Significant Dates

1585 9 September: birth of Richelieu. 1601 27 September: birth of Louis XIII. 1602 14 July: birth of Mazarin. 1606 17 April: in Rome, Richelieu inaugurated as Bishop of Luçon. 1610 14 May: Henri IV assassinated; Louis XIII becomes king. 15 May: Marie de’ Medici becomes Regent. 26 July: enters the conseil d’état. 17 October: coronation of Louis XIII. 1614 2 October: majority of Louis XIII declared. 27 October: opens; Richelieu attends as member of First Estate (the Clergy). 1615 23 February: Richelieu addresses Estates General before its closure. August: Condé leads rebellion. 28 November: marriage of Louis XIII and . 1616 1 September: arrest of Condé. 25 November: Richelieu enters conseil d’état for the first time. 1617 24 April: Concini assassinated. 3 May: Marie de’ Medici retires to , accompanied by Richelieu. 15 June: Richelieu leaves Blois and returns to his diocese. 8 July: Leonora Galigaï, widow of Concini, executed.

161 162 SIGNIFICANT DATES

1618 Luynes presides over conseil d’état. 7 April: Richelieu exiled to . 1619 21–2 February: Marie de’ Medici escapes from Blois and joins Épernon at Angoulême. 7 March: Richelieu receives instructions to leave Avignon and negotiate peace between Louis XIII and Marie de’ Medici. 30 April: Treaty of Angoulême between king and his mother. 1620 June: new phase of aristocratic rebellion begins. 10 August: Treaty of restores peace. September–19 October: Louis XIII occupies Béarn and unites it with . 25 December: Huguenot assembly at decides upon armed resistance to crown. 1621 April: Louis XIII and Luynes march against the ; Saumur taken, but siege of fails (August–November). 15 December: death of Luynes. 1622 Royal campaigns against Huguenots continue. 10 June: massacre at Nègrepelisse. 5 September: Richelieu becomes Cardinal. 18 October: Treaty of Montpellier between crown and Hugue- nots. 1623 7 February: Treaty of . France forms league with Venice, and Grisons to resist in Valtelline. 1624 January–February: dismissal of Brûlart de Sillery and his sup- porters. 29 April: Richelieu brought into conseil d’état for second time. 13 August: Richelieu becomes head of conseil d’état and principal minister. 1625 January: Rohan and Soubise engage in rebellion. 11 May: marriage of Henriette de France and Charles I of . 1626 5 March: Treaty of Monzón between France and Spain. 19 August: execution of Chalais for plotting against Richelieu. July–August: creation of Compagnie du Morbihan. October: Richelieu becomes Grand Maître de la Navigation. SIGNIFICANT DATES 163

1627 20 March: France breaks with England and signs alliance with Spain. 22 June: execution of Montmorency-Boutteville and Chapelles for having fought a duel. 30 June: English fleet appears before La Rochelle. 25 July: Buckingham lands on île de Ré. 10 September: by royal forces begins. 25 December: death of Vincent II, Duke of Mantua. 1628 28 October: La Rochelle surrenders. 1 November: Louis XIII and Richelieu enter La Rochelle. 1629 15 January: Code Michau published. Spring–Summer: Louis XIII campaigns against Huguenots. 28 June: Peace of Alès redefines place of Huguenots in society. 21 November: Richelieu officially designated as ‘principal minister of state’. 26 November: Richelieu created a Duke. 1630 29 January: first meeting between Richelieu and Mazarin. 31 March: French army takes . 27 February: revolt begins in Dijon. 25 July: Louis XIII arrives in Lyon and remains until autumn; September: Louis XIII suffers severe illness. 26 October: Mazarin secures truce at Casale between French and Imperial forces. 10 November: Marie de’ Medici breaks with Richelieu. 11 November: Day of Dupes leads to confirmation of Richelieu in office. 1631 18 January: Mazarin arrives in Paris for first time, to negotiate peace in . 23 January: Treaty of Barwälde creates alliance between France and Sweden. 30 January: Gaston d’Orléans leaves the royal court. 3 February: anti-fiscal riots in Paris begin. 31 May: alliance between France and Bavaria. 19 June: Treaty of Cherasco; France retains Pinerolo and Casale, and the Duc de Nevers is recognised as Duke of Mantua. 18 July: Marie de’ Medici escapes from France to the and is joined by Gaston d’Orléans. 164 SIGNIFICANT DATES

1632 3 January: secret marriage between Gaston d’Orléans and Marguerite de Lorraine. 26 June: Louis XIII imposes treaty of Liverdun on Charles IV of Lorraine. June–August: Henri de Montmorency, assisted by Gaston d’Orléans, raises rebellion in south-west. September–October: rebellion suppressed and Gaston flees again. 16 November: Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden killed at battle of Lützen. 1633 September: Louis XIII occupies Lorraine. 1634 25 August: Mazarin sent by Urban VIII on diplomatic mission to France. 20 September: France enters into accord with Sweden and German princes to protect Rhineland.

1635 25 January: creation of Académie Française. 8 February: alliance between France and United Provinces. May–June: riots in Bordeaux. 19 May: France declares war on Spain. 27 October: alliance between Luis XIII and Prince Bernard de Saxe-Weimar. 1636 January: Mazarin recalled to Rome. April–May: risings of Croquants in Angoumois. 15 August: Spanish seize Corbie and cause panic in Paris. 10 November: Corbie recaptured by French.

1637 April: risings of Croquants spread to Périgord. 11 December: the ‘Vow’ of Louis XIII, who devotes his kingdom to the Virgin Mary.

1638 16 March: France and Sweden renew alliance. March: victories of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar in Rhineland. 5 September: birth of Louis XIV. 7 September: defeat of French at Fuenterrabia. 19 December: Bernard of Saxe-Weimar takes Breisach.

1639 7 June: French army defeated at Thionville. 16 July: rising of the Nu-Pieds begins at Avranches and spreads to other parts of Normandy. SIGNIFICANT DATES 165

18 July: death of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar. 21 October: victory of the Dutch over the Spanish fleet at the . 14 December: Mazarin leaves Rome for the last time and goes to France.

1640 March: revolt of the Nu-Pieds finally suppressed. 7 June: beginning of revolt in Barcelona against Philip IV of Spain, which spreads to rest of . 13 June–8 August: French besiege and take Arras. 21 September: birth of Philippe, brother of Louis XIV and future Duc d’Orléans. December: rising in against Philip IV of Spain.

1641 1 February: alliance between France and Portugal. 1 August: Pope Urban VIII condemns Jansen’s Augustinus. 19 September: Louis XIII agrees to become ‘Count of Barcelona’. 15 December: Mazarin created a cardinal.

1642 13 June: arrest of Cinq-Mars and De Thou. 3 July: Marie de’ Medici dies at . 12 September: execution of Cinq-Mars and De Thou. 4 December: death of Richelieu. 5 December: Mazarin enters conseil d’état.

1643 19 January: papal bull In Eminente denounces . 21 April: baptism of Louis XIV; Mazarin is godfather. 14 May: death of Louis XIII, succession of Louis XIV. 18 May: Anne of Austria assumes regency; Mazarin retained as principal minister. 19 May: French victory at . July–September: rise and fall of ‘Cabale des Importants’; ris- ing of Croquants of Rouergue. September–December: preliminary peace talks in Westphalia.

1644 3–8 August: French victory at battle of Fribourg. 12 September: Turenne takes Philippsburg. December: formal peace talks begin in Westphalia.

1645 13 August: Treaty of Brömsebro between Sweden and Denmark, mediated by Mazarin. 166 SIGNIFICANT DATES

1646 June–October: French successes in Spanish Netherlands: Courtrai (29 June), Furnes (7 September), (11 October) taken. 8 October: French take Piombino. 26 December: death of Duc de Condé.

1647 13 March: armistice signed at Ulm between France, Sweden, Bavaria and other German territories; Bavaria breaks the truce in the autumn. 18 July: Particelli d’Emery appointed surintendant des finances.

1648 15–16 January: forced to register creation of new offices; then annuls registration; Fronde of the Parlement begins. 30 January: peace between Spain and . 13 May: Arrêt d’Union, Parlement of Paris joins forces with other courts in Chambre Saint Louis. 2 July: Chambre Saint Louis presents charter for reform. 9 July: dismissal of Particelli. 13 July: abolition of intendants (except in frontier provinces). 26 August: arrest of Broussel and other parlementaires. 27–8 August: barricades erected in Paris; Broussel released. 22 October: crown concedes demands of Chambre Saint Louis. 24 October: treaties of peace signed in Westphalia.

1649 5–6 January: royal family leaves Paris and goes to Saint- Germain. 29 March: Bordeaux declares solidarity with Fronde of Paris. 1 April: Peace of Rueil between crown and Fronde of the Parlement. 18 August: royal court returns to Paris.

1650 18 January: arrest of Condé, Conti and Longueville; their supporters in provinces raise rebellion. February–April: court travels to Normandy and Burgundy to pacify country. 22 June: ‘Ormée’ movement founded in Bordeaux. 5 October: king and Queen Mother enter Bordeaux.

1651 February: union of Frondes of Princes and the Parlement. 6–7 February: Mazarin leaves Paris and goes to Germany. 13 February: Condé, Conti, Longueville released from prison. SIGNIFICANT DATES 167

16 February: triumphant return of these princes to Paris. 7 September: majority of Louis XIV proclaimed in Parlement of Paris. 22 September: Condé arrives in Bordeaux, which declares in his favour.

1652 28 January: Mazarin returns and joins royal court at . 18 May: Spanish retake Gravelines. 2 July: after several defeats by crown forces Condé retreats into Paris. 4 July: attack on Paris Hôtel de Ville by supporters of princes; princes impose their regime over the city. 19 August: Mazarin goes into exile for second time. 16 September: Spanish retake Dunkirk. 13 October: Condé leaves Paris and flees to Spanish Nether- lands. 21 October: Louis XIV and royal court re-enter Paris; Spanish retake Casale.

