Project Reference Number: Lau/Src/013/001

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PROJECT REFERENCE NUMBER: LAU/SRC/013/001 PROJECT TITLE: PATTERN OF CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTORS AND DISEASES AMONG STAFF OF LAUTECH, OGBOMOSO, NIGERIA Name and address of Principal Investigator: Dr. Akintunde Adeseye A. Department of Medicine Faculty of Clinical Sciences LAUTECH, Ogbomoso Names and address of Research Team members: Dr. A. A. Salawu Department of Chemical Pathology Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, Nigeria Prof. O. G. Opadijo Department of Medicine Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Lautech, Ogbomoso, Nigeria

Executive Summary: The study was predicated upon the noticeable high burden of cardiovascular diseases among staff of LAUTECH presenting at the LAUTECH Teaching Hospital, Ogbomoso since it was commissioned about 3 years ago. Heart diseases are often preceded by many years with cardiovascular risk factors for which early treatment and appropriate intervention remains the only way to prevent end stage heart diseases such as stroke, heart failure, kidney failure, etc. Two hundred and six adult staff of LAUTECH were randomly selected from all faculties and units of the University from both Ogbomoso and Osogbo campuses and were made to undergo evaluation of thirteen conventional cardiovascular risk factors including weight, body mass index, waist circumference, blood pressure, blood sugar, total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL & LDL cholesterol. All participants also had Electrocardiography (ECG) done on them. Additionally, they were assessed for their knowledge of heart disease risk factors using a standard internationally verified questionnaire (The Heart Disease Fact

Questionnaire, HDFQ) and also assessed for the presence of Sleep apnoea, snoring and associated sleep disordered breathing. These are also cardiovascular risk factors. Their associations with conventional cardiovascular risk factors were also assessed in this study. In summary, The prevalence of CV risk factors were as follows: Hypertension 84(40.8%), visceral obesity 92(44.7%), generalized obesity 79(38.3%), low High density lipoprotein (HDL) 113(54.9%), impaired blood glucose 16(7.8%), Diabetes mellitus 3(1.5%), hypercholesterolemia 102(49.5%), Left ventricular hypertrophy (ECGLVH) 24(11.7%), Elevated Low density lipoprotein (LDLcholesterol) 99(48.1%). About three fourth (72.3%) had two or more cardiovascular risk factors clustered together. Females had a higher prevalence of CV risk factors and its clusters than their male counterparts. Of those diagnosed with hypertension in this study, more than half had never been told they were hypertensive 48 (57.1%). In another work, the frequency of occurrence of snoring was 91 (44.2%) including 50 males (54.9% and 41 females (37.3 %, P <0.05). Using the Berlin score, 63 (30.6%) including 34 females (30.9%) were assessed to be at high risk for OSA. Snorers were more likely to be at higher risk of OSA compared to non snorers: odd risk was 113.8, relative risk was 3.3. Snoring was most likely to be associated with obesity, elevated blood pressure and male gender in this study. Using the HDFQ Questionnaire, most participants did not have a good level of knowledge about risk factors, prevention, treatment and association with diabetes as it relates to heart diseases. Introduction:Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the number one cause of death worldwide. It is increasingly responsible for a progressively higher degree of mortality in Africa over the decades due to mortalities and incapacitations from stroke, kidney failure, heart failure and hypertensive emergencies among others. Despite the persistent scourge of infectious diseases and evolving polymicrobial antibiotic resistance, multidrug resistant tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS, CVD continues to ravage Africa like an epidemic.Hypertension and other cardiovascular (CV) risk factors and disease are being reported in astronomical proportions from different population. Okunola et al. recently reported that a large percentage of medical admissions at a teaching hospital in Nigeria were due to CVD. The cost of care when CVD finally evolves will be too expensive to bear for most if not all African countries. In US, a sizable proportion of their budget is for treatment and

