȱp.ȱ321)ȱȱ ȱȱ MuchȱhasȱbeenȱwrittenȱaboutȱbiasȱandȱpropagandaȱinȱbothȱstateȬownedȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 183ȱȱȱ andȱ corporateȬownedȱ mediaȱ sourcesȱ forȱ wellȱ overȱ aȱ century.ȱ (Georgeȱ Orwell’sȱ prevailingȱ orthodoxy,ȱ mentionedȱ earlier,ȱ isȱ aȱ sophisticatedȱ conceptualȱframeworkȱthatȱencompassesȱmediaȱbiasȱandȱitsȱfunctionȱasȱaȱ toolȱ forȱ propaganda.)ȱ Soȱ whyȱ haveȱ spinȱ andȱ itsȱ derivativeȱ term,ȱ spinȱ doctor,ȱbecomeȱsoȱcontentiousȱinȱrecentȱdecades?ȱȱ Partȱ ofȱ theȱ reasonȱ liesȱ inȱ whatȱ spinȱ doctorsȱ actuallyȱ are:ȱ “Politicalȱ advisorsȱ responsibleȱ forȱ policyȱ presentationȱ andȱ informationȱ management”ȱ (Gewirtz,ȱ Dickson,ȱ &ȱ Power,ȱ 2004,ȱ p.ȱ 324);ȱ theyȱ areȱ politicalȱideologues.ȱMoreover,ȱforȱtheȱpastȱtwoȱdecadesȱorȱsoȱweȱhaveȱ beenȱ witnessingȱ theȱ “riseȱ ofȱ theȱ ‘publicȱ relationsȱ state’”ȱ (Deaconȱ &ȱ Golding,ȱ 1994,ȱ citedȱ inȱ Cottle,ȱ 2003,ȱ p.ȱ 6).ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Davisȱ (2003),ȱ“[p]rofessionalȱpublicȱrelationsȱhasȱbeenȱaȱdevelopingȱprofessionȱ forȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ twentiethȱ century”ȱ(p.ȱ28).ȱȱInȱ factȱ itsȱ growthȱ hasȱ beenȱ exponentialȱ sinceȱ theȱ 1970s.ȱȱAccordingȱ toȱ theȱ industry’sȱ figures,ȱ worldwideȱrevenuesȱofȱtheȱtopȱ50ȱpublicȱrelationsȱfirmsȱtripledȱbetweenȱ 1990ȱandȱ2001,ȱrisingȱfromȱ$1.1ȱbillionȱtoȱ$3.7ȱbillionȱ(CouncilȱofȱPublicȱ RelationsȱFirms,ȱ2005).ȱ Weȱ areȱ livingȱ inȱ aȱ timeȱ inȱ whichȱ bias,ȱ orȱ spin,ȱ inȱ itsȱ commonlyȱ understoodȱformȱhasȱbeenȱhyperbolizedȱtoȱgrotesqueȱproportions.ȱLakoffȱ (2004)ȱ pointsȱ outȱ recentȱ legislationȱ thatȱ theȱ firstȱ Georgeȱ W.ȱ Bushȱ administrationȱpassed.ȱHeȱhasȱclaimedȱthatȱTheȱClearȱSkiesȱAct,ȱdespiteȱitsȱ name,ȱ enablesȱ pollutingȱ corporationsȱ toȱ increaseȱ theȱ amountȱ ofȱ toxinsȱ theyȱproduce.ȱȱLikewise,ȱTheȱHealthyȱForestsȱActȱallowsȱforȱmoreȱforestsȱ toȱbeȱclearȱcut,ȱsomeȱwithinȱformerlyȱprotectedȱparklands.ȱAsȱaȱfurtherȱ exampleȱ ofȱ currentȱ spin,ȱ numerousȱ educatorsȱ haveȱ criticizedȱ Presidentȱ Bush’sȱ Noȱ Childȱ Leftȱ Behindȱ Actȱ forȱ leavingȱ behindȱ tooȱ manyȱ marginalized,ȱunderprivilegedȱchildrenȱ(Meierȱ&ȱWood,ȱ2004).ȱȱ Largeȱ segmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ Americanȱ public,ȱ atȱ leastȱ inȱ theȱ shortȱ term,ȱ haveȱaccededȱtoȱtheseȱregressiveȱpiecesȱofȱRepublicanȱlegislationȱbecauseȱ ofȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ language.ȱ Inȱ recentȱ decades,ȱ Americanȱ conservativesȱ haveȱ comeȱ toȱ exploitȱ theirȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ languageȱ toȱ theirȱbenefit,ȱbeginningȱinȱ1980ȱwithȱtheȱpresidencyȱofȱRonaldȱReaganȱtoȱ theȱsecondȱtermȱofȱGeorgeȱW.ȱBush.ȱTheȱsuccessȱofȱstrategicȱconservativeȱ useȱ ofȱ languageȱ andȱ framingȱ ofȱ socialȱ andȱ economicȱ issuesȱ inȱ theȱ corporateȱmediaȱhasȱcaughtȱliberalsȱandȱradicalsȱoffȬguard.ȱTheȱbillionsȱ ofȱdollarsȱemanatingȱfromȱultraȬwealthyȱAmericanȱconservativesȱtoȱtheirȱ 184ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ thinkȱ tanksȱ haveȱ givenȱ themȱ aȱ considerableȱ advantageȱ inȱ theseȱ ideologicalȱstrugglesȱ(Lakoff,ȱ2004).ȱTheȱshiftȱtoȱmegaȱspinȱhasȱreachedȱ newȱ heightsȱ (orȱ lows)ȱ withȱ theȱ recentȱ findingȱ thatȱ theȱ Bushȱ administrationȱhasȱbeenȱengagedȱinȱaȱ“politicalȱpayolaȱscandal”ȱinȱwhichȱ theȱU.S.ȱDepartmentȱofȱEducationȱpaidȱinfluentialȱjournalistȱArmstrongȱ Williamsȱ $240,000ȱ toȱ writeȱ columnsȱ inȱ supportȱ ofȱ theȱ controversialȱ Noȱ ChildȱLeftȱBehindȱActȱ(Goldenberg,ȱ2005).ȱȱȱȱ Noȱ evidenceȱ thatȱ Iȱ amȱ awareȱ ofȱ suggestsȱ Canadianȱ politiciansȱ actuallyȱ payȱ journalistsȱ toȱ writeȱ articlesȱ inȱ supportȱ ofȱ certainȱ policies.ȱ Yet,ȱ Canadianȱ conservativesȱ areȱ usingȱ aȱ fewȱ otherȱ boldȱ megaȬspinȱ strategiesȱtoȱaffectȱsocialȱrelationsȱ(seeȱGutstein,ȱ2005;ȱRepo,ȱ2005).ȱAsȱaȱ caseȱinȱpoint,ȱtheȱ2005ȱthroneȱspeechȱfromȱVictoria,ȱcontainedȱtheȱphraseȱ thatȱ theȱ currentȱ Liberalȱ neoconservativeȱ provincialȱ governmentȱ willȱ workȱ“toȱleadȱtheȱworldȱinȱsustainableȱenvironmentalȱmanagement,ȱwithȱ theȱ bestȱ airȱ andȱ waterȱ quality,ȱ andȱ theȱ bestȱ fisheriesȱ management,ȱ barȱ none”ȱ (Tieleman,ȱ 2005,ȱ p.ȱ 14).ȱ Yet,ȱ forȱ theȱ pastȱ threeȱ years,ȱ thisȱ sameȱ governmentȱ hasȱ promotedȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ coalȬfiredȱ electricityȱ plants,ȱ increasedȱ theȱ numberȱ ofȱ pollutingȱ fishȱ farms,ȱ andȱ pushedȱ toȱ endȱ theȱ moratoriumȱ onȱ offȬshoreȱ oilȱ drilling.ȱ Itȱ isȱ clearȱ thatȱ theȱ megaȬspinȱ strategyȱhasȱappearedȱinȱCanada.ȱȱ CRITICALȱMEDIAȱLITERACYȱANDȱTEACHINGȱABOUTȱIDEOLOGYȱ Inȱ teachingȱ aboutȱ ideologyȱ andȱ media,ȱ educatorsȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ acutelyȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ heterogeneityȱ ofȱ valuesȱ withinȱ theirȱ classrooms.