1653 3 February: Mazarin returns to Paris. July: end of Ormée of Bordeaux. 9–26 September: Louis XIV present at siege and capture of Mouzon. 27 November: Louis XIV present at surrender of Sainte- Menehould. 1654 7 June: coronation of Louis XIV at Rheims. 6 August: Louis XIV present at capture of Stenay.

1655 14 July: capture of Landrecies by French. 3 November: commercial accord between France and England by Treaty of Westminster.

1656 23 January: Pascal publishes the first of his pro-Jansenist Lettres Provinciales. July: Turenne fails to take Valenciennes.

1657 3 March: Anglo-French alliance formed by . 6 August: Louis XIV present at capture of Montmédy.

1658 April–August: revolt of Sabotiers in Sologne. June–July: Louis XIV seriously ill, but recovers. 14 June: French victory at Battle of the Dunes near Dunkirk. 168 SIGNIFICANT DATES

23 June: French take Dunkirk and hand it to the English. 14 August: League of the Rhine formed, joined by France. December: Louis XIV meets Marguerite of Savoy and marriage discussions take place; Spanish approach with offer of marriage between Louis XIV and Maria Teresa. 1659 7 May: France and Spain cease fighting. 16 October: Marseille in rebellion, royal orders publicly torn up. 7 November: Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. 1660 2 March: Louis XIV enters Marseille. 3 May: France mediates Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Poland and Brandenburg. 5 June: Treaty of Copenhagen between Sweden and Denmark. 9 June: marriage of Louis XIV and Maria Teresa in Saint- Jean-de-Luz. 1661 9 March: death of Mazarin. 10 March: Louis XIV announces that he will govern personally. 1 April: marriage of Philippe d’Orléans (brother of Louis XIV) and Henrietta of England (sister of Charles II). Glossary

aides duties on wine and other commodities conseil d’en haut see conseil d’état conseil d’état the king’s inner council don gratuit money voted to the crown by a provincial Estate or some other body, usually in lieu of taxes élections areas of royal fiscal administration; subdivisions of généralités fermiers tax farmers who bought from the government the right to collect certain taxes a tax on salt généralités main areas of royal financial administration (sub- divided into élections) gouvernements areas of military importance created mostly in the 16th and 17th centuries and administered by governors lit de justice ceremony wherein the king personally attended the Parlement of Paris and registered edicts officiers the holders of posts in public administration (usually in law and finance) senior law courts, of which the Parlement of Paris was the most important paulette an annual charge paid by officiers and conferring on them de facto ownership of their posts pays d’élections parts of the country in which taxes were assessed and raised through élections pays d’états provinces with their own Estates or assemblies rentes government bonds

169 170 GLOSSARY the main direct tax, assessed sometimes on individuals (taille personnelle), sometimes on property (taille réelle) traites customs duties on goods entering France, and also on goods passing between some provinces vénalité d’offices the sale, by the crown, of public offices Notes

Chapter 1: The Government of France

1. The notion of France in crisis is examined in the essays in P. J. Coveney (ed.), France in Crisis, 1620–1675 (London, 1977). 2. The king’s inner council had no formal title; that of conseil d’état was common, but it was also referred to as the conseil secret or, later in the century, the conseil d’en haut; in this book it will be referred to as the conseil d’état. 3. Henri III, father of Francis II, Charles IX and Henri III, was killed while taking part in a tournament in 1559. 4. The gouvernements in the early were , Burgundy, Champagne, Dauphiné, Guyenne, Île-de-France, , Lyonnais, Normandy, Orléanais, Picardy, . 5. They were at Paris, , Grenoble, Bordeaux, Dijon, Aix, Rouen, Dombes and Rennes. 6. J. Russell Major, From Renaissance to : French Kings, Nobles and Estates (Baltimore, 1994), pp. 237–8. 7. W. Doyle, ‘Colbert et les Offices’, in Histoire, Économie et Société, no. 4 (2000), 469–70.

Chapter 2: Richelieu: Bishop and Emerging Political Leader

1. Details are in J. Bergin, : Power and the Pursuit of Wealth (London, 1985), pp. 23–32.

171 172 NOTES

2. The following information is from ibid., pp. 32–4. 3. In the early seventeenth century the diocese generated about 8000 livres in revenues, a figure which put it among the poorer dioceses (J. Bergin, The Making of the French Episcopate, 1689–1661 (London, 1996), p. 111). 4. Formally, French bishops had to be at least 26 years old at the time of nomination (30 in other parts of Europe), but between 1601 and 1620, twenty-six under-age bishops were nominated in France; thereafter the incidence declined and the norms were almost always respected. Richelieu’s nomination, while unusual, occurred at a time when Rome was willing to tolerate such exceptions (Bergin, The Making of the French Episcopate, pp. 298–301). 5. Richelieu wrote theology himself, his best known works being Les Principaux Poincts de la Foy de l’Église Catholique (1618) and the Instruc- tion du Chrétien (1621); for a discussion of Richelieu as a theologian, see J. de Viguerie, ‘Richelieu Théologien’, in R. Mousnier (ed.), Richelieu et la Culture (Paris, 1987), pp. 29–42. 6. Although he had not yet adopted the name of this family estate, the term henceforth will be used since this is the name by which Armand-Jean is best known. 7. The Oratory, in its ‘modern’ form, was a movement founded in Italy around the middle of the sixteenth century by St Philip Neri. Its aim was to revitalise the priesthood and laity alike, especially, although not exclusively, through pastoral work, prayer and education. Neri’s movement inspired Pierre Bérulle to establish the French Oratory. 8. They can be followed in J. M. Hayden, France and the Estates General of 1614 (Cambridge, 1974). 9. It was there Richelieu wrote Les Principaux Poincts de la Foy de l’Église Catholique. 10. A more detailed account is in A. D. Lublinskaya, French Absolutism: The Crucial Phase, 1620–1629 (Cambridge, 1968), pp. 243–71. 11. D. J. Sturdy, The d’Aligres de la Rivière: Servants of the Bourbon State in the Seventeenth Century (Woodbridge, 1986), pp. 31–3. 12. They were Phélypeaux d’Herbault (for Spain, Italy, Switzerland and the Valtelline), Potier d’Ocquerre (for Germany, Poland, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands) and La Ville-sux-Clercs (for England, Turkey and the Levant), see Lublinskaya, French Absolutism, p. 259. NOTES 173

Chapter 3: Richelieu as Minister

1. See below, pp. 54, 62–3, 150. Key works on this subject include W. F. Church, Richelieu and Reason of State (Princeton, 1972), and E. Thuau, Raison d’État et pensée politique à l’Époque de Richelieu (Paris, 1966). 2. Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527), Italian statesman and author of, among many other works, Il Principe [The Prince] (first published 1532), which was condemned by Pope Clement VIII. 3. P. Grillon (ed.), Les Papiers de Richelieu, vol. i (Paris, 1975), p. 207. 4. L. Moote, Louis XIII, the Just (Berkeley, CA, 1989), pp. 165–6. 5. Marie de Montpensier died the following year giving birth to a daughter, Anne-Marie-Louise (known under Louis XIV as ‘La Grande Mademoiselle’). 6. On duels, see F. Billacois, The Duel: Its Rise and Fall in (London, 1990).

Chapter 4: The First Years of Richelieu’s Ministry, 1624–30

1. The Holy Roman Emperor was elected by seven Electors: three prel- ates, the archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, and four secular rulers, the King of Bohemia, the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Count Palatine of the Rhine and the Duke of Saxony. By the seven- teenth century the custom had grown whereby the Electors signalled their intention, eventually, to elect the heir apparent as Emperor, by first choosing him King of the Romans (an honorific title); before doing so, the Electors normally secured concessions from the existing Emperor, and promises from the heir apparent. 2. In fact the Electors still refused to do so. 3. P. Grillon (ed.), Papiers de Richelieu, vol. i (Paris, 1975), pp. 243–4. 4. Ibid., vol. ii, pp. 650–1. 5. The progress of the siege and the treatment of the defeated rebels can be followed in ibid., vol. iv (1980), pp. 322–63, 408–9. 6. On the chambre and its work, see R. Bonney, The King’s Debts: Finance and Politics in France, 1589–1661 (Oxford, 1981), pp. 117–21. 7. Ibid., p. 121. 8. On these figures see O. Ranum, Richelieu and the Councillors of Louis XIII: A Study of the Secretaries of State and Superintendents of Finance in the Ministry of Richelieu, 1635–1642 (Oxford, 1963). 9. See above, p. 13. 174 NOTES

10. R. and S. Pillorget, France , France Classique, 1589–1715 (2 vols, Paris, 1995), vol. i, pp. 267–9.

Chapter 5: Richelieu and French Foreign Policy, 1630–42

1. Gaston was allowed to return to France in October 1634 on condi- tion that he acknowledge that his marriage was invalid. However, after the birth of Louis XIV in 1638 Louis XIII withdrew his objection and recognised Marguerite as Duchesse d’Orléans. 2. For an assessment of the imperial position in 1630, see R. G. Asch, The Thirty Years War: The and Europe, 1618–48 (London, 1997), pp. 92–3. 3. A summary of the treaty and extracts from its terms are in M. Roberts (ed.), Sweden as a Great Power, 1611–1697 (London, 1968), pp. 136–7. 4. Gustavus had been succeeded by his infant daughter Christina. 5. For a discussion of these arguments, see Asch, Thirty Years War, pp. 120–5. 6. J. A. Lynn, Giant of the Grand Siècle: The French Army, 1610–1715 (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 42–4. 7. Ibid., pp. 477–8. 8. On this subject, see P. Castagnos, Richelieu face à la mer (Rennes, 1989). 9. Outlines are in R. J. Knecht, Richelieu (London, 1991), chap. 7; Asch, Thirty Years War, pp. 117–33; G. Parker, The Thirty Years War (London, 1984), pp. 144–53, 162–70. 10. J. I. Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford, 1995), pp. 528–31. 11. Contemporary opinions for and against Richelieu’s foreign policy are discussed in W. F. Church, Richelieu and Reason of State (Princeton, 1972), pp. 372–415. 12. See above, pp. 28–9. 13. A concise outline of modern interpretations for and against Richelieu is in Asch, Thirty Years War, pp. 117–25.