diagnosis of CVD.CVD are often preceded by associated risk factors. A major preventive strategy to combat CVD worldwide is to aggressively identify and treat CV risk factors. The pattern of CV risk factors is often inexorably directly proportional to the risk of CVD and treating these CV risk factors have been shown to reduce significantly the risk of death and morbidities from CVD especially among the Caucasians. It is known that the pattern of CVD in developed countries has plateau in the recent time due to massive population targeted CV risk preventive strategies. The identification of these CV risk factors in a University Community where one naturally expects a high level of awareness and commitment to preventive care will be one way of reducing the burden of CVD among the population in the future. Prevention of CVD remains a major way to achieve a healthy workforce in a University community. Very few data exist on the pattern of CV risk factors in University communities in Nigeria. We aimed to determine the prevalence of traditional CV risk factors among staff of LadokeAkintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Research methodology: They were cross sectional studies done among the staff of LadokeAkintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria and was carried out between November 2013 and February 2014. This study was supported by a Senate Research grant from the LadokeAkintola University of Technology Research and Consultancy Service (LAU/SRC/13/001). Two hundred and six consenting adults who are full time academic and nonacademic staff of LadokeAkintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso participated in this study. All full time workers of the University were eligible and were recruited if they gave their informed consent. People who were not willing to participate or who had other medical illness necessitating admission during data collection were excluded from this study. Also excluded were those who were pregnant or who had advanced chronic diseases like malignancy, heart failure or renal failure. They were selected though stratified random sampling of all the faculties and units of the University including health centre, security unit and the senate building. Each participant was invited to fill a data from which included information such as age, gender, department(unit), highest level of education, previous history of hypertension or diabetes, known family history of hypertension or diabetes or of sudden death, whether they were on long term medications, history of alcohol or cigarette

intake and their marital status. Clinical parameters including weight, height and waist circumference at the mid portion between anterior superior iliac spine and lowermost rib during mid expiration were also taken. The blood pressure was taken from the left arm according to standardized protocols with the subject having rested for at least 5 minutes. An average of three blood pressure readings was taken and this was used to classify the subject into normal blood pressure, prehypertension and hypertension according to JNC VII criteria. Each participant also had 12Lead resting electrocardiography done using the Schiller AT III machine at 25mm/s. The ECGs were interpreted by the two Cardiologists in the studies who reviewed their findings and agreed on the results and who were blinded to the clinical and demographic profile of the participants at that time. They were interpreted to identify the heart rate, rhythm, axis, PR interval, presence of left and right atrial enlargement and left ventricular hypertrophy. Blood sample (7 mls. each divided into the Lithium heparin and Fluoride bottles) was taken for random blood sugar and serum lipid profile including triglycerides, total cholesterol, high density lipoproteincholesterol, low density lipoproteincholesterol. The sample was analysed by the Chemical Pathologist who is a member of the study team. Blood glucose was done using the Glucose Oxidase method. History of smoking including duration and number of pack years was obtained. Hypertension was defined according to standardized protocols as average blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg or someone on antihypertensive drugs. The body mass index (BMI) was determined using the standard technique of dividing weigh in kilogram by the square of height in meters. Overweight was defined as BMI 2529.9kg/m2 while Obesity was defined as BMI ≥ 30kg/m2 . Visceral obesity was defined as waist circumference >88cm in female and >102 cm in males. Elevated triglycerides(TG) was defined as Serum TG ≥ 1.7mmol/l. Serum lipid profile were analysed and classified according to the National Cholesterol Education program Adult Treatment Panel (ATP) IV. Total cholesterol(TC) was defined as borderline high when serum TC was between 5.176.11mmol/l. Hypercholesterolemia was defined as TC > 6.2 mmol/l. Low HDL was defined as HDL < 1.03mmol/l (males) and <1.3mmol/l (females). Borderline high LDLcholesterol was defined as LDLC 3.364.4.13 mmol/l while elevated LDL cholesterol was defined as >4.13mmol. ECGLVH was defined using Araoye and/or SokolowLyon criteria.

Diabetes was defined as random blood sugar >11.1 mmol/l while impaired blood glucose was defined as blood sugar 10.011.1mmol/l. The research assistants were well trained and a pretest done before commencement of this study. Gender specific frequencies of occurrence were determined. The participants were also stratified into age groups to find out the age distribution of the traditional CV risk factors among the study participants. The traditional cardiovascular risk factors identified in this study were smoking, hypertension, impaired glucose tolerance/ diabetes mellitus, obesity (either whole body or visceral), elevated triglycerides level, elevated LDLcholesterol, low HDLcholesterol, elevated total cholesterol and presence of left ventricular hypertrophy on electrocardiography. Count of total number of cardiovascular risk factors was done for each participant. For the second study, the epworth sleepiness scale (ESS) was used to determine excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS). It is an eight item self administered questionnaire. Possible score ranges were from 0 to 24. For this study, an ESS score of more than 11 was taken to mean EDS.The Berlin questionnaire was used to identify the risk of having clinical OSA. The questionnaire consists of three categories related to the risk of having sleep apnea.Patients can be classified into high risk or low risk based on their responses to theindividual items and their overall scores in the symptom categories.Subjects were categorized as high risk for having OSAif there weretwo or more categories where the score were positive and low risk if there was only one or no categories where the score was positive.[ 15] The Berlin questionnaire has been documented to be clinically sensitive and correlates significantly with the presence of OSA among various populations. Clinically suspected obstructive sleep apneas was defined in accordance with the 2001 international classification of sleep disorders. For the third study, the Heart Disease fact Questionnaire was used to assess the level of knowledge of heart disease risk factors among LAUTECH staff. Statistical analysis was done using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version17.0 (Chicago Ill. USA) P <0.05 was taken as statistically significant. Quantitative data were summarized as means ± standard deviation while qualitative data were summarized in frequencies and percentages. Students t’ test and Chi square were used to check for difference between groups appropriately. Institutional Ethical approval was obtained for this study and all participating adult gave their written informed consent. Participants were provided with a summary sheet