ȱ Whatȱ makesȱclassroomsȱparticularlyȱdifficultȱterrainȱforȱprogressiveȱeducatorsȱ isȱthatȱmanyȱpeopleȱconsiderȱconservativeȱvaluesȱandȱbeliefsȱasȱcommonȱ senseȱpreciselyȱbecauseȱtheyȱfigureȱsoȱprominentlyȱinȱtheȱdiscoursesȱthatȱ mainstreamȱ mediaȱ use.ȱ Anyoneȱ seenȱ asȱ challengingȱ thoseȱ valuesȱ isȱ vulnerableȱ toȱ theȱ chargeȱ ofȱ havingȱ anȱ agenda.ȱ Fromȱ myȱ experience,ȱ however,ȱ teachingȱ aboutȱ theȱ conceptsȱ ofȱ positionalityȱ andȱ politicalȱ ideologyȱcanȱofferȱprotectionȱfromȱtheseȱcharges.ȱȱ ȱ Theȱ firstȱ stageȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ teachingȱ mediaȱ literacyȱ isȱ toȱ helpȱ studentsȱbecomeȱawareȱofȱtheirȱownȱsocialȱlocationȱorȱpositionality.ȱMyȱ useȱofȱtheȱtermȱpositionalityȱinvolvesȱtheȱideaȱthatȱpeopleȱfromȱdifferingȱ socialȱ backgroundsȱ oftenȱ haveȱ differentȱ waysȱ ofȱ perceivingȱ theȱ world,ȱ constructingȱ knowledge,ȱ andȱ makingȱ meaning.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ eachȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 185ȱȱȱ individual’sȱ socialȱ positionalityȱ isȱ influencedȱ byȱ theȱ socialȱ groupsȱ toȱ whichȱtheyȱbelong,ȱeitherȱbyȱbirthȱorȱbyȱchoice.ȱAȱperson’sȱexperienceȱisȱ centralȱ toȱ theirȱ positionality.ȱ Asȱ well,ȱ one’sȱ positionalityȱ isȱ alwaysȱ inȱ relationȱtoȱothers.ȱAȱperson’sȱexperienceȱcombinesȱwithȱotherȱattributes,ȱ eitherȱ ascribedȱ orȱ sociallyȱ constructed,ȱ toȱ createȱ theirȱ shiftingȱ positionality.ȱ Theirȱ positionality,ȱ inȱ turn,ȱ oftenȱ influencesȱ theȱ politicalȱ ideologiesȱ thatȱ filterȱ theirȱ waysȱ ofȱ seeing.ȱ Iȱ makeȱ studentsȱ inȱ bothȱ myȱ highȬschoolȱ classroomȱ andȱ teacherȬeducationȱ classroomsȱ wellȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱideologiesȱthatȱinfluenceȱme.ȱTheyȱunderstandȱwhy,ȱasȱtheȱchildȱofȱ workingȬclassȱ immigrantȱ parentsȱ whoȱ benefitedȱ fromȱ growingȱ upȱ inȱ aȱ relativelyȱ strongȱ socialȬwelfareȱ state,ȱ Iȱ amȱ concernedȱ withȱ theȱ currentȱ trendȱ towardȱ privatization.ȱ Iȱ amȱ upfrontȱ withȱ themȱ becauseȱ Iȱ feelȱ itȱ importantȱ thatȱ studentsȱ shouldȱ understandȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ takingȱ aȱ stanceȱ onȱ complexȱ socialȱ issues,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ attemptingȱ toȱ appearȱ neutral.ȱȱ Inȱmyȱclassrooms,ȱIȱexpectȱeachȱstudentȱtoȱhaveȱsomeȱunderstandingȱ ofȱ theȱ threeȱ mainȱ politicalȱ ideologiesȱ thatȱ emanatedȱ outȱ ofȱ modernity:ȱ liberalism,ȱ socialism,ȱ andȱ conservatism.ȱ Iȱ makeȱ studentsȱ awareȱ thatȱ radicalȱideologyȱinȱCanadaȱtodayȱhasȱevolvedȱfromȱitsȱsocialistȱrootsȱtoȱ socialȱdemocracy.ȱThatȱsaid,ȱtheȱNDPȱhasȱmembersȱwhoȱascribeȱtoȱbothȱ ofȱtheseȱideologiesȱ(Whitehorn,ȱ1992).ȱȱ Studentsȱ areȱ expectedȱ toȱ understandȱ theȱ ideologicalȱ positionsȱ onȱ bothȱ theȱ socialȱ scaleȱ andȱ theȱ economicȱ scaleȱ positedȱ byȱ conservatives,ȱ liberals,ȱandȱtheȱradicalȱleft.ȱTheȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtheȱeconomicȱandȱ socialȱ spectrumȱ aroundȱ politicalȱ ideologyȱ aroseȱ afterȱ aȱ conversationȱ Iȱ hadȱ withȱ aȱ teachingȱ colleagueȱ almostȱ 20ȱ yearsȱ ago.ȱ Afterȱ Iȱ mentionedȱ thatȱIȱconsideredȱtheȱVancouverȱSunȱtoȱbeȱtooȱrightȱwing,ȱheȱresponded,ȱ “Well,ȱlotsȱofȱotherȱpeopleȱsayȱitȱisȱmuchȱtooȱleftȱwing.ȱSoȱtheyȱmustȱbeȱ doingȱ theirȱ jobȱ inȱ aȱ fairlyȱ balancedȱ way.”ȱ Theȱ subsequentȱ discussionȱ madeȱ itȱ clearȱ toȱ meȱ thatȱ althoughȱ Iȱ wasȱ lamentingȱ theȱ newspaper’sȱ positionȱ aroundȱ theȱ economyȱ andȱ distributionȱ ofȱ wealth,ȱ myȱ teacherȱ colleagueȱwasȱcommentingȱonlyȱonȱsocialȱissues.ȱThisȱrealizationȱledȱmeȱ toȱ developȱ unitȱ plansȱ basedȱ onȱ distinguishingȱ betweenȱ theȱ ideologicalȱ differencesȱonȱbothȱtheȱeconomicȱandȱtheȱsocialȱscales.ȱȱ Theȱ twoȱ socialȱ cornerstonesȱ ofȱ liberalismȱ areȱ democracyȱ andȱ theȱ emancipationȱ ofȱ theȱ individual.ȱ Inclusionȱ isȱ atȱ theȱ coreȱ ofȱ whatȱ drivesȱ 186ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ liberalismȱ socially.ȱ Overȱ time,ȱ liberalismȱ hasȱ beenȱ successfulȱ atȱ developingȱ civil,ȱ political,ȱ andȱ consumerȱ rightsȱ forȱ moreȱ andȱ moreȱ groupsȱ ofȱ people.ȱ Laxerȱ (1998)ȱ arguedȱ thatȱ manyȱ currentȱ liberalȱ governmentsȱareȱincreasinglyȱadoptingȱneoliberal,ȱlaissezȱfaireȱeconomicȱ policiesȱofȱreducedȱgovernmentȱintervention.ȱȱ Onȱ theȱ socialȱ scale,ȱ socialistsȱ agreeȱ withȱ theȱ liberalȱ driveȱ forȱ inclusivity.ȱEvenȱinȱitsȱoriginalȱform,ȱsocialismȱarticulatedȱaȱvisionȱforȱaȱ sociallyȱ justȱ worldȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ veinȱ asȱ itsȱ liberalȱ predecessor.