Chapter 6: Richelieu and the Internal Government of France

1. The principal surintendants during Richelieu’s ministry were Effiat (1626–32), Bullion (1632–40) and Bouthillier (1640–3). 2. These figures (rounded up and down) are from R. Bonney, The King’s Debts: Finance and Politics in France, 1589–1661 (Oxford, 1981), NOTES 175

pp. 304–5. They must be used with care, for they represent esti- mates of what was raised, and not of amounts that actually reached the government. 3. J. Russell Major, From Renaissance to Absolute Monarchy: French Kings, Nobles and Estates (Baltimore, 1994), pp. 268–82. 4. On the origins and development of the intendants, see B. Barbiche, Les Institutions de la Monarchie Française à l’Époque Moderne (Paris, 1999), pp. 382–9, and R. Bonney, Political Change in France under Richelieu and Mazarin, 1624–1661 (Oxford, 1978), pp. 29–56. 5. Bonney, Political Change in France, p. 30. 6. Ibid. 7. These instructions are printed in L. du Crot, Le Nouveau Traité des Aydes, et (Paris, 1636). 8. D. J. Sturdy, ‘Tax Evasion, the Faux Nobles, and State Fiscalism: the Example of the Généralité of Caen, 1634–35’, in French Historical Studies, IX, no. 4 (1976), pp. 549–72. 9. A. Guéry, ‘Les Finances de la Monarchie Française sous l’Ancien Régime’, in Annales ESC, no. 2 (1978), p. 236. 10. This term of abuse was first used against them by an artisan in 1636; the standard work on the rising is Y.-M. Bercé, Histoire des Croquants. Études des Soulèvements populaires dans le sud-ouest de la France (2 vols, , 1974). 11. On the Nu-pieds, see, M. Foisil, La Révolte des Nu-Pieds et les Révoltes Normandes de 1639 (Paris, 1970). 12. E. Thuau, Raison d’État et Pensée Politique à l’époque de Richelieu (Paris, 1966), p. 169. 13. J. Klaits, Printed Propaganda under Louis XIV: Absolute Monarchy and Public Opinion (Princeton, NJ, 1976), pp. 7–8. 14. On Renaudot and the Gazette, see H. M. Solomon, Public Welfare, Science and Propaganda in Seventeenth-Century France (Princeton, NJ, 1972). 15. An assessment of Lemercier is in A. Blunt, Art and Architecture in France, 1500–1700 (London, 1953), pp. 117–21.

Chapter 7: Richelieu: an Assessment

1. Parrott, Richelieu’s Army. 2. Bergin, Cardinal Richelieu: Power and the Pursuit of Wealth (London, 1985); the author’s conclusions are summarised in chapter 7, on which the following comments are based. 176 NOTES

3. An interesting analysis of Richelieu’s personality (compared, in this case, with his Spanish equivalent and rival, Olivares) is in J. H. Elliott, Richelieu and Olivares (Cambridge, 1984), chapter 1, and J. H. Elliott, ‘Richelieu, l’homme’, in R. Mousnier (ed.), Richelieu et la Culture (Paris, 1987), pp. 187–98.

Chapter 8: Mazarin: Origins and Early Career

1. In the seventeenth century, this did not mean that he lost his status as a Roman; its principal significance was that he could bequeath prop- erty in France and hold benefices there, see G. Dethan, Mazarin et ses Amis (Paris, 1968), pp. 169–70. 2. On the international context at this time, see D. J. Sturdy, Fractured Europe, 1600–1721 (Oxford, 2002), pp. 66–75. 3. See above, p. 34. 4. Dethan, Mazarin et ses Amis, p. 180.

Chapter 9: Mazarin in Government and the Conduct of War

1. For an analysis of the French negotiating position and its evolution between 1645 and 1648, see A. Osiander, The States System of Europe, 1640–1990: Peacemaking and the Conditions of International Stability (Oxford, 1994), pp. 26–7, 66–72. 2. See above pp. 27–32. 3. The Dutch position can be traced in J. I. Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford, 1997), pp. 524–5, 596–7. 4. R. Bonney, The King’s Debts: Finance and Politics in France, 1589–1661 (Oxford, 1981), pp. 197–8.

Chapter 10: The Frondes

1. A recent exposition of this subject is O. Ranum, : A (New York, 1993), especially chapters 4 and 5. 2. Analyses of the reasons for the Parisian uprising of 1648 are in Ranum, The Fronde, chapter 5, and R. and S. Pillorget, France Baroque, France Classique, 1589–1715 (2 vols, Paris, 1995), pp. 488–96. NOTES 177

3. On the Mazarinades, see C. Jouhaud, Les Mazarinades: la Fronde des Mots (Paris, 1985); H. Carrier, La Presse de la Fronde, 1648–1653. Les Mazarinades, vol. 1 (Paris, 1989); La Conquête de l’Opinion, vol. 2 (Paris, 1991); H. Carrier, Les Mures Guerrières: les Mazarinades et la Vie Littéraire au Milieu du XVIIe Siècle (Paris, 1996). 4. Lettres de cachet were orders carrying the royal signature and authoris- ing the arrest and imprisonment of a named person, without going through the normal judicial procedures. 5. The course of the Fronde in Bordeaux can be followed in Ranum, The Fronde, chaps 7 and 8, and in W. Beik, Urban Protest in Seventeenth- Century France: The Culture of Retribution (Cambridge, 1997), chapter 10, and S. Westrich, The Ormée of Bordeaux (Baltimore, 1972). 6. D. J. Sturdy, The d’Aligres de la Rivière: Servants of the Bourbon State in the Seventeenth Century (Woodbridge, 1986), pp. 124–9. 7. Ibid., p. 135. 8. Its full title was Jugement de tout ce qui a esté imprimé contre le , depuis le sixième janvier, jusques à la déclaration du premier avril mil six cens quarante-neuf. 9. This theme is developed in O. Ranum, Artisans of Glory: Writers and Historical Thought in Seventeenth-Century France (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980); see also P. Burke, The Fabrication of Louis XIV (London, 1992).

Chapter 11: Mazarin, Foreign Policy and Domestic Tensions

1. R. Jackson, Vive le Roi! A History of the French Coronation from Charles V to Charles X (Chapel Hill, NC, 1984), p. 169. 2. For a recent concise account of Jansenism, see W. Doyle, Jansenism: Catholic Resistance to Authority from the to the French Revolution (London, 1999). 3. An outline of policy is in R. Bonney, The King’s Debts: Finance and Politics in France, 1589–1661 (Oxford, 1981), Chapter 6. 4. On this subject, see especially R. Pillorget, Les Movements Insurrection- nels de Provence entre 1596 et 1715 (Paris, 1975), pp. 751–862, and S. Kettering, Judicial Politics and Urban Revolt in Seventeenth-Century France (Princeton, NJ, 1978), Chapter 9. 5. A detailed account of the marriage and its attendant celebrations is in C. Dulong, Le Mariage du Roi-Soleil (Paris, 1986). 178 NOTES

Chapter 12: Mazarin as Patron and Collector

1. On Sixtus V and the planning of Rome see S. Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition (Oxford, 1962), pp. 91–106, and A. G. Dickens, The Counter-Reformation (London, 1968), pp. 139–43. 2. Mazarin’s championing of the Baroque is discussed in M. Laurain- Portemer, ‘Mazarin, Militant de l’Art Baroque au Temps de Richelieu (1634–1642)’, in Société de l’Histoire de l’Art Français (Paris, 1976), pp. 65–100, and the same, ‘La Politique Artistique de Mazarin’, in Il Cardinale Mazzarino in Francia (Rome, 1977), pp. 41–76. 3. See above, p. 79. 4. Bernini visited France in 1665 and drew up plans for extensions to the , but the plans were rejected (see Blunt, Art and Architecture in France, pp. 194–6, 209–13). 5. The fours nations were , Pignerol, (with and Hainault) and (with Cerdagne). 6. The careers of the nieces can be followed in J. Hillairet, Les Maza- rinettes, ou les Sept Nièces de Mazarin (Paris, 1976) and Y. Singer-Lecocq, La Tribu Mazarin: Un Tourbillon dans le Grand Siècle (Paris, 1989). 7. They were: 1 (children of Margarita and Martinozzi) Anne-Marie, Princesse de Conti (1637–72) and Laura, Duchess of Modena (1640–87); 2 (children of Girolama and Mancini) Laura, Duchesse de Mercoeur (1636–57); Paolo (1636–52); Olympe, Comtesse de Soissons (1638–1708); Marie, Duchesse de Colonna (1639–1715); Philippe, Duc de Nevers (1641–1707); Hortense, Duchesse de la Meilleraye-Mazarin (1646–99); Marianne, Duchesse de Bouillon (1650–1714). 8. On Mazarin’s fortune see D. Dessert, ‘La Fortune de Mazarin’, in J. Cornette (ed.), La France de la Monarchie Absolue, 1610–1715 (Paris, 1997), 203–14. 9. On Fouquet see D. Dessert, Fouquet (Paris, 1997).

Chapter 13: Conclusion

1. On Sully and his services to Henri IV, see D. Buisseret, Sully and the Growth of Centralised Government in France, 1598–1610 (London, 1968); B. Barbiche, Sully (Paris, 1978); also M. Greengrass, France in the Age of Henri IV: The Struggle for Stability (London, 1995). NOTES 179

2. On this subject, see R. Bonney, ‘Was there a Bourbon of Government?’, in K. Cameron (ed.), From Valois to Bourbon: Dynasty, State and Society in Early Modern France (Exeter, 1989), pp. 161–77. 3. D. J. Sturdy, The d’Aligres de la Rivière: Servants of the Bourbon State in the Seventeenth Century (Woodbridge, 1986), pp. 112–17. 4. A summary of the role of the intendants under Louis XIV is in D. J. Sturdy, Louis XIV (London, 1998), pp. 46–9, 54–5. 5. The following remarks are based on the works of A. N. Hamscher, The Parlement of Paris after the Fronde, 1653–1673 (Pittsburgh, 1976), and The Conseil Privé and the Parlements in the Age of Louis XIV: A Study in French Absolutism (Philadelphia, 1987). 6. The literature on absolutism is considerable, but a good, recent sum- mary of the debates surrounding absolutism is F. Cosandey and R. Descimon, L’Absolutisme en France: Histoire et Historiographie (Paris, 2002). 7. J. Black, From Louis XIV to Napoleon: The Fate of a Great Power (London, 1999). 8. See above, pp. 128–30. Select Bibliography

The following bibliography does not claim to be comprehensive. It limits itself to essential works, many of which (especially those published within the last few years) contain up-to-date bibliographical guides. Most of the entries listed below are in English, but some texts in French are included as a basic guide to readers who wish to consult publications by French scholars.