of all the investigations and clinical findings and appropriately advised to commence treatment and follow up at the University health center / Teaching hospital as appropriate.

Result presentation and discussion: The mean age of the study participants was 45.27 ± 7.87 years. Their age ranged from 27 to 73 years. The mean age of the male participants was higher, albeit not statistically significant compared to the female participants (46.1±8.0 years vs. 44.56 ± 7.8 years respectively, P =0.166). Most were in the middle aged group with those between 4560 years formed the largest percentage of participants accounting for 43.7% of total participants. This age group was followed by those between 3645 years of age which formed 40.3% of total participants. Those less than 35 years of age formed only 11.3% of all participants while the rest were those >60 years of age. 96 (46.6%) of all participants were males. The mean body mass index was 28.45± 6.03 kg/m2 . The mean body mass index was significantly higher among female participants than in males (29.9 ±6.7 vs. 27.0 ±4.7 kg/m2 , P= 0.000). The mean waist circumference was higher among females than male participants, although this was not statistically significant (93.9 ±12.4 cm vs. 91.4 ± 11.1, P=0.138). The average systolic and diastolic blood pressures were significantly higher among males although they were also not statistically significant. The mean pulse pressure of the study participants was 52.2±15.3 mmHg. The mean age of male and female study participants were similar. Mean total cholesterol (5.52±1.44 vs. 5.2±1.34mmol/l, P =0.07), LDLcholesterol (3.96 ± 1.42mmol/l vs. 3.58 ± 1.38, P=0.060) and HDLcholesterol (1.16 ± 0.48 vs. 1.11 ± 0.28 mmol/l, P=0.203) were higher, though not statistically significant among female participants in this study. The proportion of those with hypertension was higher, albeit statistically insignificant among females than males (42.7% vs. 38.5% respectively), likewise the frequency of occurrence of hypertriglyceridaemia. The prevalence of low HDL (69.1% vs. 38.5%, P=0.000), generalized obesity (50.9% vs. 24.0%, P=0.001), impaired blood glucose /diabetes mellitus (12.7% vs. 4.6%, p<0.05), hypercholesterolemia (57.3% vs. 47.9%, P=0.034) were significantly higher among females than males in this study. The average number of clusters of cardiovascular risk factors was also significantly higher among female participants in this study (3.3±1.6 vs. 2.6±1.6, P=0.000 respectively).There was an increase in prevalence of almost all of the cardiovascular risk factors as age increased in this

study. Those in the age group 4660 years and those >60 years of age were more likely to have more cardiovascular risk factors and its clusters together than younger participants. In the study on sleep apnoea among study participants, More than half of our hypertensive patients (55/104, 52.9%) were found to be at high risk for OSA while snoring was present in 50.0% of the study population. Hypertensive subjects with low risk for OSA were similar in age and gender distribution with hypertensive subjects with high risk for OSA. Mean WC, body mass index (BMI) and waist hip ratio were significantly higher among hypertensive subjects with high risk for OSA than those with low risk. Mean systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and pulse rate were similar between the hypertensive subjects with high and low risk for OSA although they were higher among the hypertensive subjects with high risk of OSA.Hypertensive subjects with high risk for OSA were noted to have a significantly higher PWT in diastole, interventricular septal thickness in diastole (IVSd), mitral E/A ratio, LVM, RWT, LVM index and the proportion of participants with LVH than those with low risk of OSA . Left ventricular internal dimension in diastole (LVIDd) and systole, EF and fractional shortening were similar between hypertensive subjects with high risk of OSA and those hypertensive with low risk for OSA.The mean ages were similar between hypertensive snorers and hypertensive nonsnorers in this study. Mean SBP, DBP, LVIDd and mitral E/A ratio were higher among hypertensive snorers although they did not reach statistical significance. However, mean FBS, PWT in diastole, IVSd, LVM and BMI were significantly higher among hypertensive snorers than hypertensive nonsnorers. The Heart disease facts questionnaire (HDFQ) scores was used to determine the level of knowledge of heart disease. Those with HDFQ score >70% were assessed to have good knowledge, those with score between 5069% were said to have moderate knowledge and those with score <50% as low level of knowledge. About half of all the participants had low level of knowledge 49.0% compared to 31.1% with moderate level of knowledge and 19.9% with good level of knowledge. There was no statistically significant difference between those with low, moderate or high level of knowledge as it regards highest level of education. There was also no significant difference between those with different level of knowledge as it is associated with prevalence of hypertension, family history of hypertension and obesity. There was no significantly