ȱ Yet,ȱ asȱ Marxȱ(1867)ȱpointedȱ outȱ inȱ theȱ firstȱ volumeȱ ofȱ Capital,ȱ fromȱ aȱ broader,ȱ historicalȱperspective,ȱtheȱliberalȱideaȱofȱfreedomȱisȱunattainableȱforȱmostȱ peopleȱwithinȱcapitalismȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱbasicȱcontradictionȱthatȱworkersȱ cannotȱ beȱ freeȱ whenȱ theyȱ areȱ vulnerableȱ toȱ theȱ capitalistȱ tendencyȱ toȱ exploitȱ themȱ andȱ sellȱ productsȱ atȱ exorbitantȱ prices.ȱ Forȱ Karlȱ Marx,ȱ liberalism’sȱmajorȱflawȱwasȱitsȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱindividualȱasȱtheȱmostȱ importantȱ unitȱ inȱ society.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Marxistȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ theȱ socialȱ relationsȱ ofȱ theȱ midȬnineteenthȱ century,ȱ socialȱ classȱ wasȱ theȱ crucialȱ aspectȱ ofȱ aȱ person’sȱ identityȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ greatȱ disparitiesȱ inȱ wealthȱ andȱopportunitiesȱwithȱwhichȱtheȱworkingȱclassesȱhadȱtoȱcontend.ȱ Overȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theȱ twentiethȱ century,ȱ aȱ colourȬblindȱ racialȱ discourseȱ becameȱ partȱ ofȱ liberalismȱ (Frankenberg,ȱ 1993;ȱ Lewis,ȱ 2001),ȱ andȱ withȱ thisȱ appearedȱ anotherȱ cornerstoneȱ ofȱ theȱ ideology,ȱ namely,ȱ meritocracy.ȱMeritocracyȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱsocialȱsystemȱwherebyȱindividualsȱ reachȱaȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱstatusȱcommensurateȱwithȱtheirȱindividualȱ talentsȱ andȱ theirȱ hardȱ work.ȱȱThisȱ termȱ alsoȱ explainsȱ whyȱ someȱ individualsȱ“excelȱandȱothersȱflounder”ȱ(Lewis,ȱ2001,ȱp.ȱ799).ȱȱAlthoughȱ theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ meritocracyȱ reinforcesȱ theȱ inequalitiesȱ inȱ society,ȱ itsȱ existenceȱmakesȱpeopleȱunconsciousȱofȱanyȱnotionȱofȱprivilege.ȱInȱotherȱ words,ȱ meritocracyȱ worksȱ asȱ aȱ hegemonicȱ device.ȱ Inȱ Canadaȱ andȱ inȱ muchȱofȱWesternȱEuropeȱtoday,ȱsocialismȱandȱliberalismȱhaveȱspawnedȱ ideologicalȱ progenyȱ ofȱ theirȱ own,ȱ namely,ȱ socialȱ democracy.ȱ Socialȱ democratsȱespouseȱliberalȱvaluesȱonȱtheȱsocialȱspectrum.ȱInȱeconomics,ȱ theyȱ acceptȱ capitalismȱ butȱ supportȱ muchȱ strongerȱ lawsȱ toȱ helpȱ thoseȱ whoȱareȱfallingȱthroughȱitsȱcracksȱthanȱtheirȱliberalȱcolleagues.ȱȱ Conservativesȱ believeȱ inȱ “theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ anȱ organicȱ andȱ hierarchicalȱ society,ȱinȱwhichȱpeopleȱknewȱtheirȱplaceȱyetȱareȱrelatedȱtoȱeachȱotherȱasȱ partȱofȱaȱtotality”ȱ(Schwarzmantel,ȱ1998,ȱp.ȱ110).ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtraditionȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 187ȱȱȱ andȱprogressȱareȱdirectlyȱatȱoddsȱwithȱoneȱanother;ȱconservativesȱcherishȱ theȱformerȱwhileȱfearingȱtheȱlatter.ȱKincheloeȱ(1999)ȱhasȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱ conservativesȱ wantȱ schoolsȱ toȱ promoteȱ “theȱ uncriticalȱ acquisitionȱ ofȱ aȱ neutralȱbodyȱofȱknowledge”ȱ(p.ȱ79).ȱThus,ȱconservativesȱareȱmoreȱlikelyȱ toȱsupportȱtheȱpositivistȱnotionȱofȱschoolȱknowledgeȱbeingȱproducedȱinȱaȱ valueȬfree,ȱ objectiveȱ manner.ȱ Throughoutȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ liberalism,ȱ socialism,ȱ andȱ socialȱ democracy,ȱ conservativeȱ ideologuesȱ haveȱ foughtȱ againstȱ everyȱ progressiveȱ socialȱ andȱ economicȱ breakthroughȱ (Lakoff,ȱ 2004;ȱ McGovern,ȱ 2002).ȱ Itȱ isȱ importantȱ forȱ studentsȱ toȱ understandȱ thatȱ progressiveȱ transformationsȱ inȱ westernȱ societyȱ haveȱ appearedȱ notȱ accidentallyȱȱbutȱasȱtheȱresultȱofȱintenseȱstruggles.ȱ Onȱtheȱeconomicȱscale,ȱconservativesȱhaveȱacceptedȱtheȱmeritocraticȱ principleȱ fromȱ liberalism.ȱ Thisȱ strategyȱ makesȱ senseȱ todayȱ becauseȱ supportȱ forȱ meritocracyȱ enablesȱ racialȱ andȱ classȱ hierarchiesȱ toȱ remainȱ intact,ȱ withoutȱ facingȱ theȱ chargeȱ ofȱ racismȱ orȱ economicȱ privilege.ȱ Asȱ aȱ corollary,ȱ mostȱ conservativesȱ supportȱ theȱ pullȬyourselfȬupȬbyȬtheȬ bootstrapsȱ philosophy.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ believeȱ inȱ governmentȱ aidȱ inȱ theȱ formȱ ofȱ socialȱ programs,ȱ believingȱ thatȱ suchȱ programsȱleadȱtoȱdependence,ȱlackȱofȱselfȬesteem,ȱandȱlackȱofȱmorality.ȱ Lakoffȱ(2004)ȱhasȱexploredȱtheȱlogicȱthatȱlinksȱconservativeȱpositionsȱonȱ theȱ socialȱ andȱ economicȱ scales.ȱ Conservativesȱ believeȱ thatȱ “aȱ goodȱ person,ȱ aȱ moralȱ person,ȱ isȱ someoneȱ whoȱ isȱ disciplinedȱ enoughȱ toȱ beȱ obedient,ȱ toȱ learnȱ whatȱ isȱ right,ȱ doȱ whatȱ isȱ rightȱ andȱ notȱ doȱ whatȱ isȱ wrong,ȱ andȱ toȱ pursueȱ herȱ selfȬinterestȱ toȱ prosperȱ andȱ becomeȱ selfȬ reliant”ȱ(p.ȱ8).ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱchildrenȱwhoȱlearnȱinternalȱdiscipline,ȱbestȱ learnedȱ fromȱ aȱ strictȱ fatherȱ figureȱ areȱ betterȱ ableȱ toȱ pursueȱ theirȱ selfȬ interestȱ andȱ becomeȱ bothȱ prosperousȱ andȱ independent.