General

Bercé, Y.-M., La Naissance Dramatique de l’Absolutisme (Paris, 1992). Black, J., From Louis XIV to Napoleon: The Fate of a Great Power (London, 1999). Blunt, A., Art and Architecture in France, 1500–1700 (London, 1953). Bonney, R., Political Change in France under Richelieu and Mazarin, 1624–1661 (Oxford 1978). Bonney, R., Society and Government in France under Richelieu and Mazarin, 1624–61 (London, 1988). Briggs, R., Early Modern France (Oxford, 1977). Briggs, R., Communities of Belief: Cultural and Social Tensions in Early Modern France (Oxford, 1989). Cameron, C. and Woodrough, E. (eds), Ethics and Politics in Seventeenth- Century France (Exeter, 1996). Cornette, J. (ed.), La France de la Monarchie Absolue, 1610–1715 (Paris, 1997). Cosandey, F. and Descimon, R., L’Absolutisme en France: Histoire et Histori- ographie (Paris, 2002).

180 BIBLIOGRAPHY 181

Dickens, A. G., The Counter-Reformation (London, 1968). Giedion, S., Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition (Oxford, 1962). Hanley, S., The ‘Lit de Justice’ of the Kings of France: Constitutional Ideology in Legend, Ritual and Discourse (Princeton, NJ, 1983). Holt, M. (ed.), Society and Institutions in Early Modern France (Athens, Ga, 1991). Jackson, R., Vive le Roi! A History of the French Coronation from Charles V to Charles X (Chapel Hill, NC, 1984). Mousnier, R., The Institutions of France under the Absolute Monarchy, 1598–1789 (Chicago, 1979). Parker, D., The Making of French Absolutism (London, 1983). Parker, D., Class and State in Ancien Régime France: The Road to Modernity? (London, 1996). Parker, G., The Thirty Years War (London, 1984). Parker, G., European Crisis, 1598–1648 (2nd edn, Oxford, 2001). Pillorget, R. and S., France Baroque, France Classique, 1589–1715, 2 vols (Paris, 1995). Russell Major, J., Representative Government in Early Modern France (New Haven, CT, 1980). Russell Major, J., From Renaissance Monarchy to Absolute Monarchy: French Kings, Nobles and Estates (Baltimore, MD, 1994). Shennan, J. H., Government and Society in France, 1461–1661 (London, 1969). Sturdy, D. J., Fractured Europe, 1600–1721 (Oxford, 2002). Tapié, V.-L., France in the Age of Louis XIII and Richelieu (Cambridge, 1984). Wilkinson, R., France and the Cardinals (London, 1995).

Financial Affairs

Bonney, R., The King’s Debts: Finance and Politics in France, 1589–1661 (Oxford, 1981). Collins, J. B., Direct Taxation in Seventeenth-Century France (Berkeley, CA, 1988). Dent, J., Crisis in Finance: Crown, Financiers and Society in Seventeenth- Century France (Newton , 1973). Dessert, D., Argent, Pouvoir et Société au Grand Siècle (Paris, 1984). Guéry, A., ‘Les Finances de la Monarchie Française sous l’Ancien Régime’, in Annales ESC, no. 2 (1978), pp. 216–39. 182 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Louis XIII and the Royal Family

Bouyer, C., Gaston d’Orléans, 1608–1660: Séducteur, Frondeur et Mécène (Paris, 1999). Chevallier, P., Louis XIII (Paris, 1979). Dethan, G., Gaston d’Orléans, Conspirateur et Prince Charmant (Paris, 1959). Marvick, E., Louis XIII: The Making of a King (New Haven, CT, 1986). Moote, A. L., Louis XIII, the Just (Berkeley, CA, 1989).

Richelieu

Asch, R. G., The Thirty Years War: The Holy Roman Empire and Europe, 1618–48 (London, 1997). Bergin, J., Cardinal Richelieu: Power and the Pursuit of Wealth (London, 1985). Bergin, J., The Making of the French Episcopate, 1589–1661 (London, 1996). Billacois, F., The Duel: Its Rise and Fall in Early Modern France (London, 1990). Carmona, M., Richelieu: l’Ambition et le Pouvoir (Paris, 1983). Carmona, M., La France de Richelieu (Paris, 1984). Castagnos, P., Richelieu Face à la Mer (Rennes, 1989). Church, W. F., Richelieu and Reason of State (Princeton, NJ, 1972). Duccini, H., Concini (Paris, 1991). Elliott, J. H., Richelieu and Olivares (Cambridge, 1984). Grillon, P. (ed.), Les Papiers de Richelieu (Paris, 1975– ), vols 1–6. Harding, R., Anatomy of a Power Elite: The Provincial Governors of Reformation France, 1542–1635 (New Haven, CT, 1978). Hayden, J. M., France and the Estates General of 1614 (Cambridge, 1974). Hildesheimer, F., Richelieu: Une Certaine Idée de l’état (Paris, 1985). Israel, J. I., The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford, 1995). Klaits, J., Printed Propaganda under Louis XIV: Absolute Monarchy and Public Opinion (Princeton, NJ, 1976). Knecht, R. J., Richelieu (London, 1991). Levi, A., Cardinal Richelieu and the Making of France (London, 2001). Lublinskaya, A. D., French Absolutism: The Crucial Phase, 1620–29 (Cambridge, 1968). Lynn, J. A., Giant of the Grand Siècle: The French Army, 1610–1715 (Cambridge, 1997). Marvick, E., The Young Richelieu (Chicago, 1983). Mousnier, R. (ed.), Richelieu et la Culture (Paris, 1987). BIBLIOGRAPHY 183

Parrott, D., Richelieu’s Army: War, Government and Society in France, 1624–1642 (Cambridge, 2001). Ranum, O., Richelieu and the Councillors of Louis XIII: A Study of the Secre- taries of State and Superintendents of Finance in the Ministry of Richelieu, 1635–1642 (Oxford, 1963). Ranum, O., Artisans of Glory: Writers and Historical Thought in Seventeenth- Century France (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980). Solomon, H. M., Public Welfare, Science and Propaganda in Seventeenth- Century France (Princeton, NJ, 1972). Sturdy, D.-J., ‘Tax Evasion, the Faux Nobles, and State Fiscalism: The Example of the Généralité of Caen, 1634–35’, in French Historical Studies, IX, no. 4 (1976), pp. 549–72. Sturdy, D. J., The d’Aligres de la Rivière: Servants of the Bourbon State in the Seventeenth Century (Woodbridge, 1986). Tapié, V.-L., France in the Age of Louis XIII and Richelieu (London, 1974). Thuau, E., Raison d’état et Pensée Politique à l’Époque de Richelieu (Paris, 1966). Treasure, G. R. R., Cardinal Richelieu and the Development of Absolutism (London, 1972). Woodrough, E., ‘The Political Testaments of Richelieu and La Roche- foucauld’, in C. Cameron and E. Woodrough (eds), Ethics and Politics in Seventeenth-Century France (Exeter, 1996), pp. 65–81.

Society and Social Protest

Beik, W. H., Absolutism and Society in Seventeenth-Century France: State Power and Provincial Aristocracy in Languedoc (Cambridge, 1985). Beik, W., Urban Protest in Seventeenth-Century France: The Culture of Retribution (Cambridge, 1997). Bercé, Y.-M., Croquants et Nu-pieds: Les Soulèvements Paysans en France au XVIIe Siècle (Paris, 1974). Bercé, Y.-M., Histoire des Croquants: Étude des Soulèvements Populaires au XVIIe Siècle dans le Sud-Ouest de la France, 2 vols (Geneva, 1974). Coveney, P. J. (ed.), France in Crisis, 1620–1675 (London, 1977). Foisil, M., La Révolte des Nu-Pieds et les Révoltes Normandes de 1639 (Paris, 1970). Jouanna, A., Le Devoir de Révolte. La Noblesse Française et la Gestation de l’état Moderne (Paris, 1989). Kettering, S., Judicial Politics and Urban Revolt in Seventeenth-Century France: The Parlement of Aix, 1629–1659 (Princeton, NJ, 1978). 184 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kettering, S., Patrons, Brokers and Clients in Seventeenth-Century France (Oxford, 1986). Kettering, S., French Society, 1589–1715 (Harlow, 2001). Ligou, D., Le Protestantisme en France de 1598 à 1715 (Paris, 1968). Mousnier, R., Peasant Uprisings in Seventeenth-Century France, Russia and China (London, 1960). Parker, D., La Rochelle and the French Monarchy: Conflict and Order in Seventeenth-Century France (London, 1980). Pillorget, R., Les Mouvements Insurrectionnels de Provence entre 1596 et 1715 (Paris, 1975). Porchnev, B., Les Soulèvements Populaires en France de 1623 à 1648 (Paris, 1963). Taveneaux, R., Le Catholicisme dans la France Classique (1610–1715), 2 vols (Paris, 1980).

The Young Louis XIV and the Royal Family

Bluche, F., Louis XIV (Oxford, 1990). Burke, P., The Fabrication of Louis XIV (London, 1992). Dulong, C., Anne d’Autriche, Mère de Louis XIV (Paris, 1984). Dulong, C., Le Mariage du Roi-Soleil (Paris, 1986). Dunlop, I., Louis XIV (London, 1999). Kleinman, R., Anne of Austria (Columbus, OH, 1985). Meyer, J., La Naissance de Louis XIV (Brussels, 1989). Petitfils, J.-C., Louis XIV (Paris, 1995). Sturdy, D. J., Louis XIV (London, 1998).