difference between age and level of knowledge among study participants. Among the questions which showed the greatest consistency with the highest rate of agreement include knowing that smoking is a risk factor for heart disease ad that treating elevated blood pressure can lead to reduction the risk of developing heart disease. These were the only two questions where participants scored >70% and the participants showed a good level of knowledge as it relates to risk factor for heart disease. The participants showed a moderate level of knowledge as it regards three facts: Firstly, that a person who stops smoking will lower their risk of developing heart disease. Secondly, that high blood pressure is a risk factor for heart disease and thirdly that high blood cholesterol is a risk factor for heart disease. Other questions which showed moderate consistency in the level of knowledge include being overweight increases the chance of someone developing heart disease, diabetes is a risk factor for heart disease and the fact that subject with diabetes can reduce their risk of heart disease if they control their blood pressure, cholesterol, weight and blood sugar. Among those facts with consistent low level of knowledge in the participants include the fact that diabetes have low HDL, the people with heart disease always knows about it and the fact that eating fatty foods affect blood cholesterol level. Conclusion and major findings of this study: This study revealed a very high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors among LAUTECH university staff in South West Nigeria. It also revealed a high frequency of occurrence of multiple cardiovascular risk factors among participants as about threefourth of all participants had two or more cardiovascular risk factors. These risk factors include hypertension, obesity, dyslipidaemia (Low HDLC, high LDLC, high total cholesterol and high triglycerides), smoking, LVH and impaired blood glucose /diabetes mellitus. These risk factors have been shown to predict the development of cardiovascular disease in the future. [19] The modification of these risk factors by drugs or other strategies have also been shown to reduce the risk of developing CVD and associated complications.[ 2022] It is worthy of note that in this study, the age groups 3645 years and 4660 years were particularly affected by the burden of these CV risk factors. These are the active working class and the implication of this on the health status of university workforce and the nation economy at large might be enormous if appropriate intervention is not implemented. The study also revealed that

obstructive sleep apnoea is very common among staff of LAUTECH and it correlates well with the prevalence of cardiovascular disease risk factors. Sadly, the level of knowledge of risk factors among study participants was disappointingly low. Recommendation: considering the fact that cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death worldwide and the fact that it is beginning to take a toll on LAUTECH staff, we recommend a full scale screening of cardiovascular risk factors and immediate implementation of treatment among all staff with such issues. The participants in this study were appropriately treated, counselled and referred for treatment. We also recommend immediate implementation of primary, secondary and tertiary level of prevention of cardiovascular disease among the entire LAUTECH staff. Regular health enlightment campaigns will also be useful to make people more aware of heart disease risk factors and how to prevent, treat and cardiovascular disease and death.

Contribution to knowledge: This grant has provided a database supporting the high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors including sleep apnoea and sleep disordered breathing and it’s a wake up call to the university administrator to institute effective preventive strategies to reduce the burden of cardiovascular diseases among university workers in order to reduce premature deaths and incapacitations. It has also provided each participant with adequate information on their cardiovascular status, information, treatment and appropriate referral to relevant health units for intervention.The result of this study can be used to develop appropriate health intervention strategies to combat heart diseases in the University community as heart disease remains the number one cause of death worldwide and early identification and treatment of its risk factors remains the only panacea to reduce the burden.

CHALLENGES: Some challenges in the conduct of the research include inability of the Registry unit to release the detail of the total number of staff in the University and the many staff would have loved to participate but the scope of the research could not include them. We therefore suggest a more holistic approach to determining the pattern of cardiovascular disease

and risk factors among ALL the staff of LAUTECH and continuous education on preventive strategies to combat heart diseases in our community.