ȱ Suchȱ aȱ philosophyȱ hasȱ aȱ clearȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ patriarchyȱ andȱ issuesȱ ofȱ wealthȱ distribution.ȱ Itȱ goesȱ aȱ longȱ wayȱ inȱ explainingȱ whatȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ perplexingȱproblemȱforȱprogressivesȱforȱseveralȱdecades:ȱthatȱworkingȬ classȱpeopleȱoftenȱvoteȱagainstȱtheirȱownȱbestȱinterestsȱ(Frank,ȱ2004).ȱȱ Theseȱsomewhatȱbriefȱdescriptionsȱcompriseȱtheȱbasicȱtenetsȱofȱeachȱ ofȱtheȱmajorȱpoliticalȱideologiesȱinȱCanada.ȱIȱexpectȱmyȱstudents,ȱthen,ȱtoȱ determineȱhowȱideologyȱinfluencesȱtheȱworkȱofȱjournalists.ȱLukeȱ(1999)ȱ explainsȱoneȱpremiseȱofȱmyȱapproachȱtoȱteachingȱmediaȱliteracy:ȱ“[W]eȱ needȱtoȱevaluateȱnarrativeȱstructures,ȱlanguage,ȱandȱimagesȱinȱuseȱacrossȱ 188ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ media;ȱtoȱinterpretȱmeaningȱforȱdifferentȱpurposes;ȱandȱtoȱevaluateȱwhatȱ isȱ trustworthyȱ andȱ reliableȱ information”ȱ (p.ȱ 622).ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ studentsȱneedȱtoȱcomprehendȱtheȱbiasȱorȱspinȱthatȱisȱinherentȱinȱallȱformsȱ ofȱmedia,ȱaȱcontentionȱthatȱassumesȱtheȱepistemologicalȱpositionȱthatȱallȱ knowledgeȱisȱsociallyȱconstructed.ȱByȱcorollary,ȱallȱknowledgeȱservesȱtheȱ interestsȱ ofȱ someȱ groupsȱ ofȱ people,ȱ oftenȱ toȱ theȱ disadvantageȱ ofȱ otherȱ groupsȱ ofȱ people.ȱ Putȱ succinctly,ȱ allȱ knowledgeȱ isȱ ideologicalȱ and,ȱ therefore,ȱhasȱpoliticalȱimplications.ȱTheyȱcomeȱtoȱunderstandȱhowȱtheȱ mediaȱhasȱaȱhegemonicȱfunction.ȱȱ IDEOLOGYȱASȱANȱANALYTICALȱTOOLȱFORȱMEDIAȱLITERACYȱ TheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱIȱhelpȱstudentsȱunderstandȱhowȱideologyȱaffectsȱtheȱ mediaȱand,ȱbyȱcorollary,ȱsocialȱrelations,ȱdiffersȱsomewhatȱdependingȱonȱ theȱ classroomȱ level.ȱ Theȱ preserviceȱ teachersȱ getȱ aȱ moreȱ inȬdepthȱ groundingȱ inȱ politicalȱ ideology;ȱ theȱ highȬschoolȱ studentsȱ getȱ aȱ slowȱ methodicalȱapproachȱthatȱtakesȱmostȱofȱtheȱschoolȱyear.ȱȱ Forȱ severalȱ years,ȱ Iȱ taughtȱ aboutȱ politicalȱ ideologyȱ inȱ Vancouver’sȱ predominantlyȱ workingȬclass,ȱ multicultural,ȱ eastȱ endȱ highȱ schoolsȱ byȱ usingȱtheȱbinaryȱofȱtheȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱvalueȱsystem.ȱIȱlistedȱonȱtheȱ blackboardȱ theȱ spectrumȱ forȱ bothȱ socialȱ issuesȱ andȱ economicȱ issuesȱ ofȱ conservative,ȱ liberal,ȱ andȱ radicalȱ positions.ȱ Theȱ listȱ remainedȱ onȱ theȱ blackȱ boardȱ and,ȱ asȱ theyȱ readȱ anȱ article,ȱ studentsȱ placedȱ theȱ positionȱ advocatedȱ byȱ anȱ individualȱ orȱ groupȱ onȱ theȱ appropriateȱ spectrum.ȱ Eventually,ȱstudentsȱlearnedȱtoȱtalkȱaboutȱpoliticalȱelections,ȱpartiesȱandȱ valueȱ systemsȱ inȱ aȱ moreȱ sophisticatedȱ manner.ȱ Throughoutȱ theȱ year,ȱ theyȱ hadȱ toȱ analyzeȱ currentȱ newspaperȱ articlesȱ ofȱ theirȱ choosingȱ andȱ presentȱ theirȱ analysisȱ toȱ theȱ class.ȱ Duringȱ aȱ classȱ discussionȱ lastȱ yearȱ aboutȱmediaȱcoverageȱofȱfederalȱpartiesȱandȱplatforms,ȱIȱrecallȱaȱ17Ȭyearȱ oldȱ Filipinoȱ studentȱ pointingȱ toȱ theȱ spectrumsȱ whileȱ explaining,ȱ “Myȱ motherȱ isȱ aȱ rightȬwingȱ conservativeȱ onȱ theȱ socialȱ scaleȱ –ȱ she’sȱ proȬlife.ȱ Butȱ she’sȱ leftȬwingȱ onȱ theȱ economicȱ scaleȱ–ȱ sheȱ thinksȱ theȱ governmentȱ shouldȱ helpȱ outȱ poorȱ people.ȱ Butȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ partyȱ thatȱ representsȱ myȱ mother’sȱ views.”ȱ Asȱ anȱ educator,ȱ Iȱ foundȱ successȱ inȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ thisȱ studentȱdiagnosedȱandȱarticulatedȱhisȱmother’sȱpoliticalȱfrustrations.ȱ ȱStudentsȱdemonstrateȱtheȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱtheyȱhaveȱbecomeȱadeptȱ atȱ explainingȱ culturalȱ strugglesȱ inȱ ideologicalȱ termsȱ inȱ theirȱ currentȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 189ȱȱȱ eventsȱpresentations.ȱEachȱchoosesȱanȱarticleȱfromȱoneȱofȱtheȱmainstreamȱ newspapersȱ orȱ fromȱ anȱ alternativeȱ newsȱ source,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ whichȱ comeȱ fromȱ theȱ internet.ȱ Theȱ chosenȱ articleȱ mustȱ addressȱ aȱ culturalȱ issue,ȱ namely,ȱ race,ȱ class,ȱ gender,ȱ sexuality,ȱ orȱ war.ȱ Eachȱ studentȱ providesȱ aȱ oneȬpageȱ writtenȱ analysisȱ toȱ addressȱ issuesȱ ofȱ bias,ȱ ideologyȱ toȱ showȱ whichȱgroupsȱbenefitȱandȱwhichȱonesȱloseȱfromȱtheȱgivenȱperspective,ȱasȱ wellȱ asȱ theirȱ thoughtsȱ aboutȱ whoȱ wasȱ quotedȱ andȱ whichȱ excludedȱ groupsȱshouldȱhaveȱbeenȱquoted.ȱEachȱstudentȱmustȱalsoȱpresentȱhisȱorȱ herȱ findingsȱ toȱ theȱ classȱ withȱ aȱ fourȬtoȬfiveȱ minuteȱ presentation.ȱ Iȱ provideȱ theȱ classesȱ withȱ theȱ namesȱ andȱ websitesȱ ofȱ theȱ mainstreamȱ newspapersȱandȱofȱtheȱalternativeȱnewsȱsources.