Portland State University PDXScholar Dissertations and Theses Dissertations and Theses Summer 7-21-2017 Music and Race in the American West William Steven Schneider Portland State University Follow this and additional works at: https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds Part of the American Studies Commons, Music Commons, Race and Ethnicity Commons, and the United States History Commons Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Schneider, William Steven, "Music and Race in the American West" (2017). Dissertations and Theses. Paper 3674. https://doi.org/10.15760/etd.5558 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of PDXScholar. Please contact us if we can make this document more accessible: [email protected]. Music and Race in the American West by William Steven Schneider A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History Thesis Committee: David Johnson, Chair Katrine Barber Catherine McNeur Josh Epstein Portland State University 2017 © 2017 William Steven Schneider Abstract This thesis explores the complexities of race relations in the nineteenth century American West. The groups considered here are African Americans, Anglo Americans, Chinese, Mexican Americans, and Native Americans. In recent decades historians of the West have begun to tell the narratives of racial minorities. This study adopts the aims of these scholars through a new lens—music. Ultimately, this thesis argues that historians can use music, both individual songs and broader conceptions about music, to understand the complex and contradictory race relations of the nineteenth century west. Proceeding thematically, the first chapter explores the ways Anglo Americans used music to exert their dominance and defend their superiority over minorities. The second chapter examines the ways racial minorities used music to counter Anglo American dominance and exercise their own agency. The final chapter considers the ways in which music fostered peaceful and cooperative relationships between races. Following each chapter is a short interlude which discusses the musical innovations that occurred when the groups encountered the musical heritage of one another. This study demonstrates that music is an underutilized resource for historical analysis. It helps make comprehensible the complicated relations between races. By demonstrating the relevance of music to the history of race relations, this thesis also suggests that music as a historical subject is ripe for further analysis. i For Naomi ii Acknowledgements This is not the thesis I thought I would write. It was not even one of the first ten ideas I proposed. The twenty-sixth time is the charm, I suppose. At first this was only a side project. But much to my surprise the project grew into something bigger than I ever expected. I am forever in debt to my professors and classmates who saw this project’s potential long before I did and encouraged me to pursue it further. My writing group with Tanya Monthey, Taylor Bailey, and Greta Smith made the process fun. Our writing sessions were the perfect balance of productivity and distraction. Friendly conversations with Josh Ross provided me with access to his impressive historiographical knowledge. The original research question that sparked this project came from a conversation with Brian DiCarlo. I owe him a lot of beer. Allie Gavette generously read an early draft and gave the insightful comments that only a journalist could. Jeff Klein is my best friend. Without his shocking, unwavering, and frankly illogical confidence in me, I would never have had the courage to even attempt this project. I have been incredibly fortunate to work with and learn from the professors in PSU’s history department. Although I will certainly fail to adequately express my gratitude, it is my pleasure to at least try to do so here. As an undergraduate I had the fortune of working with Dr. Brian Turner. From him I learned the craft of historical writing. Without his guidance, patience, and generosity, I would not have survived graduate school. Much of my success is because of him. I only hope that the writing I present here does not embarrass him. I am grateful to Dr. Josh Epstein of the English iii department for generously joining my thesis committee. His insight and incredible attention to detail helped me clarify my writing. My only regret is that I did not get to work with him sooner. Dr. Catherine McNeur offered constant encouragement, always offering congratulations when we passed each other in the hall, for whatever recent milestone I had reached. Her encouragement meant more than I often let on. She directed me to several scholars whose work has influenced my own. Her keen eye found holes in my argument and her attention and care saved me from much embarrassment. This project was born in a seminar with Dr. Katy Barber. When I brought her a sporadic collection of primary sources dealing with music, uncertain how to weave them together, she said, “look at power dynamics.” When I shared an early draft of the paper, she asked, “why isn’t this your thesis?” This project’s central analysis and indeed its very existence are indebted to her. I could not ask for a better adviser than Dr. David Johnson. Every part of this thesis–the writing, the research, the argument, the structure–is better because of his guidance. His passion for history is contagious. He pushed me to work harder than I thought possible but always did so with kindness. He gave me confidence whenever I began to doubt myself. Any remaining mistakes are, of course, my own. Throughout this process, my parents have given me their unwavering love and support. They have always nurtured my passion for music and history. This project would never have been completed without them. Barbecuing and watching the Green Bay Packers at their house every Sunday gave me the fun and relaxation I needed to continue on this long journey. My brothers Phil and Tim are horrible. They are both fat idiots and iv were of absolutely no help. I doubt they will ever read this thesis. In fact, I doubt if either will ever learn to read anything at all. It is the great tragedy of my life that I love them both very much. The best thing about Phil is his wife Jen. She’s actually pretty cool. My wife Naomi is my favorite person of all. For over a year she has patiently listened to my constant ramblings about scholarship and obscure song lyrics. She read every word of this project in all ten thousand drafts and her careful editing has made me appear much smarter than I actually am. But even more importantly, she has all of my love. She always encouraged me to dedicate this project to various other people who have assisted me along the way. However, I can’t help it—this thesis is for her. S. D. G. v Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………i Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………... iii Prelude……………………………………………………………………………………vi Chapter One: Melody—Asserting Anglo American Dominance…………………………1 Interlude One: Instruments………………………………………………………………34 Chapter Two: Dossonance—Countering the Anglo American Melody…………………36 Interlude Two: Genres……………………………………………………………….......67 Chapter Three: Harmony—Music Bridges the Divide…………………………………..71 Interlude Three: Americanization………………………………………………………..97 Cadence…………………………………………………………………………………103 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………106 vi Prelude September 3, 1849, was a full day for Bernard J. Reid and his fellow travelers. The day was hot as the wagon train covered 15 miles across western Nevada on its way to California in search of gold. Joseph Cooper, a companion of Reid, died that day and was buried during the noonday halt. Despite the exhaustion of travel and heat and death, when the day was done, Reid could find no sleep. With mountains around him and a river flowing quietly near the camp, he lay on his bed, admiring the stars and swollen moon as the campfire burned in the distance and the sounds of singing drifted through the night air. Reid described the music and scenery as “food for contemplation.”1 Reid’s description of his sleepless night captures the power of songs and landscape. Reid found it both beautiful and lonely. This passage was not his only meditation on music, but it was his longest. He made frequent mention of music in his diary—how it often cheered the camp in the evenings. Music has profound influence on a person’s mind and mood. Reid was struck by the potent mixture of song and region. Other travelers of the overland trails remarked that things sounded different in the West. Silence was deeper, cannons echoed off the rolling hills, thunder was mightier in the open plains.2 Songs and raw sounds meant something different in the West; it was the meeting place for several racial groups and their separate musical traditions. 1 Bernard J. Reid, Overland to California with the Pioneer Line, ed. Mary McDougall Gordon (Stanford: Stanford University Press: 1983), 123-4. 2 Sarah Keyes, “‘Like a Roaring Lion’: The Overland Trail as a Sonic Conquest,” The Journal of American History 96 (2009), 23, 28-9. vii Many scholars of the American West have for years tried to move the field out of the shadow of Frederick Jackson Turner and in a more inclusive direction, incorporating race, gender, and power relations.3 The goal of this thesis is not to counter the work or conclusion of any new western historian; it is to address a rather puzzling silence. Music is deeply tied to culture—and many cultures met in the West—but American historians have not recognized the potential of studying music and it remains a regrettably overlooked subject.4 Geraldo L.