New equipments purchased by the Senate Research Grant a. SPHYGMOMANOMETERS 3 UNITS b. WEIGHING SCALE 3 UNITS

Number of published articles: FOUR (THREE ALREADY ACCEPTED) c. Akintunde A A, Salawu A A, Opadijo O G. Prevalence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors among staff of LadokeAkintola University of Technology, (LAUTECH), Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Accepted by Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice (May 2014) In Prepublication phase. d. Akintunde A A, Akintunde T S, Opadijo O G. Knowledge of heart disease risk factors among workers in a Nigerian University: A call for concern. Accepted by the Nigerian Medical Journal, 2014. e. Akintunde A A, Salawu A A, Opadijo O G. Snoring and Obstructive Sleep Apnoea in a Nigerian University. Accepted by the Nigerian Medical Journal 2014. Number of articles under review: ONE f. Akintunde A A, Akinlade A M, Opadijo OG. Electrocardiographic Changes and Correlates in a Nigerian University. In press. Submited to the Nigerian Journal of Cardiology.

PROJECT REFERENCE NUMBER LARCU/SRG/13/002

Project Title: W ireless Sensor Network Based Real Time Security Surveillance System Researchers: Arulogun, Oladiran Tayo and Adigun, Ademidun Adebisi Principal Investigator: A rulogun, Oladiran Tayo Ladoke Akintola University of Technology Department of Computer Science and Engineering Contact email of the Lead researcher: [email protected] Introduction: Security is a major challenge that affects developing countries especially in Nigeria. What is not monitored cannot be control, hence WSN security surveillance system with camera sensors can be used in an economical ways to reduce insecurity. A low cost, low complexity, interconnected WSN based cameras that are capable of image and video capturing and processing is being developed in this project. Additional goals of this project are to carry out algorithm and protocol based investigations that will enhance commercialization of the project outcomes Progress made We have carried out the following activities i. Design of the WSN based fixed and mobile surveillance system around selected locations in the University premises. ii. Procurement and testing of hardware equipment. iii. Experimentation of the design using the hardware equipment in laboratory environment. iv. Deployment of the design in the real word environment.

Some challenges are been encountered as some of the equipment are not performing as expected and we have learned from these challenges for future activities. Outstanding Results: Development of a viable video sensor network platform and the

discovery of techniques for the extraction of useful information from the sensed multidimensional data Expected time of completion: Completed Progress on Publication: Publication of one article journal with details below: Arulogun, O. T, Adigun, A. A Okediran O. O, Ganiyu, R. A (2014): Design and Development of A Security Surveillance System Based On Wireless Sensor Network, International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology (IJISET), Vol. 1 Issue 4. Available at http://www.ijiset.com/v1s5/IJISET_V1_I5_40.pdf Presentation of the research results at the third International Conference on Engineering and Technology Research. Final Financial Report.

PROJECT REFERENCE NUMBER: LAU/SRG/13/003

PROJECT TITLE: HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT OF EXPOSURE TO RADON IN DRINKING WATER IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA

Name and address of Principal Investigator: Prof. Olatunde Michael ONI Department of Pure and Applied Physics Department

Name and address of Research Team members:

Olukunle Olaonipekun OLADAPO

Department of Pure and Applied Physics, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso

Science Laboratory Technology Department

Dauda Biodun AMUDA

Department of Pure and Applied Physics Department, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Radiation is part of nature. Human is exposed to radiation mainly from the natural sources. The air, water, soil and food contribute largely to human exposure to radiation. The largest percentage of internal exposure to radiation from natural sources is from radon, an odourless, tasteless and inert radioactive gas from the primordial uranium238 series. Radon, mostly radon222 (2 22Rn) is found most abundantly in rock, rich in U238. Following different mechanisms, this radioactive gas finds its way into the soil, water, food samples and air. Radon being soluble in water is found in appreciable concentration in all water samples available for human use. Natural water flow and small halflive of radon makes its

concentration very low in streams and rivers which were the sources of water supply for household use. However, for over three decades, groundwater has been the dominant source of drinking water in Nigeria. Despite the reported radiological risk associated with the exposure to radon and its progenies, the level of awareness of the presence of this carcinogenic radioisotope in drinking water in Nigeria is low. Water from underground sources is consumed and used for other various household activities without prior treatment, thereby may serve as a radiation source of concern if the concentration of radon in such water is high.

A total of 250 samples of drinking water were collected across some cities in the southwestern Nigeria. The water samples represented the variety of drinking water in the southwestern Nigeria. Conscious effort was ensured to prevent radon escape from water sample before being fed into the 222Rn assaying bottle connected through special tubing and aerator to the highly fast active radon detector, RAD7, manufactured by DURRIDGE Company Inc., USA, for the measurement of the radon concentration in the samples.