ȱSomeȱstudentsȱchooseȱ onlyȱ articlesȱ fromȱ mainstreamȱ sources,ȱ whileȱ othersȱ willingly,ȱ evenȱ enthusiastically,ȱ searchȱ theȱ alternativeȱ sources.ȱ Thisȱ hasȱ workedȱ well,ȱ pedagogicallyȱspeaking,ȱbecauseȱstudentsȱoftenȱchooseȱarticlesȱonȱsimilarȱ topicsȱ –ȱ federalȱ andȱ provincialȱ electionsȱ andȱ Americanȱ Middleȱ Eastȱ policyȱ haveȱ beenȱ favouritesȱ –ȱ andȱ theȱ ideologiesȱ emanatingȱ fromȱ mainstreamȱ andȱ alternativeȱ sourcesȱ areȱ notȱ difficultȱ toȱ discern.ȱ Theseȱ assignmentsȱofferȱstudentsȱaȱframeworkȱinȱwhichȱtoȱcritiqueȱtheȱarticleȱinȱ termsȱofȱtheȱideologicalȱinfluencesȱonȱtheȱjournalist,ȱandȱinȱtheȱprocess,ȱ allowsȱthemȱtoȱdevelopȱanȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱideologiesȱinfluencingȱtheirȱ ownȱthinking,ȱasȱwellȱasȱhowȱmainstreamȱmediaȱoftenȱreflectsȱtheȱviewsȱ ofȱpowerfulȱinterests.ȱȱ OneȱexampleȱofȱaȱstudentȱdeconstructingȱaȱVancouverȱSunȱarticleȱonȱ panhandlingȱdemonstratedȱthatȱsheȱcouldȱconnectȱtheȱmediaȱtoȱoutsideȱ economicȱ andȱ politicalȱ interests.ȱ Theȱ article,ȱ entitledȱ “Aggressiveȱ beggarsȱbackȱoff:ȱPanhandlingȱcomplaintsȱareȱdownȱsinceȱnewȱlawȱwasȱ passed;ȱ streetȱ peopleȱ sayȱ theȱ situationȱ hasȱ improved,”ȱ wasȱ clearlyȱ supportiveȱ ofȱ theȱ rightȬwingȱ B.C.ȱ government’sȱ recentȱ Safeȱ Streetsȱ legislationȱ(Ward,ȱ2005,ȱp.ȱB1).ȱȱThisȱlawȱallowedȱaggressiveȱpanhandlersȱ andȱsqueegeeȱkidsȱtoȱbeȱ“handedȱfinesȱrangingȱfromȱ$86ȱtoȱ$115.”ȱAfterȱ presentingȱaȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱarticle,ȱtheȱstudentȱmentionedȱthatȱallȱtheȱ peopleȱ quotedȱ supportedȱ thisȱ contentiousȱ law,ȱ includingȱ aȱ “politeȱ panhandler.”ȱ Sheȱ alsoȱ madeȱ referenceȱ toȱ CanWestȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ economicȱandȱsocialȱagendaȱofȱtheȱcurrentȱneoconservativeȱgovernment,ȱ includingȱitsȱassaultȱonȱwelfareȱrecipientsȱandȱcutsȱtoȱsocialȱprograms.ȱAtȱ theȱendȱofȱtheȱpresentation,ȱaȱclassmateȱadded,ȱ“Thisȱ[newspaper]ȱchainȱ 190ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ actuallyȱ gaveȱ moneyȱ toȱ theȱ Liberalsȱ forȱ theȱ lastȱ election.”ȱ Thisȱ studentȱ analysisȱ isȱ preciselyȱ whatȱ Cottleȱ (2003)ȱ arguedȱ forȱ inȱ mediaȱ literacyȱ classesȱ (p.ȱ 3)ȱ –ȱ toȱ haveȱ studentsȱ makeȱ connectionsȱ betweenȱ theȱ mediaȱ andȱoutsideȱpoliticalȱandȱeconomicȱinterests.ȱȱDuringȱtheȱensuingȱclassȱ discussion,ȱtheȱstudentȱpresenterȱandȱsomeȱofȱherȱclassmatesȱexhibitedȱaȱ criticalȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ mediaȱ byȱ stressingȱ howȱ thisȱ articleȱ presentsȱ “panhandlersȱ[only]ȱfromȱaȱbusinessȱpointȱofȱview,”ȱwithȱnoȱmentionȱofȱ howȱ “desperateȱ homelessȱ peopleȱ areȱ theseȱ days,ȱ especiallyȱ afterȱ theȱ cuts”ȱtoȱwelfare.ȱAccordingȱtoȱCottle,ȱtheseȱstudentsȱwereȱdemonstratingȱ anȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ “howȱ theȱ newsȱ mediaȱ …ȱ accessȱ andȱ privilegeȱ eliteȱ ‘definitionsȱ ofȱ reality’ȱ …ȱ [that]ȱ serveȱ rulingȱ hegemonicȱ interests,ȱ legitimizeȱ socialȱ inequalityȱ and/orȱ thwartȱ movesȱ toȱ participatoryȱ democracy”ȱ(p.ȱ5).1ȱȱȱȱ Studentsȱ haveȱ becomeȱ quiteȱ adeptȱ atȱ understandingȱ theȱ Orwellianȱ spinȱinherentȱinȱcommonlyȱusedȱmediaȱtermsȱlikeȱlabourȱflexibilityȱ(codeȱ forȱ unionȬbustingȱ andȱ downsizing)ȱ andȱ Presidentȱ Bush’sȱ Rightȱ toȱ Workȱ legislation,ȱ whichȱ virtuallyȱ allowsȱ forȱ theȱ eliminationȱ ofȱ theȱ minimumȱ wageȱ (Winter,ȱ 2002,ȱ p.ȱ xvii).ȱ Indeed,ȱ whenȱ studentsȱ challengeȱ theȱ languageȱandȱtheȱassumptionsȱthatȱmanyȱjournalistsȱuse,ȱtheyȱseeȱhowȱ theȱ hegemonicȱ functionȱ ofȱ theȱ mediaȱ worksȱ inȱ theȱ interestsȱ ofȱ largeȱ corporationsȱandȱotherȱprivilegedȱgroups.ȱȱ TheȱrecentȱantiȬfeminismȱbacklashȱhasȱalsoȱbeenȱatȱtheȱcentreȱofȱtheȱ wayȱ Iȱ useȱ theȱ mediaȱ inȱ bothȱ educationalȱ settings.ȱ Theȱ lessonȱ plansȱ onȱ ideologyȱ areȱ successfulȱ inȱ helpingȱ studentsȱ understandȱ conservativeȱ supportȱ forȱ patriarchy,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ differentȱ kindsȱ ofȱ feminismȱ –ȱ liberal,ȱ socialist,ȱ andȱ radicalȱ –ȱ supportedȱ byȱ progressives.ȱ Femaleȱ conservativeȱ journalistsȱ areȱ becomingȱ aȱ ubiquitousȱ entityȱ inȱ Northȱ Americanȱnewspapers.ȱToȱdemonstrateȱmediaȱbacklashȱagainstȱfeminismȱ inȱmyȱhighȬschoolȱclassroom,ȱIȱhaveȱusedȱseveralȱarticlesȱbyȱNationalȱPostȱ columnistȱDonnaȱLaframboise.ȱAȱfewȱexamplesȱareȱ“Domesticȱviolenceȱ isn’tȱaȱgenderȱissue”ȱ(Julyȱ18th,ȱ2001);ȱ“Endȱtheȱbreastȱcancerȱhype”ȱ(Juneȱ 27th,ȱ 2001);ȱ andȱ anȱ earlierȱ oneȱ sheȱ wroteȱ forȱ theȱ Globeȱ &ȱ Mail,ȱ “FEMINISM:ȱ You’veȱ comeȱ aȱ longȱ way,ȱ babyȱ …ȱ Andȱ forȱ what?ȱ Mostȱ womenȱloveȱtheirȱhusbands,ȱfathers,ȱbrothersȱandȱsons.