Mazarin

Bertière, A., Le Cardinal de Retz (Paris, 1977). Bordonove, G., Mazarin: le Pouvoir et l’Argent (Paris, 1996). Burke, P., The Fabrication of Louis XIV (London, 1992). Carrier, H., La Presse de la Fronde, 1648–1653, vol. 1: Les Mazarinades (Paris, 1989); vol. 2: La Conquête de l’Opinion (Paris, 1991). Carrier, H., Les Mures Guerrières: Les Mazarinades et la Vie Littéraire au Milieu du XVIIe Siècle (Paris, 1996). Dessert, D., Fouquet (Paris, 1997). Dethan, G., Gaston d’Orléans, Conspirateur et Prince Charmant (Paris, 1959). BIBLIOGRAPHY 185

Dethan, G., Mazarin et ses Amis (Paris, 1968). Dethan, G., Mazarin, un Homme de Paix à l’Age Baroque (Paris, 1981). Dethan, G., La Vie de Gaston d’Orléans (Paris, 1992). Doyle, W., Jansenism: Catholic Resistance to Authority from the Reformation to the French Revolution (London, 1992). Dulong, C., La Fortune de Mazarin (Paris, 1990). Dulong, C., Mazarin (Paris, 1999). Golden, R., The Godly Rebellion: Parisian Curés and the Religious Fronde, 1652–1662 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1981). Hamscher, A. N., The Parlement of Paris after the Fronde, 1653–1673 (Pittsburgh, PA, 1976). Hamscher, A. N., The Conseil Privé and the Parlements in the Age of Louis XIV: A Study in French Absolutism (Philadelphia, 1987). Hillairet, J., Les Mazarinettes, ou les Sept Nièces de Mazarin (Paris, 1976). Jansen, P., Le Cardinal Mazarin et le Mouvement Janséniste Français (Paris, 1967). Jouhaud, C., Les Mazarinades: la Fronde des Mots (Paris, 1985). Laurain-Portemer, M., ‘Mazarin, Militant de l’Art Baroque au Temps de Richelieu (1634–1642)’, in Société de l’Histoire de l’Art Français (Paris, 1976), pp. 65–100. Laurain-Portemer, M., ‘La Politique Artistique de Mazarin’, in Il Cardin- ale Mazzarino in Francia (Rome, 1977), pp. 41–76. Michel, P., Mazarin, Prince des Collectionneurs (Paris, 1999). Moote, A. L., The Revolt of the Judges: The Parlement of Paris and the Fronde, 1643–52 (Princeton, NJ, 1971). Osiander, A., The States System of Europe, 1640–1990: Peacemaking and the Conditions of International Stability (Oxford, 1994). Pernot, M., La Fronde (Paris, 1994). Pernot, M., ‘Le Rôle Politique du cardinal de Retz’, in XVIIe Siècle, no. 3 (1996), pp. 623–32. Ranum, O., The Fronde: A French Revolution (New York, 1993). Singer-Lecocq, Y., La Tribu Mazarin: un Tourbillon dans le Grand Siècle (Paris, 1989). Treasure, G. R. R., Mazarin: The Crisis of Absolutism in France (London, 1995). Watts, D. A., Cardinal de Retz: The Ambiguities of a Seventeenth-Century Mind (Oxford, 1980). Westrich, S. A., The Ormée of Bordeaux: A Revolution during the Fronde (Baltimore, MD, 1972). Index

Abbeville, 60 Anne of Austria (1601–66), Queen absolute monarchy, 29–30, 82–4, of France, 44, 49, 52, 61, 90, 105, 107, 151, 152, 155–6 93, 94–6, 134, 151 absolutism see absolute monarchy and Frondes, 107–20 Académie Française, 78–9, 83, 145 and Mazarin, 87, 95–7, 107–20 Académie Royale de Peinture, 143–4 and Louis XIV, 96 Aglié, Philippe d’ (1604–67), 91 marriage, 17 aides, 7–8, 104 Arles, 104, 137 Aiguillon, Duchesse d’ see Vignerot, Arnauld, Antoine (1612–94), 129 Marie de Arras, 61, 131 Aix, 13, 47, 73, 137 Arrêt d’Union, 107 Albret family, 4 Artois, 61, 135 Alcalá, University of, 88 Atlantic Ocean, 42, 43, 53, 59 Alençon, 74 Augustine, Saint (354–430AD), 129 Alès, Grace of (1629), 45–6 Augustinus, 129 Alessándria, 88 Austria, 21, 89 Alfonso IV (d.1662), Duke of Austrian Habsburgs see Habsburgs Modena, 146 Auxerre, 47 Aligre, Etienne d’ (1560–1635), Avaux, Claude de Mesmes 23, 35 (1595–1650), Comte d’, 99–100 Aligre, Etienne d’ (1592–1677), Avignon, 19, 90 Sieur de la Rivière, 39–40, Avranches, 75 108, 116, 121, 127 Alsace, 56, 57, 58, 64, 102 Bailleul, Nicolas (d.1652), 103 Altmark, Truce of (1629), 54 Baltic Sea, 53, 91, 135 , 47, 60 Balzac, Jean Louis Guez de Angers, 19, 20, 99 (c.1594–1654), 77 Angoulême, 19, 60, 73 Barberini, Antonio (d.1671), 88, 89, Angoulême, Treaty of (1619), 19 90, 142 , 12, 116, 120, 136 , 88, 140, 141, Anjou, Governorship of, 12, 19, 49 142, 143, 146, 147

186 INDEX 187

Barberini, Francesco (1597–1679), Bouillon, 121 88, 142 Bouillon, François-Maurice de la Barberini, Maffeo (1568–1644), Tour d’Auvergne (1605–52), Pope Urban VIII, 88–9, 90, 91, Duc de, 92, 112 92, 129, 140, 141, 146, 147 Bouillon, Henri de la Tour Barbin, Claude (d.1624), 18 d’Auvergne (1555–1623), Barillon, Antoine (1591–1672), Duc de, 17 Sieur de Morangis, 108, 127 Bouillon, Maurice-Godefroy de la Baroque, 141–2, 144, 145 Tour d’Auvergne (1642–1721), Barradat, François de, 34 Duc de, 146 Barwälde, Treaty of (1631), 54 Boulogne, 138 Bassompierre, François Bourbon dynasty, 1, 4, 150 (1579–1646), Marquis de, 49, 94 Bourbon, François de (1539–92), 12 , 49, 94 Bourges, 119 Baudoin, Jean (1564–1650), 77 Bouteville see Bavaria, 53, 54, 55, 57, 98, 101 Montmorency-Bouteville Bavaria, Elector of see Maximilian I Bouthillier, Claude le (1584–1642), , 138 75 Béarn, 20–1 Bouthillier, Léon see Chavigny Béarn, Parlement of, 21 Brandenburg, 135 Beaucaire, 137 Brandenburg, Elector of see George Beauce, 136 William Beaufort, François de Vendôme Breda, 39, 61 (1616–69), Duc de, 96, 112 Breisach, 61, 102 Bercé, Yves-Marie (historian), 155 Breitenfeld, Battle of (1631), 55 Bergerac, 73 Breton language, 9 Bergues, 134 Brézé, Marquis de see Maillé, Bernard (1604–39), Duke of Urbain de Saxe-Weimar, 56–7, 58, 61 Brienne see Loménie de Brienne Bernini, Giovanni (1598–1680), Brittany, 7, 9, 59, 66 141, 142 Brittany, Estates of, 5, 66–7 Berry, 115 Brittany, governorship of, 50, 59, 96 Berry, governorship of, 118 Brömsebro, Peace of (1645), 98 Bérulle, Pierre de (1575–1629), Brouage, 59 15, 17, 27, 44 Broussel, Pierre (c.1576–1654), Beuvron, François d’Harcourt, 109–10, 111, 114, 115, 117 Marquis de, 37 Brühl, 117 Bidassoa, River, 135 Brûlart, Nicolas (1544–1624), Blois, 19, 128 Marquis de Sillery, 22, 23 Bohemia, 22, 23 Brûlart, Nicolas (c.1583–1640), Boisrobert, François le Métel Marquis de Puisieux, 22, 23 (1592–1662), Abbé de, 78 Brûlart de Léon, Charles Bologna, 88 (1571–1649), 41 Bordeaux, 17, 47, 73, 113, 115, Brussels, 37, 49, 131 116, 120, 122 Buckingham, Charles de Villiers Bordeaux, Parlement of, 120 (1592–1628), Duke of, 3, 43 Borromini, Francesco (1599–1667), Buffalini, Ortensia (d.1644), 87 141 Bureau d’Adresse, 77 188 INDEX