The result revealed a steady trend of variation in the concentration of 222Rn in the water samples. Highest concentration (112.00 Bq.L 1) was found in water from borehole source. Tap water (from surface water source) was measured to have the least (0.15 Bq.L 1) radon concentration. The concentration of radon in all the water samples were found to be above the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of value 0.1 Bq.L 1, presented by the Standards Organisation of Nigeria for radionuclide concentration in drinking water in Nigeria. The 222Rn concentration from all the water from borehole sources were found to be higher than 11.1 Bq.L 1 stated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as the MCL in states in the USA without radon monitoring policy and enhanced indoor air program. Irrespective of the sources, 26.4% of the samples collected had radon concentration above the 11.1 Bq.L 1 MCL, while 2.4% of the samples had a concentration above 100Bq.L 1, a MCL recommended by European Union for measurement that warrants consideration of possible remedial actions. None of the measurements was up to 1000 Bq.L 1 recommended by European Union as upper bound value above which remedial

action is definitely required. The radon concentration measured for each variety of drinking water translated to approximately 9 individuals out of 1 million people in the southwestern Nigeria at fatal cancer risk due to radon ingestion from underground water per year, translating to about 900 times per year more than the risk per year from tap water ingestion.

The study has identified groundwater has a source of drinking water with the highest radon concentration in the study areas. It has further shown that a higher cancer mortality risk is associated with the consumption of groundwater which over two decades now has been the main source of drinking water in the study area.

Keywords: Radon in water; RAD7; Stomach and total cancer risks.

Introduction

Radiation undoubtedly is a natural part of the environment in which we live. Human beings receive exposure from naturally occurring radioactivity in soil, water, air and food. The largest fraction of the natural radiation exposure we receive comes from radon, a radioactive, watersoluble noble gas produced by the natural decay of 226Ra (radium) from 238U(uranium) series and is ubiquitous in soil and rock (ICRP, 1994). Radon has a halflife of roughly 3.8 days and decays by alpha particle emission to the solid daughter product 218Po (polonium).

Radon, mostly radon222 (2 22Rn) is present in all untreated sources of water. It is introduced into groundwater from a radium source primarily by diffusion along microcrystalline imperfections within the rock. In ground water, the migration of radon through a porous material or fractured rock occurs primarily by advective transport. The migration and concentration of radon in an anisotropic medium, such as bedrock, is highly variable and dependent upon the rock type, the physical condition of the rock (i.e., fractures, joints, and porosity), the aquifer parameters, and the aquifer geochemistry. In many situations such as showering, clothes washing, and flushing of toilets, radon is released from the water and mixes with

the indoor air. Thus, radon from water contributes to the total inhalation risk associated with radon in indoor air. In addition to this, drinking water contains dissolved radon and the radiation emitted by radon and its radioactive decay products exposes sensitive cells in the stomach as well as other organs once it is absorbed into the bloodstream.

For over three decades now, drinking water in Southwestern Nigeria is predominantly underground with deep wells and bore holes as sources of drinking water in homes, hospitals, schools and other public places. Due to radon migration from underground rock of different concentrations of 226Ra, there exists a possibility of a high concentration level of radon (2 22Ra ) in drinking water in Southwestern Nigeria.

As is usual practiced in most of the areas in the location of interest, water is consumed immediately after leaving the faucet before its radon is released into the air. This water goes directly to the stomach. Before the ingested water leaves the stomach, some of the dissolved radon can diffuse into and through the stomach wall. During that process, the radon passes next to stem or progenitor cells that are radiosensitive. These cells can receive a radiation dose from alpha particles emitted by radon and radon decay products that are created in the stomach wall. After passing through the wall, radon and decay products are absorbed in blood and transported throughout the body, where they can deliver a dose to other organs. In another pathway, radon released into the air from water is inhaled. The solid radioactive daughter product of radon can be adsorbs to the linings of the lungs which may be irradiated by the alpha particle emitted by the decay of the solid daughter product of radon, thus leading to different health risk, primarily the development of stomach cancer via the ingestion pathway.

This study aimed at estimating the cancer risk from exposure to radon in drinking water collected from variety of sources in major cities in the Southwestern Nigeria.

The objectives of the study are:

(i) determination of the radon concentration in samples of drinking water in Southwestern Nigeria. (ii) identification of water source with the highest radon concentration among samples from different locations within the study area. (iii) estimation of cancer risk of exposure to radon in drinking water from the study area (iv) determination of relationship between radon in drinking water and cancer cases in the Southwestern Nigeria.