ȱNoȱwonderȱtheyȱ feelȱ littleȱ attachmentȱ toȱ aȱ women’sȱ movementȱ thatȱ isȱ plaguedȱ byȱ antiȬ maleȱhostility,ȱintoleranceȱandȱextremism”ȱ(Julyȱ26,ȱ1997).ȱLaframboise’sȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 191ȱȱȱ articleȱ aboutȱ breastȱ cancerȱ hypeȱ hasȱ alwaysȱ garneredȱ theȱ mostȱ studentȱ outrage,ȱfromȱbothȱfemaleȱandȱmaleȱstudents.ȱWhenȱIȱaskedȱwhyȱthereȱ wereȱ soȱ manyȱ antiȬfeministȱ articlesȱ writtenȱ byȱ femaleȱ journalists,ȱ oneȱ gradeȬ11ȱ femaleȱ studentȱ answered:ȱ “It’sȱ easyȱ –ȱ becauseȱ theȱ papersȱ areȱ ownedȱbyȱconservativeȱrichȱguysȱwhoȱhateȱfeminists!”ȱȱ Iȱalsoȱuseȱfilmȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱresourcesȱforȱteachingȱforȱmediaȱliteracy.ȱ IȱrecentlyȱusedȱBreadȱ&ȱRosesȱinȱmyȱwestȱsideȱhighȬschoolȱclassroom,ȱaȱ 1999ȱ fictionalȱ releaseȱ aboutȱ actualȱ unionȬorganizingȱ activitiesȱ amongȱ immigrantȱ Losȱ Angelesȱ janitors.ȱ Iȱ hadȱ twoȱ objectivesȱ forȱ showingȱ thisȱ film:ȱitȱclearlyȱexplainsȱtheȱrisksȱtoȱworkingȬclassȱpeopleȱofȱorganizing,ȱ asȱwellȱasȱtheȱbenefitsȱofȱbelongingȱtoȱaȱunion.ȱMoreover,ȱitȱaddressesȱtheȱ issueȱofȱmediaȱaccessȱforȱmarginalizedȱgroupsȱ–ȱtheȱorganizingȱdriveȱwasȱ successfulȱ onlyȱ afterȱ theȱ janitorsȱ hijackedȱ aȱ celebrityȱ mediaȱ event.ȱ Theȱ subsequentȱwrittenȱassignmentsȱandȱdiscussionsȱindicatedȱtoȱmeȱthatȱtheȱ students,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ whomȱ willȱ neverȱ needȱ toȱ belongȱ toȱ aȱ union,ȱ understoodȱtheȱplightȱofȱworkersȱwhoȱhaveȱlittleȱinȱtheȱwayȱofȱhumanȱ rights.ȱȱȱ Iȱ haveȱ alsoȱ broughtȱ inȱ guestȱ speakersȱ toȱ augmentȱ mediaȱ literacyȱ lessonsȱonȱimportant,ȱcurrentȱsocialȱissues.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱtheȱrunȬupȱtoȱ theȱsigningȱofȱtheȱhistoricȱ1998ȱNisga’aȱTreaty,ȱtheȱfirstȱtreatyȱbetweenȱaȱ Firstȱ Nationsȱ people,ȱ theȱ federalȱ government,ȱ andȱ theȱ B.C.ȱ provincialȱ government,ȱ Iȱ organizedȱ aȱ presentationȱ byȱ Premierȱ Glenȱ Clarkȱ inȱ ourȱ highȱschool.ȱThereȱwereȱoverȱaȱhundredȱstudentsȱinȱtheȱpackedȱroom,ȱasȱ wellȱasȱseveralȱmediaȱoutlets.ȱClark’sȱreasonsȱforȱnegotiatingȱtheȱtreatyȱ wereȱplacedȱagainstȱtheȱcorporateȱmedia’sȱveryȱnegativeȱcoverageȱofȱitȱ thatȱweȱhadȱexaminedȱtheȱpreviousȱweek.ȱOneȱfrontȬpageȱVancouverȱSunȱ headlineȱ screamed,ȱ “BCȱ Indianȱ chiefsȱ layȱ claimȱ toȱ entireȱ province,ȱ resources”ȱ(Ouston,ȱFebruaryȱ2nd,ȱ1998).ȱ(ForȱotherȱVancouverȱSunȱarticlesȱ Iȱused,ȱseeȱ“HowȱtoȱmakeȱIndianȱlandȱclaimsȱgoȱaway,”ȱbyȱT.ȱLautens,ȱ Februaryȱ28,ȱ1998;ȱ“NativeȱleadersȱrejectȱpublicȱreferendumȱonȱNisga’aȱ deal,”ȱ byȱ D.ȱ Rinehart,ȱ Julyȱ 23rd,ȱ 1998;ȱ “Costȱ ofȱ theȱ Nisga’aȱ deal:ȱ $490ȱ millionȱandȱcounting,”ȱbyȱV.ȱPalmer,ȱJulyȱ23rd,ȱ1998;ȱandȱ“Whatȱyouȱgetȱ fromȱ behindȱ closedȱ doors,”ȱ byȱ B.ȱ Yaffe,ȱ Novemberȱ 10th,ȱ 1998.)ȱ Byȱ comparingȱ theȱ contentȱ ofȱ theseȱarticlesȱtoȱ Premierȱ Clark’sȱ position,ȱ theȱ studentsȱ inȱ myȱ Socialȱ Studiesȱ 11ȱ andȱ Firstȱ Nationsȱ Studiesȱ 12ȱ coursesȱ clearlyȱ understoodȱ howȱ difficultȱ itȱ wasȱ forȱ supportersȱ ofȱ theȱ Nisgaa’aȱ 192ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ treaty,ȱ includingȱ theȱ (NDP)ȱ premier,ȱ toȱ getȱ theirȱ voicesȱ heardȱ inȱ theȱ corporateȱmedia.ȱ InȱtheȱTeacherȱEducationȱProgram,ȱIȱalsoȱbringȱinȱguestȱspeakersȱtoȱ helpȱ theȱ preserviceȱ teachersȱ understandȱ theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ theȱ corporateȱmediaȱandȱoutsideȱpowerfulȱinterestȱgroups.ȱDuringȱthisȱ2004ȱ winterȱsemester,ȱafterȱanȱideologicalȱdiscussionȱaboutȱCanadianȱtaxȱratesȱ andȱ competingȱ visionsȱ ofȱ theȱ goodȱ society,ȱ Iȱ broughtȱ inȱ twoȱ speakersȱ withȱopposingȱviewsȱonȱtaxes.ȱTheȱfirstȱspeakerȱwasȱeconomistȱMarcȱLeeȱ fromȱtheȱprogressiveȱCanadianȱCentreȱforȱPolicyȱAlternatives.ȱOnȱtheȱnextȱ night,ȱ theseȱȱpreserviceȱ teachersȱ listenedȱ toȱ aȱ presentationȱ byȱ Saraȱ McIntyre,ȱ theȱ B.C.ȱ directorȱ forȱ theȱ libertarianȱ Canadianȱ Taxpayersȱ Federation.ȱIȱwasȱimpressedȱwithȱtheȱqualityȱofȱquestioningȱtheȱstudentsȱ posedȱ toȱ theȱ speakers,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ highȱ levelȱ ofȱ discussionȱ afterȱ theȱ presentations.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ studentȱ questionsȱ focusedȱ onȱ fundingȱ forȱ eachȱorganization,ȱindicatingȱtheirȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱtheseȱ speakersȱ wereȱ publicȱ relationsȱ spokespeopleȱ forȱ particularȱ politicalȱ agendas.ȱInȱthisȱcontextualȱapproachȱtoȱmediaȱliteracy,ȱtheȱstudentsȱcameȱ toȱ comprehendȱ theȱ “mediaȱ textȱ [as]ȱ aȱ stageȱ inȱ aȱ processȱ ofȱ ideologicalȱ production”ȱ(Lewisȱ&ȱJhally,ȱ1998,ȱp.ȱ2).