Burgundy, 5, 6, 60, 66, 115, 116 Christian IV (1577–1648), King of Burgundy, Estates of, 5 Denmark, 38, 99 Christina (1626–89), Queen of Caen, 74–5 Sweden, 98 Calvin, John (1509–64), 129 Christine de Bourbon (1606–63), , 42 Duchess of Savoy, 91 Carthusian Order, 12 Cinq-Mars, Henri d’Effiat Casale, 40, 41, 48, 89, 130 (1620–42), Marquis de, , 45 34, 92 Catalonia, 62, 98, 100, 103, 130, 146 Cluny, Abbey of, 139 , 20, 30, 31, 36, Code Michau, 70 63, 82, 129 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste (1619–83), 9, Cerdagne, 135 118, 139, 144, 147, 148, 154 Chalais, Henri de Talleyrand Collège de Navarre, 14, 27 (1599–1626), Comte de, 36 Collège des Quatre Nations, Chambre Saint Louis, 107–8, 110, 139, 144–5 111, 153 Collegio Romano, 88 chambre de justice, 47 Cologne, 49, 101, 117, 118, 132 chambres des comptes, 105, 107 , 87 Champagne, 5, 58, 115, 119 Colonna, Filippo, 88 Champaigne, Philippe de Colonna, Giralmo, 88 (1602–74), 79 Compagnie de Saint-Pierre, 42 Chapelain, Jean (1595–1674), 78 Compagnie de la Nouvelle Charles I (1600–49), King of France, 42 England, 3, 24, 38, 43, 107, Compagnie des Cent 112, 113, 131 Associés, 42 Charles II (1630–85), King of Compagnie du Morbihan, 42 England, 131, 132 Concini, Concino (1575–1617), Charles IV (1604–75), Duke of 16–19, 23, 25, 32, 48, 123, 141 Lorraine, 52–3, 90, 102 Condé, Charlotte-Marguerite de Charles IX (1550–74), King of Montmorency (1594–1650), France, 3 Princesse de, 93 Charles-Emmanuel I (1562–1630), Condé family, 4, 35, 97 Duke of Savoy, 40, 41 Condé, Henri II de Bourbon Chátillon, Elisabeth Angélique de (1588–1646), Prince de, 16, Montmorency-Bouteville 17, 19, 45, 48, 94, 95, 96, 101 (1627–95), Duchesse de, 131 Condé, Louis II de Bourbon Chavigny, Léon Bouthillier (1621–86), Duc d’Enghien (1608–52), Comte de, et Prince de Condé [‘le Grand 49, 92, 95, 103 Condé’], 50, 95, 101, 109, 111, Cherasco, Treaty of (1631), 41, 89 128, 131, 132, 134, 135 Chevreuse, Claude de Lorraine and Frondes, 111–12, 113–16, (1578–1657), Duc de, 49 117, 118–21 Chevreuse family, 118 Conrart, Valentin (1603–75), 78, 79 Chevreuse, - conseil d’en haut see conseil d’état Montbazon (1600–79), conseil d’état, 2, 4, 22, 24, 87, 92, Duchesse de, 35, 94, 96, 94–5, 103, 109, 117, 118, 117, 129 119, 151 INDEX 189 conseil des dépêches, 4, 151 don gratuit, 6, 66–7 conseil des finances, 4 Downs, Battle of the (1639), 61 conseil des parties, 4 Draguignan, 104, 137 conseil privé, 4 duels, 36–7 Conti, Armand de Bourbon Dunes, Battle of the (1658), 134 (1629–66), Prince de, 112, Dunkirk, 97, 98, 130, 133, 134 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, Dupleix, Scipion (1569–1661), 77 128, 130, 146 du Plessis, Alphonse-Louis Conti, Torquato, 88 (1582–1653), 12–13, 14 Copenhagen, 135 du Plessis, François (1548–90), Copenhagen, Peace of (1660), 135 11–13 Corbie, 60 du Plessis, Françoise (d.1616), 13 Corbie, Abbey of, 92 du Plessis, Henri (d.1619), 12, 13 Corregio, Antonio da du Plessis, Isabelle, 13 (c.1494–1534), 143 du Plessis, Louis (d.1565), 11 Cortona, Petro da (1596–1669), 142 du Plessis, Nicole (1587–1635), Cotentin peninsula, 74 13, 50 , 27 Dupuy, Jacques (1591–1656), 28 Counter-Reformation, 15, 52 Dupuy, Pierre (1582–1651), 28 cours des aides, 104, 105, 107 Dutch Republic, 135 Courtrai, 97 and France, 38, 53, 54, 56, Coutances, 75 59, 154, 156 créatures, 4, 49–50, 83, 85, 87, 91, and Spain, 22, 30, 39, 51, 95, 126, 151, 154 61, 62 Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658), and , 131, 132 98–100, 102 Croquants, 60–1, 73–4 (1598), 3, 21, 45, Danzig, 135 122, 158 Dauphiné, 6 (1629), 38–9, Dauphiné, Estates of, 5 46, 54 Day of Dupes, 33, 48–9, 51, 57, Effiat, Antoine Coiffier de Ruzé 64, 127 (1581–1632), Marquis d’, 35 Déageant, Guichard (1574–1639), Elba, 101 18 Elbeuf, Charles II de Lorraine De la Porte, Suzanne (1551–1616), (1596–1657), Duc d’, 49, 112 11–13 Eleanor Gonzaga (1598–1655), Denmark, 38, 53, 54, 98, 99, 135 Empress, 40 De Retz, Jean-François-Paul de élections see pays d’élections Gondi (1613–79), Cardinal, Elisabeth of France (1602–1644), 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 17, 134 117, 118 Enghien see Condé, Louis II de Descartes, René (1596–1650), 28, 63 Bourbon De Thou, François (d.1642), 92 Enghien, Henri-Jules (1643–1709), dévots, 15, 17, 23, 24, 38, 45, 46, Duc d’, 117 48, 49, 150 England, 3, 42, 43, 54, 107, 108, Dijon, 47, 60 112, 113, 122, 131–4, 156 Domfront, 75 , 61, 98, 134 190 INDEX

Epernon, Jean-Louis de Nogaret de Fribourg, Battle of (1633), 97 la Valette (1554–1642), Duc d’, 19 Frondes, 71, 92, 107–26, 127, 128, Epernon, Bernard de Nogaret, Duc 130, 143, 144, 153, 158 de la Valette et d’ see La Valette, and Jansenism, 128, 129–30 Bernard de Nogaret prelude to, 103–6, 154 Estates General, 15–16, 118, 136 Fuentarrabía, Battle of (1638), 61 extraordinaires, 8 Furnes, 98, 134

Ferdinand II (1578–1637), Holy gabelle, 7, 75, 104, 109 Roman Emperor, 38, 40, 41, 46, Galigaï, Leonora (d.1617), 16, 19 48, 53, 54, 55, 58, 60, 61 Gascony, 104 Ferdinand III (1608–57), Holy Gassendi, Pierre (1592–1650), 28 Roman Emperor, 53, 61, 98, Gaston d’Orléans see Orléans, 101, 102, 132, 133 Gaston fermiers, 8 Gazette, 77 Ferrand, 109 General Assembly of the Clergy, 6 Ferrante II Gonzaga (d.1630), généralités, 6, 7, 68 Duke of Guastalla, 40 Genoa, 59, 101 Flanders, 51, 97, 100, 130, 131, George William (1595–1640), 132, 133, 134, 135 Elector of Brandenburg, 55 Fouquet, Abbé Basile (1622–80), Germany, 38–9, 41, 46, 51, 53, 54, 128 55, 56, 77, 98, 101, 115, 135 Fouquet, François (1611–73), Gismondi, Paolo, 143 Archbishop of , Gondi see De Retz 127–8 gouvernements, 4–5 Fouquet, Gilles (1637–94), 128 Gramont, Antoine, Duc de Fouquet, Louis (1633–1702), (1604–1678), 133 Bishop of Agde, 128 grand conseil, 105, 107 Fouquet, Nicolas (1615–80), 127, Grasse, 104 136, 150, 154 Gravelines, 97, 130, 133, 134 Fouquet, Yves, 128 Grenoble, 89 France, 27, 37, 38, 87, 90, 94, 95, Grey League see Grisons 120, 122, 128, 129, 136 Grimaldi, Giovanni (1606–80), government and administration, 142, 143 1–10, 29–30, 35, 65–81, 138 ‘Grisons’, 21–2, 39 international position, 38–42, Guastalla, Duke of see Ferrante II 51–64, 88, 89, 91, 92 Guise family, 4–5, 35 languages in, 9 Gustavus II Adolphus (1594–1632), war, 10, 20, 90, 95, 97–103, 130–5 King of Sweden, 41, 54–7 Franche Comté, 60, 64 Guyenne, 4, 6, 59, 113, 115, Francis II (1544–60), King of 118, 119 France, 3 Guyenne, governorship of, 146 Franconia, 56 Frankfurt, 55, 133 Habsburgs, 24, 42, 51, 60, 63, 64, French Revolution (1789), 1, 155 82, 150, 157 , 3, 10, Austrian, 22–3, 46, 51, 52–8, 101 11–12, 36, 67, 69, 70, 73, 80, Spanish, 21–3, 40, 41, 52–8 83, 122, 149 Haguenau, 102 INDEX 191