Research Methodology

The level of awareness of the carcinogenic nature of radon and its presence in drinking water in the study area was assessed through questionnaire administered to random selected inhabitants of the states making up the study areas. Samples of drinking water, comprising public tap water, sachet water, bottle water and groundwater (from deep wells and boreholes) were collected in major cities of the southwestern Nigeria. The water samples were collected directly from the source into a clean 1.5 litre bottle previously rinsed with distilled water. During water collection, conscious effort was taken to prevent bubbling of the water, so as not to allow escape of dissolved radon in the water. A total of two hundred and fifty (250) samples of water collected from the study area were assayed in –situ using a well calibrated RAD7, an electronic, active radon detector connected to a RADH 2O accessory (DURRIDGE, 2013). RAD7 is a fast and accurate radon detector. The RAD7 detector was used for measuring radon in water by connecting it with a bubbling kit which enabled it to degas radon from the water sample into the air in a closed loop. Within the closed loop is desiccant to dry the air before entering the detector for radon concentration measurement (Fig. 1) using alpha spectrometry technique. The RAD7 is capable of accurately measuring radon concentration in a water sample within 20 minutes. The time is very short compared with the 3.8 days half life of radon, thereby making RAD7 superior to many other detectors for radon in water measurement. Each of the water samples was assayed for 45 minutes for each run, in a 9 minutes cycle and 5 recycles.

Following the inbuilt radiation detection and quantification procedure of RAD7, the radon count per time translated to the radon concentration of the assayed water samples. The dosimetric concepts of dose evaluation and cancer risk estimation for radon in drinking reported by various authors on dose coefficients (Harley and Robbins,1994); CrawfordBrown, 1991; 1989); physicochemical properties of radon (Morales and Smith 1944; Palazzi et al.,1983;), daily water intakes ( EPA, 1994b) and from the responses obtained from questionnaire administered led to cancer mortality risk calculation (ICRP 1989; ICRP, 1991; ICRP 1993;ICRP 1995; ICRP 1996;).were considered and adopted in estimating the lifetime fatal cancer risk of an individual due to the ingestion of radon in drinking water following a year of intake.

The risk equation for ingestion of radon in drinking water according to EPA(1995) states that

(1) where IR is the individual risk associated with ingestion of radon gas, Cw is the concentration of radon concentration in water, V is the volume of direct water intake, F is the fraction of radon remaining in drinking water and cRF is the risk factor for radon ingestion.

Fig. 1. Setup of radon in water measurement with RAD7

Results Presentation and Discussion

Two hundred (200) questionnaire were administered to respondents in the six states of the Southwestern Nigeria. One hundred and Eighty (180) respondents, making 90% responded and returned the questionnaire. The responses to radon awareness questions by the randomly selected respondents of the study area revealed that regardless of economic status, age and educational level, over (80% ) of the people were not aware of radon, its carcinogenic ability and its presence in drinking water.

The average 222Rn concentration in the assayed samples of groundwater, bottled water, Sachet water and public tap water, collected from the study areas are respectively shown in tables 1, 2,3 and 4. The least radon concentration (0.110 Bq.L 1) was determined in bottled water. All the samples of sachet water recorded higher concentration of radon than samples from public tap water. Highest radon concentration (112.00 Bq.L 1) was however determined in a sample from groundwater (Borehole).

Interaction and findings about the sources of the sachet water samples revealed that the samples from this category were sourced from groundwater, mostly borehole. However, the radon concentration became drastically lowered after processing than the radon concentration in the raw sample. The effect of processing was also noticed for bottled water samples thus confirming the significant effect of processing on radon concentration in packaged water as reported by Todorovic et al.(2012)

Table 1: Average 2 22R n concentration in groundwater samples in Nigeria

Sample ID Locations Number of samples Concentration(Bq. L 1) *

AB1(Well) OkeAta 4 4.13(0.87)

AB2(Well) OkeAta 4 1.29(0.50)

AB3(Well) Olomore 4 0.95(0.44)

AB4(Well) Agbeloba Quarry 4 1.59(0.53)

AB5(Well) Kuforiji Estate 4 3.04(0.75)

AB6(Well) Ijaye 4 4.62(0.69)

AB7(Well) OkeEjigbo 4 5.60(2.88)

AB8(Well) Lantoro 3 3.20(0.77)

AB9(Well) Isabo 3 6.49((1.08)

AB10(Well) Iloogbo 3 18.93(1.75)

AB11(Well) Ijemo 3 8.50(1.18)

AB12(Well) Ijemo Agabadu 3 2.69(0.66)

AB13(Well) Olorunsogo 3 3.96((0.85)

AB14(Borehole) Sapon 3 52.32(12.39)

AB15(Borehole) Ake 3 38.49(8.27)

OT16(Borehole) St. Philip 3 10.69(5.71)

OT17(Borehole) St. Philip 3 26.10(6.91)

OT18(Borehole) Anglican Pry School 3 16.90(5.71)

OT19(Borehole) Anglican Pry School 3 13.00(1.52)