ȱȱȱ Inȱ theȱ leadȬupȱ toȱ theȱ 2001ȱ provincialȱ electionȱ inȱ Britishȱ Columbia,ȱ anotherȱguestȱspeakerȱappearedȱinȱoneȱofȱmyȱteacherȬȱeducationȱclasses,ȱ aȱ rightȬwingȱ columnistȱ withȱ theȱ CanWestȬownedȱ Provinceȱ newspaper,ȱ whoȱ coversȱ B.C.ȱ politics.ȱ Afterȱ anȱ eȬmailȱ exchangeȱ overȱ clarificationȱ ofȱ oneȱ ofȱ hisȱ columns,ȱ heȱ surprisedȱ meȱ byȱ offeringȱ toȱ presentȱ hisȱ philosophyȱaroundȱpoliticalȱissuesȱtoȱtheȱpreserviceȱteachers.ȱIȱsituatedȱ hisȱpresentationȱbyȱsuggestingȱtoȱtheȱclassȱthatȱthisȱcolumnist’sȱagendaȱisȱ toȱ haveȱ theȱ Liberalsȱ formȱ government,ȱ toȱ whichȱ thereȱ wasȱ muchȱ skepticismȱ amongȱ theȱ groupȱ asȱ aȱ wholeȱ aboutȱ myȱ pronouncement.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ 90Ȭminuteȱ presentation,ȱ theȱ journalistȱ acceptedȱ numerousȱ questionsȱfromȱtheȱgroup.ȱOneȱyieldedȱthisȱanswer,ȱ“Hey,ȱIȱamȱwritingȱ myȱ columnsȱ toȱ getȱ theȱ NDPȱ outȱ ofȱ government.ȱ Iȱ thinkȱ theyȱ taxȱ andȱ spendȱwayȱtooȱmuch.”ȱLaterȱon,ȱheȱansweredȱaȱquestionȱaboutȱLiberalȱ educationalȱpolicyȱbyȱstating,ȱ“Youȱareȱallȱgoingȱtoȱbeȱteachers.ȱIȱsuggestȱ thatȱ youȱ voteȱ inȱ yourȱ ownȱ bestȱ interests,ȱ whichȱ means:ȱ Don’tȱ voteȱ Liberal.”ȱWhenȱheȱeventuallyȱleft,ȱtheȱgroupȱwasȱremarkablyȱquietȱuntilȱ oneȱofȱthemȱsaid,ȱ“Youȱwereȱright,ȱPaul.ȱHeȱsureȱisȱbiased.”ȱȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 193ȱȱȱ
IDEOLOGYȱANDȱREFRAMINGȱMEDIAȱDISCOURSEȱ Inȱ theȱ Teacherȱ Educationȱ program,ȱ Iȱ haveȱ beenȱ experimentingȱ withȱ aȱ moreȱ sophisticatedȱ kindȱ ofȱ mediaȱ literacy,ȱ oneȱ basedȱ onȱ reframingȱ politicalȱ discourseȱ fromȱ differentȱ ideologicalȱ perspectives.ȱ Reframingȱ techniquesȱ haveȱ comeȱ fromȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ linguistȱ Georgeȱ Lakoffȱ (2004)ȱ andȱ theȱ Rockridgeȱ Instituteȱ (www.rockridgeinstitute.org).ȱ Theȱ basicȱ theoryȱbehindȱreframingȱisȱtoȱaddressȱtheȱobservationȱthatȱpeopleȱwhoȱ areȱ stronglyȱ influencedȱ byȱ oneȱ ideologyȱ cannotȱ hearȱ certainȱ factsȱ thatȱ mightȱshakeȱtheirȱbeliefs.ȱTheȱfactsȱdoȱnotȱseemȱtoȱmatter;ȱtheyȱseemȱtoȱ bounceȱ offȱ theȱ intendedȱ listener.ȱ Ratherȱ thanȱ goȱ onȱ theȱ defensive,ȱ progressiveȱ ideologuesȱ needȱ toȱ useȱ positiveȱ discoursesȱ onȱ policyȱ thatȱ relyȱ onȱ progressiveȱ valuesȱ andȱ language.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ usingȱ theȱ framesȱ ofȱ theȱ conservatives,ȱ theyȱ useȱ onesȱ basedȱ onȱ progressiveȱvalues.ȱȱ Anȱ exampleȱ ofȱ thisȱ thatȱ theȱ classȱ attemptedȱ inȱ theȱ 2004ȱ winterȱ semesterȱ wasȱ aroundȱ theȱ currentȱ debateȱ aboutȱ whyȱ boysȱ areȱ fallingȱ behindȱ girlsȱ inȱ highȬschoolȱ academicȱ achievement.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ articleȱ theȱ studentsȱ readȱ wasȱ aȱ Fraserȱ Instituteȱ publicationȱ entitledȱ Boys,ȱ Girls,ȱ &ȱ Gradesȱ (Cowleyȱ &ȱ Easton,ȱ 2002)ȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ journalistȱ largelyȱ blamesȱ theȱfeministȱinfluenceȱonȱteachers.ȱTheȱfollowȬupȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱarticleȱ ledȱmeȱtoȱbelieveȱthatȱthisȱarticleȱresonatedȱwithȱaboutȱaȱquarterȱofȱtheȱ class.ȱ Theȱ followingȱ week,ȱ theȱ sameȱ studentsȱ readȱ anȱ academicȱ articleȱ entitledȱ “Boyȱ trouble:ȱ Rhetoricalȱ framingȱ ofȱ boysȇȱ underachievement”ȱ (Titus,ȱ2004)ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱmainȱpointsȱwereȱtheȱproȬpatriarchalȱbacklashȱ thatȱ isȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ resurgenceȱ ofȱ socialȱ conservatismȱ andȱ connectionsȱ betweenȱ academicȱ performanceȱ andȱ outsideȱ socialȱ forces.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ itȱ seemedȱ toȱ meȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ perfectȱ counterbalanceȱ toȱ theȱ Fraserȱ Instituteȱ article.ȱ Iȱ assignedȱ theseȱ teachersȱ theȱ taskȱ ofȱ reframingȱ theȱ genderȱgapȱinȱacademicȱachievementȱfromȱaȱprogressiveȱstandpointȱandȱ aȱconservativeȱoneȱasȱifȱtheyȱwereȱjournalists.ȱOneȱfemaleȱstudent,ȱwhoȱ earlierȱ hadȱ thoughtȱ thereȱ toȱ beȱ somethingȱ toȱ theȱ Fraserȱ Institute’sȱ reasoning,ȱposedȱaȱsatiricalȱheadlineȱthatȱparticularlyȱdrewȱmyȱattention:ȱ “Girlsȱtooȱsuccessfulȱinȱschool:ȱSendȱthemȱbackȱtoȱtheȱkitchen.”ȱShe,ȱasȱ wellȱ asȱ mostȱ ofȱ herȱ classmates,ȱ becameȱ acutelyȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ language,ȱandȱconsequently,ȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱmedia.ȱȱ AnotherȱexperienceȱfromȱmyȱteacherȬeducationȱcourseȱmayȱhelpȱtoȱ 194ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPAULȱORLOWSKIȱ explainȱtheȱvalueȱinȱreframing.ȱForȱcorporateȱconservatismȱtoȱcontinue,ȱitȱ requiresȱthatȱsignificantȱnumbersȱofȱpoorȱandȱworkingȬclassȱpeopleȱvoteȱ againstȱ theirȱ ownȱ bestȱ interests—orȱ stayȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ polls.