Hainault, 135 John IV (1604–56), King of Harcourt, Henri de Lorraine Portugal, 62 (1601–66), Comte d’, 120 John George (1585–1656), Elector Haro, Luid de (1598–1661), 135 of Saxony, 55, 56 , 55 Heilbronn, League of (1633), 56 Knights of Malta, 59 Henri III (1551–89), King of Köprölu family, 2 France, 3, 12, 149, 151 Henri IV (1553–1610), King of La Meilleraye, Armand Charles France, 20, 27, 35, 36, 67, de la Porte de (d.1713), 69, 73, 83, 96 Duc de Mazarin, 146, 147 assassination of, 1, 69, 149 La Meilleraye, Charles de la Porte and du Plessis family, 12, 14 (1602–64), Duc de, 50, 108 and French Wars of Religion, La Mothe le Forest, 73 3, 73, 83 Landau, 56 and Marie de’ Medici, 16 Landrecies, 131 Henriette de France (1609–69), Languedoc, 4, 9, 21, 45, 48, 66 Queen of England, 24, 131, 132 Languedoc, Estates of, 5, 146, 152 s’Hertogenbosch, 51 La Porte, Amador de (1567–1644), Hesse, 101 50 Hocquincourt, Charles de Monchy La Porte, Charles see La Meilleraye (1599–1658), Marquis d’, 131 La Rochefoucauld, François Holy Roman Empire, 91, 98, (1613–80), Duc de, 129 102, 156 La Rochelle, 21, 34, 42–4, 45, Hôtel d’Argennes, 79 48, 49, 120 Huguenots, 14, 15, 17, 46, 122, 129 La Sauvetat du Dropt, 74 and Rebellions, 20–1, 31, 39, La Valette et d’Epernon, Bernard 42–6, 47, 48, 73, 158 de Nogaret (1592–1661), Hungary, 98 Duc de, 50, 74, 116 La Valette, Louis de Nogaret Île de Ré, 43 d’Epernon (c.1592–1639), Imperial Diet, 98–99 Cardinal de, 48, 49 Innocent X (Giambattista Pamfili, La Vieuville, Charles (1582–1653), 1574–1655), Pope, 142, 146 Marquis de, 23–4, 25, 32, 38, 47 intendants, 9–10, 67–9, 71, 105, League of the Rhine (1658), 107, 108, 152–3, 155 133, 135 Ireland, 2, 131 Le Brun, Charles (1619–90), 144 Italy, 45, 46, 53, 77, 99, 141 Le Gras, Simon (1589–1656), and international relations, Bishop of Soissons, 128 21–2, 39–42, 51, 64, Le Havre, 59, 117 66, 103 Leipzig, 55 conflict in, 48, 49, 61, 92, 130 Lemercier, Jacques (c.1585–1654), 79–80, 141 Jamaica, 133 Le Muet, Pierre (1591–1669), 142 Jansen, Cornelius (1585–1638), Lens, 102 128–9 Lens, Battle of (1648), 109 Jansenism, 128–30, 158–9 Leopold I (1640–1705), Holy Jean-Va-Nu-Pied, 75 Roman Emperor, 133 192 INDEX lettres de cachet, 111 and Maria Teresa, 132, 134, 135, Le Vau, Louis (1612–70), 145 138, 158 Liège, 117 and Marseille, 137, 138 Ligurian Sea, 101 and Mazarin, 116, 130, 137, 139, Lionne, Hugues de, 133 145, 150 lit de justice, 70–1, 95, 104 and Parlement of Paris, 127, 154 Liverdun, Treaty of (1632), 52 and Paris, 128, 138 , river, 60, 69 and war, 130, 133, 154 Loménie de Brienne, Henri-Auguste birth, 61, 93 (1594–1666), Comte de, 95 coronation, 128 Longueville, Anne-Geneviève de Louis XV (1710–74), King of Bourbon-Condé (1619–79), France, 157 Duchesse de, 96, 114, 115, 119 Louis XVI (1754–93), King of Longueville, Henri II (1595–1663), France, 155, 157 Duc de, 17, 99, 114, 117, 118 Louvain, University of, 129 Lorraine, 49, 51–3, 57, 64, 90, 102, Louvre, 18, 78, 79, 96, 97, 142, 145 131, 135 Lübeck, Treaty of (1629), 38 Lorraine, Duke of see Charles IV Luçon, bishopric of, 12, 14–15, , 11 17, 20 Loudun, Peace of (1616), 17, 18 Lützen, Battle of (1632), 55 Louis XIII (1601–43), King of Luxembourg, 135 France, 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 16, 41, , Paris, 48 45, 46, 48, 60, 62, 78, 79, 155 Luynes, Charles d’Albert (1578–1621), and Béarn, 21–1 Duc de, 18–19, 22 and Concini, 16, 18 Luynes, Louis-Charles d’Albert and government, 23, 65, 66, 70 (1620–90), Duc de, 129 and intendants, 9–10 Lyon, 13, 47, 48, 73, 89, 137 and Lorraine, 51–3 and Marie de’ Medici, 16, 19 Machiavelli, Niccolo dei (1469–1527), and Mazarin, 87, 92 31–32 and Richelieu, 4, 6, 24–6, 30, Machiavellianism, 82, 156 32–7, 43–5, 46, 48–9, 60, Madrid, 46, 88, 132 63, 64, 70, 80, 85, 92, 150 Madrid, Treaty of (1621), 22, 39 marriage, 17, 134 Magdeburg, 55 vow, 61 Maillé-Brézé, Claire-Clémence, death, 93, 94, 95 Princesse d’Enghien (d.1695), Louis XIV (1638–1715), King of 50, 115, 116 France, 2, 9, 83, 96, 100, 102, Maillé de Brézé, Armand de 105, 131, 146, 147–8, 149, 152, (d.1645), 85 154, 156 Maillé, Urbain de (1597–1650), and Anne of Austria, 96, Marquis de Brézé, 13, 50 108–9, 119 Maine, 12, 116 and foreign policy, 156, 157 Mainz, 55, 97 and Frondes, 121, 125 Majorca, 137 and government, 127, 148, Mancini, Hortense (1646–99), 150, 153 146, 147 and intendants, 9–10 Mancini, Laure (1636–57), 114, 146 and Jansenism, 159 Mancini, Lorenzo, 146 INDEX 193

Mancini, Marianne (1649–1714), and foreign affairs, 91, 97–103, 146 127–39, 156–7 Mancini, Marie (1639–1709), 146 and Frondes, 107–26 Mancini, Olympe (1638–1708), 146 and government, 94–7 Mancini, Philippe (1641–1707), and ‘importants’, 96–7 Duc de Nevers, 146 and intendants, 10, 152–3 Mansart, François (1598–1666), 142 and Jansenism, 128–30, 158–9 Mansfeld, Count Ernest von and Louis XIII, 87, 92 (1580–1626), 39 and Louis XIV, 2, 116, 130, 137, Mantua, 21, 22, 39–42, 51 139, 145, 148, 150 Mantuan Succession Crisis, 39–42, and patronage, 140–8 48, 88–9 and revolts, 135–8 Mardyck, 98 and Richelieu, 86, 91–2, 157–8 Margaret of Savoy, Princess, 134 assessment, 149–60 (1613–72), fortune, 147 Princess, 52, 90 youth and early career, 87–93 Maria Teresa (1638–83), Queen of death, 139, 148 France, 132, 134, 135, 138, 158 Mazarin, Duc de see La Meilleraye, Marie de Gonzague Nevers, 98 Armand Charles de la Porte Marie de’ Medici (1573–1642), Mazarinades, 111, 124, 145 Queen Regent of France, 1, 2, Mazzarino, Girolama, 146 16–20, 37, 69, 123, 141 Mazzarino, Margarita, 146 and Richelieu, 22, 25, 30, 32, Mazzarino, Pietro (1576–1654), 46, 82, 85 87–8 Marie de Montpensier (1605–27), Mechanical Philosophy, 28–9, Duchesse d’Orléans, 35 63, 78–9 Marillac, Louis (1573–1632), Mediterranean Sea, 42, 59 Marquis de, 49 Menin, 134 Marillac, Michel de (1563–1632), 35, Mercoeur, Louis de Bourbon 46, 47, 48, 49, 66, 70 (1612–69), Duc de (later Duc Marseille, 47, 73, 104, 137–8, 152 de Vendôme), 114, 137, 146 Martinozzi, Anne-Marie Mercure François, 77 (1637–72), 146 , 102 Martinozzi, Laura, 146 Metz, Parlement of, 5 Martinozzi, Vincenzo, 146 Meuse, river, 52 Mascurat, 124 , 21, 40, 88, 89 Maurice of Savoy, 91 Modène, Esprit de Rémond, Maximilian I (1573–1651), Baron de, 18 Elector-Duke of Bavaria, Molé, Mathieu (1584–1656), 112 54, 55, 97, 101 Montauban, 45 Mayenne, 139 , 40 Mayenne, Henri de Lorraine Montlaur, Jean-Baptiste d’Ornano (1578–1621), Duc de, 17 (1581–1626), 35 Mazarin, Cardinal Jules (1602–61), Montmédy, 130–3 2, 67, 71, 72, 76 Montmorency, Henri II (1595–1632), and Anne of Austria, 95–6 Duc de, 45–9 and family, 87–8, 145–7 Montmorency-Bouteville, François and finance, 8, 103–5, 154 (1600–27), Comte de, 36–7 194 INDEX

Montpellier, 21, 138 Occitan language, 9 Montpellier, Treaty of (1622), 21, 42 officiers, 7, 8–9, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75, Montpensier family, 11 76, 105, 108, 109, 125, 152, 153 Montpensier, Louis de Bourbon Oliva, Peace of (1660), 135, 156 (1513–82), Duc de, 12 Olivares, Gaspar de Guzmán Monzón, Treaty of (1626), 39, (1587–1645), Count-Duke of, 40, 41, 88 2, 39, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64 Morangis see Barillon, Antoine Oratory, 15 Morgues, Matthieu (1582–1670), Orléans, Duchesse d’ see Marie de Abbé de Saint Germain, 77 Montpensier Mortain, 75 Orléans, Gaston (1608–60), Mouzon, 130, 131 Duc d’, 35, 49, 70, 94, 95, Mulhouse, 102 96, 97–8, 128, 151 Munich, 101 and Frondes, 109, 111, 112, 116, Münster, 98, 99, 102, 105, 108, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121 127, 135 and Marguerite of Lorraine, Münster (Alsace), 102 52–3, 90 and Richelieu, 34, 37, 48, 60, 92 Nancy, 52 Orléans, Philippe d’Orléans Nantes, Edict of see Edict of Nantes (1640–1701), Duc d’Anjou, Naples, 146 139 Napoleon I Bonaparte (1769–1821), Ornano see Montlaur Emperor of France, 157 Osnabrück, 98, 99 Narbonne, 128, 138 Oxenstierna, Axel (1583–1654), Naudé, Gabriel (1600–53), 124, 143 2, 56 Navarre, 20, 58 Nègrepelisse, 21 Palais Cardinal, 79, 91, 96–7, 117, Netherlands, 77, 98, 116 142, 159 Nevers, 139 Palais Mazarin, 142–3 Nevers, Charles de Gonzague Palais Royal see Palais Cardinal (1580–1637), Duc de and Palatinate, 22, 39, 97, 102 Duke of Mantua, 40–1, 89 Palermo, 87 , 122 pancarte, 104, 109 Nikon, Patriarch (1605–81), 2 Paris, 12, 15, 19, 37, 42, 44, 48, Nîmes, 45 68, 85, 90, 91, 127, 130, 131 Nördlingen, Battle of (1634), cultural life in, 28, 77, 78 55, 56 riots and Frondes, 47, 73, 103, Normandy, 58, 59, 71–2, 74–6, 104, 107–15, 120–2 115, 116, 136, 152 and Louis XIV, 128, 138–9 Normandy, Estates of, 5 and Mazarin, 134 Normandy, Governorship of, and Richelieu, 14, 16 17, 19 and taxation, 7, 68 North Sea, 42, 53, 59, 61, 98, buildings in, 79, 141, 142–5 132, 134 Paris, Parlement of, 19, 37, 69–71, Notre Dame, cathedral of, Paris, 93, 94, 104, 127, 131, 144, 154 60, 109–10, 131 and Frondes, 107–8, 110, 111–13, Nu-pieds, 73, 74–6, 152 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, Nüremberg, 55 123, 143 INDEX 195