ȱ Theȱ necessaryȱreframingȱeffortsȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱconservativesȱwereȱsuccessfulȱ becauseȱ aȱ commonlyȱ heldȱ beliefȱ todayȱ isȱ thatȱ conservativeȱ ideasȱ areȱ populist,ȱwhileȱliberalȱorȱprogressiveȱideasȱareȱelitist.ȱPartȱofȱtheȱmediaȱ literacyȱ strategiesȱ Iȱ useȱ withȱ theȱ preserviceȱ teachersȱ isȱ toȱ haveȱ themȱ reframeȱ conservativeȱ argumentsȱ usingȱ progressiveȱ values.ȱ Insteadȱ ofȱ defendingȱanȱincreaseȱinȱtheȱB.C.ȱminimumȱwage,ȱoneȱstudentȱfocusedȱ onȱ theȱ valueȱ ofȱ “prosperityȱ forȱ allȱ whoȱ workȱ hard.”ȱ Anotherȱ studentȱ tookȱonȱtheȱcurrentȱconservativeȱsloganȱofȱ“smallȱgovernmentȱisȱbest”ȱbyȱ distinguishingȱbetweenȱtheȱroleȱthatȱgovernmentȱshouldȱhaveȱinȱsociety.ȱ Conservativesȱ doȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ desireȱ smallȱ government.ȱ Theyȱ wantȱ governmentȱ forȱ theȱ military,ȱ forȱ CSIS,ȱ forȱ theȱ Ministriesȱ ofȱ Justice,ȱ Revenue,ȱandȱFinances.ȱLeftȱliberalsȱandȱsocialȱdemocrats,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱ hand,ȱwantȱgovernmentȱtoȱfocusȱonȱcaring,ȱnurturingȱaspectsȱofȱpeople’sȱ livesȱlikeȱeducation,ȱhealthȱcare,ȱsocialȱprogramsȱforȱthoseȱinȱneed,ȱandȱaȱ healthyȱ environment.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ aȱ progressiveȱ responseȱ toȱ theȱ matterȱofȱgovernmentȱisȱtoȱpresentȱaȱmoreȱhumaneȱroleȱforȱgovernment,ȱ ratherȱthanȱtheȱtoughȬmindedȱoneȱthatȱconservativesȱassignȱit.ȱ Onȱtheȱrelatedȱissueȱofȱtaxȱreform,ȱoneȱstudentȱproducedȱaȱdefenseȱofȱ taxesȱnotȱbyȱbuyingȱintoȱtheȱconservativeȱframeȱasȱ“taxesȱasȱburden,”ȱbutȱ byȱreframingȱthemȱasȱanȱinvestmentȱforȱfutureȱprosperityȱforȱeverybody.ȱ Ofȱcourse,ȱmediaȱaccessȱandȱmediaȱcomplianceȱareȱimportantȱobstaclesȱ toȱ theseȱ progressiveȱ framesȱ becomingȱ commonlyȱ accepted.ȱ Forȱ now,ȱ however,ȱ ifȱ teachersȱ canȱ comprehendȱ whatȱ isȱ happeningȱ withȱ currentȱ mediaȱ concerns,ȱ theyȱ shouldȱ beȱ betterȱ ableȱ toȱ helpȱ theirȱ studentsȱ deconstructȱtheȱOrwellianȱspinȱthatȱtheyȱareȱbeingȱinundatedȱwith.ȱȱ CONCLUSIONȱ MyȱexperiencesȱasȱaȱveteranȱhighȬschoolȱsocialȱstudiesȱteacherȱhaveȱledȱ meȱ toȱ developȱ whatȱ Iȱ considerȱ toȱ beȱ anȱ effectiveȱ wayȱ toȱ teachȱ aȱ moreȱ criticalȱ mediaȱ literacy.ȱ Studentsȱ mustȱ understandȱ thatȱ knowledgeȱ isȱ sociallyȱconstructedȱandȱthereforeȱpolitical.ȱTheyȱmustȱunderstandȱthatȱ certainȱ groupsȱ benefitȱ fromȱ theȱ wayȱ thatȱ knowledgeȱ isȱ organizedȱ andȱ presented,ȱ oftenȱ atȱ theȱ expenseȱ ofȱ otherȱ groups.ȱ Inȱ short,ȱ theyȱ mustȱ EDUCATINGȱINȱANȱERAȱOFȱORWELLIANȱSPINȱȱ 195ȱȱȱ understandȱhowȱpoliticalȱideologyȱisȱatȱtheȱrootȱofȱtheseȱstruggles.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ tensionsȱ andȱ dilemmasȱ withȱ myȱ approachȱ toȱ mediaȱ literacy.ȱ Anȱ obviousȱ oneȱ isȱ theȱ debateȱ aroundȱ teachersȱ pushingȱ aȱ particularȱ agenda.ȱ Iȱ doȱ notȱ seeȱ whatȱ Iȱ doȱ asȱ brainȬwashing;ȱ rather,ȱ Iȱ contendȱ thatȱ mediaȱ literacy,ȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ criticalȱ thinkingȱ inȱ general,ȱ isȱ aȱ necessaryȱ componentȱ inȱ aȱ student’sȱ educationȱ towardȱ becomingȱ anȱ informedȱ citizen.ȱ Moreover,ȱ epistemologicalȱ concernsȱ aboutȱ theȱ socialȱ constructionȱofȱknowledgeȱassumeȱthatȱaȱteacherȱwhoȱfollowsȱtheȱformalȱ curriculumȱisȱalsoȱengagedȱinȱpushingȱaȱparticularȱpoliticalȱagenda,ȱanȱ insightȱ thatȱ hasȱ particularlyȱ importantȱ implicationsȱ forȱ progressiveȱ educators.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ onȱ aȱ rareȱ occasionȱ aȱ preserviceȱ teacherȱ hasȱ indicatedȱonȱanȱendȬofȬtermȱevaluationȱsheetȱthatȱtheyȱfoundȱmeȱtoȱbeȱ insufficientlyȱ supportiveȱ ofȱ theȱ conservativeȱ agenda.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ aȱ chargeȱ Iȱ accept.ȱAfterȱall,ȱprogressiveȱpeopleȱhaveȱalsoȱhadȱtoȱendureȱrelentlessȱ attacksȱ byȱ socialȱ conservativesȱ andȱ economicȱ neoliberalsȱ thatȱ fillȱ corporateȬownedȱ mediaȱ stories.ȱ Iȱ believeȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ impossibleȱ forȱ anyȱ socialȱ studiesȱ educatorȱ toȱ beȱ neutralȱ inȱ theirȱ teaching.ȱ Indeed,ȱ Iȱ agreeȱ withȱ theȱ contentionȱ ofȱ Kellyȱ andȱ Minnesȱ Brandesȱ (2001)ȱ thatȱ teachersȱ whoȱ considerȱ theirȱ teachingȱ toȱ beȱ apoliticalȱ orȱ objectiveȱ becauseȱ theyȱ rigidlyȱfollowȱtheȱprescribedȱcurriculumȱtoȱbeȱnaïve.ȱAfterȱall,ȱasȱAppleȱ (1990)ȱpointsȱout,ȱtheȱcurriculumȱisȱnotȱanȱapoliticalȱdocument.ȱNeitherȱ isȱtheȱnewsȱinȱtheȱmedia.ȱȱ
NOTEȱ
1ȱDuringȱparent/teacherȱinterviewsȱinȱrecentȱyears,ȱIȱhaveȱbeenȱtakenȱbyȱ howȱmanyȱparentsȱexpressȱgratitudeȱthatȱtheirȱchildrenȱhadȱbecomeȱinterestedȱinȱ local,ȱnational,ȱandȱinternationalȱnewsȱsinceȱtheȱstartȱofȱtheȱschoolȱyear.ȱ
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