Paris, University of, 139 Provence, 6, 9, 21, 66, 73, 104, 113, parlements, 5–6, 83, 104, 105, 120, 115, 116, 136, 137 154; see also Paris, Parlement of Provence, Estates of, 5 Parliament (England), 107, 113, 122 provincial estates, 5 Particelli, Michel (1596–1650), Puisieux see Brûlart, Pierre Sieur d’Hémery, 103–5, 108 Puylaurens, Antoine de Lage, Pascal, Blaise (1623–62), 129 Duc de (d.1635), 50 Pau, Parlement of, 5 Pyrenees, 5, 20 paulette, 9, 105, 108 Pyrenees, Peace of (1659), 100, pays d’élections, 6, 7, 66, 67, 68, 69, 74 137, 156 pays d’états, 5, 66, 67 Père Joseph see Tremblay, François Quercy, 74 le Clerc du Quesnoy, 131 Périgord, 60, 73, 74 Péronne, 131 Racine, Jean (1639–99), 129 Perpignan, 61, 138 raison d’état, 15, 31–2, 62–3, 77, Philip III (1578–1621), King of 82, 125, 150, 156–7 Spain, 17 Rákóczy, George (1593–1648), Philip IV (1605–65), King of Spain, Prince of Transylvania, 98 17, 40, 62, 98, 132, 134, 138 (Raffaelo Santi, Philippe d’Orléans see Orléans, 1483–1520), 143 Philippe d’ reason of state see raison d’état Philippsburg, 56, 97, 102 recette des parties casuelles, 8 Picardy, 4, 58, 60, 119 recherches de la noblesse, 71–2, 75 Picardy, governorship of, 49 Regency (Anne of Austria), 93, 95, Piedmont, 58 107–14, 115, 119, 151 Piombino, 101 , 41, 48, 53, 56, 98 Piscina, 87 Renaudot, Théophraste , Paris, 37 (c.1586–1653), 77 Place Royale, Paris, 37 Rennes, 73 Poitiers, 13, 17, 120 rentes, 8 , 11, 12, 14, 16, 21, 79, 136 Rethel, 116 Poland, 54, 135 Rheims, 116, 128 Pont-Courlay, Sieur de see Vignerot, Rheims, Archbishop of see René de Savoie-Nemours Pont-de-Courlay, Battle of Rhine, river, 61, 64, 97 (1638), 59 Rhineland, 23, 51, 55, 102 Ponts-de-Cé, Battle of (1620), 19 Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis popular revolts 7, 47–8, 60–1, (1585–1642), Cardinal-Duc de, 73–6, 104, 136–7; see also 2, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 107, 112, Frondes 122, 123 Porto Azurro, 101 and the army and , 58–9, 82–3 Portugal, 62, 66, 98 and Concini, 16–19, 25 Potier, Augustin (d.1650), Bishop of and conseil d’état, 22–4 Beauvais, 96 and Day of Dupes, 46–9, 127 Prague, Peace of (1635), 56, 57 and finance, 8, 65–7, 72, 104, 154 , 45 and foreign affairs, 38–42, 51–64, Provençal language, 9 98, 100, 102, 135, 156–7 196 INDEX

Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis Rueil, 79 (1585–1642), Cardinal-Duc de, Rueil, Peace of (1649), 112–13 (Continued) Russia, 2, 135 and government, 4, 6, 82–3, 105, 127 ‘Sabotiers’, 136 and Huguenots, 14–15, 42–6 Saint-Denis, Abbey of, 139 and intendants, 10, 67–9, 152–3 Saint Germain, 79, 93, 111, 121 and legal bodies, 5–6, 69–71, 83 Saint-Jean-de-Losne, 60 and Louis XIII, 4, 6, 18, 23–4, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, 138 25–6, 32–7, 43–6, 48–9, 150 Saint Malo, 42 and Marie de’ Medici, 16, 17, Saint Peter’s Basilica, Rome, 141 18, 19–20, 22, 23, 25, 26, Saint-Pierre de Corbie, 30, 32 Abbey of, 139 and Mazarin, 86, 89–92, 96, Saint Simon, Claude de Rouvroy 98, 129, 133, 140, 141, (1607–93), Duc de, 34 144, 157–8 Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 139 and patronage, 76–80, 87, 124, Sainte-Menehould, 130, 131 140, 141, 144, 145 Saintonge, 60 and popular revolts, 47–8, 73–6 Savoie-Nemours, Henri de, Duc assessment, 82–6 d’Aumale and Archbishop family background, 11–14, 84, of Rheims, 128 115, 146, 147 Savoy, 21, 39, 40, 41, 89, 91 fortune, 84–5, 147 Savoy, Duke of see religious faith, 14–15, 29–30, 62–3 Charles-Emmanuel I social and political thought, Saxony, 55 27–32, 62–4, 84, 125 Saxony, Elector of see John George youth, 14–15 Schelestadt, 102 death, 62, 87, 94, 126, 148 Schomberg, Henri (1575–1632), Richelieu, Duc de see Vignerot, Comte de, 23 Armand-Jean de scientific revolution, 28–9 Richelieu, estate and town of, 11, Scotland, 131 79, 80 Sedan, 92 Rocroi, 131 Seine, river, 139, 145 Rocroi, Battle of (1643), 95, 97 Séguier, Pierre (1588–1672), Rohan, Henri de (1579–1638), 49, 75, 112 Duc de, 21, 45, 46 Servien, Abel (1593–1659), 49, Rohan, Henri Chabot (1616–55), 92, 99–100, 101, 102, 127 Duc de, 120 Sicily, 66 Romanelli, Giovanni (1610–72), Sillery see Brûlart, Nicolas 143 Sirmond, Jean (c.1589–1649), 77 Rome, 14, 52, 53, 87, 88, 89, Sixtus V (Felice Peretti, 1520–90), 90, 91, 140–1, 143, 146, Pope, 140–1 147, 159 Soissons, Bishop of see Le Gras Rosmadec des Chapelles, Comte de Soissons, Louis de Bourbon (d.1627), 37 (1604–41), Comte de, Rouen, 74–5 36, 60 Rouen, Parlement of, 75 Sologne, 136 Roussillon, 61, 62, 64, 135 Sorbonne, 78, 79, 141, 144 INDEX 197

Soubise, Benjamin de (1583–1642), Tremblay, François le Clerc du Duc de, 21, 42, 45, 46 (Père Joseph) (1577–1638), Spain, 2, 17, 20, 46, 88, 157, 158 15, 27, 41, 77, 86, 91 and international affairs, 21–2, Trier, 57, 63 39–41, 51–2, 53, 56, 89, 98, Tronson, Louis, 18 100, 102–3 Troyes, 47 and Frondes, 115, 117 Tubeuf, Jacques, 142 and war against France, 56–8, Turenne, Henri de la Tour 59–62, 63, 65, 90, 95, 97, 100, d’Auvergne (1611–75), 102–3, 105, 113, 127, 130–5, Vicomte de, 98, 101, 115, 116, 137, 154 120, 121, 131, 132, 133, 134 Spanish America, 66 Turkey, 2 Spanish Habsburgs see Habsburgs , 101 Spanish Netherlands, 21, 53, 57, 60, 61, 66, 100, 116, 156 United Provinces see Dutch Republic , 21 Urban VIII, Pope see Barberini, Spire, 56, 97 Maffeo Stiffi, Alessandro, 40 , 102 Valenciennes, 132 Stuart dynasty, 131 Valois dynasty, 35 Sublet de Noyers, François Valtelline, 21–2, 39–40, 47, 51, (c.1588–1645), 92–3 56, 58, 61, 88 Sully, Maximilien de Béthune vénalité d’offices, 8–9 (1558–1641), Duc de, 149 Vendôme, Alexandre de Swabia, 56 Bourbon (1599–1629), Sweden, 2, 41, 54–7, 62, 97, 98, Grand Prieur de, 36 99, 133, 135, 156 Vendôme, César de Bourbon Swiss Confederation, 39, 102 (1594–1665), Duc de, 36, Switzerland see Swiss Confederation 94, 96 Vendôme family, 11, 36, 114 taille, 7, 68, 71, 72, 74, 104, 107, Vendôme, Louis, Duc de 108, 136 see Mercoeur Talliaco, Lorenzo Colonna Venice, 21, 22, 39, 40, 99 (1636–89), Duke of, 146 Verdun, 102 Tarascon, 137 Veronese, Paolo (1525–88), 143 Thirty Years War, 1, 10, 22, 38, 39, Versailles, 48, 145 54–7, 63, 80, 88, 91, 95, 97 Victor Amedeo I (1587–1637), Thomas of Savoy, 91 Duke of Savoy, 91 (Tiziano Vecelli, d.1576), Vienna, 46, 57, 132 143 Vignerot, Armand-Jean de (d.1715), toisé, 104 Sieur de Pont-Courlay et Duc Toul, 102 de Richelieu, 85 , 59 Vignerot, François de, 13 Toulouse, 137, 138 Vignerot, Marie de (1604–75), Touraine, 12, 79, 116 Duchesse d’Aiguillon, 13, 85 Tours, 136 Vignerot, René de (d.1625), traitants, 8, 116, 155 Sieur de Pont-Courlay, 13 traites, 8 Vincennes, 115, 139 198 INDEX

Vincent II Gonzaga (1594–1627), Wentworth, Thomas (1593–1641), 40, 88 Earl of Strafford, 2 Vitry, Nicolas de l’Hôpital West Indies, 42 (1581–1644), Baron de Westminster, Treaty of (1655), 132 (later Marquis and Duc de), Westphalia, Congress and Peace 18, 94 of (1643–8), 91, 97, 98–100, Vouet, Simon (1590–1649), 79 102–3, 111, 158 Wladislaus IV (1595–1648), Wallenstein, Albrecht von King of Poland, 98 (1583–1634), 41, 53, 55 Worms, 97 Wars of Religion see French Wars of Religion Ypres, 101, 134