OT20(Borehole) Anglican Pry School 3 14.00(1.57)

IM21(Borehole) Idofin 3 49.00(3.13)

IM22(Borehole) Methodist School 3 56.00(3.44)

EO23(Well) OkeEsa 3 72.00(4.14)

EO24(Well) OkeEsa 3 88.00(4.71)

EO25(Well) OdoEse 3 57.11(3.49)

IR26(Well) OdoEse 3 71.00(4.03)

IR27(Well) OkeOdo 3 97.00(5.10)

IR28(Well) OkeOdo 3 112.00(5.75)

IR29(Well) IsaleOdo 3 85.00(4.70)

IE30(Well) IsaleOdo 3 86.00(4.76)

IE31(Well) Poly Road 3 88.00(5.03)

IE32(Borehole) Old Otan Road 3 109.00(5.65)

IE33(Borehole) Old Otan Road 3 85.00(4.95)

IE34(Borehole) Poly Road 3 67.00(7.36)

IE35(Borehole) Poly Road 3 67.00(4.32)

*Figures in parentheses are the standard deviation of the measurement

AB (Abeokuta); OT( Otan Ayegbaju); IM (ImesiIle); EO ( EsaOke); IR (Iragbiji); IE (Iree)

Table 2: Average 2 22R n concentration in bottled water samples in Nigeria

Sample ID Brands Number of samples Concentration(Bq. L 1) *

LAS 001LAS 4 0.143(0.05)

LAS 002LAS 4 0.112(0.07)

LAS 003LAS 4 0.110(0.08)

LAS 004LAS 4 0.555(0.12)

LAS 005LAS 4 0.212(0.10)

OGS 001OGS 4 0.312(0.05)

OGS 002OGS 4 0.127(0.06)

OGS 003OGS 4 0.133(0.06)

OGS 004OGS 4 0.234(0.11)

OGS 005OGS 4 0.213(0.17)

OYS 001OYS 4 0.331(0.07)

OYS 002OYS 4 0.462(0.21)

OYS 003OYS 4 0.372(0.11)

OYS 004OYS 4 0.216(0.09)

OYS 005OYS 4 0.126(0.08)

*Figures in parentheses are the standard deviation of the measurement

LAS (Lagos State); OGS( Ogun State); OYS(Oyo State)

Table 3: Average 2 22R n concentration in sachet water samples in Nigeria

Sample ID Brand Number of samples Concentration(Bq. L 1) *

LAS LAS001 5 0.925(0.45)

LAS LAS002 5 0.366(0.17)

OYS OYS001 5 0.410(0.24)

OYS OYS002 5 0.355(0.21)

OND OND001 5 0.212(0.30)

OND OND002 5 0.512(0.25)

OND OND003 5 0.627(0.46)

OGS OGS001 5 0.433(0.26)

OGS OGS002 5 0.734(0.51)

OGS OGS003 5 0.531(0.26)

OSS OSS001 5 0.612(0.14)

OSS OSS002 5 0.526(0.11)

*Figures in parentheses are the standard deviation of the measurement

LAS (Lagos State); OGS( Ogun State); OYS(Oyo State); OND(Ondo State); OSS(Osun State)

Table 4: Average 2 22R n concentration in tap water samples in Nigeria

Sample ID Location Number of samples Concentration(Bq. L 1) *

OGS ABTap1 6 0.121(0.05)

OGS ABTap2 6 0.132(0.04)

OGS ABTap3 6 0.126(0.07)

*Figures in parentheses are the standard deviation of the measurement

OGS( Ogun State)

Some samples of groundwater from cities predominantly of crystalline rock formation and of elevated background radiation level, showed measured radon concentration values above the recommended limits specified by different regulatory bodies (Table5). It was observed that some samples of well water showed a higher concentration of radon than samples from borehole, most especially from samples collected at Iragbiji. This observation may not be unconnected with the depth of the well due to the rocky formation in the area. The concentration of radon in all the water samples were found to be above the maximum contaminant level (MCL) presented by the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON, 2007) for radionuclide concentration in drinking water in Nigeria (Table 5). The 222Rn concentration from all the water from borehole sources were found to be higher than 11.1 Bq.L 1 stated by USEPA as the MCL in states in the USA without radon monitoring policy and enhanced indoor air program. Irrespective of the sources, 26.4% of the samples collected have radon concentration above the 11.1 Bq.L 1 MCL, while 2.4%of the samples have a concentration above 100 Bq.L 1, a MCL recommended by European Union for measurement that warrants consideration of possible remedial actions. None of the measurements was up to 1000Bq.L 1 recommended by European Union as upper bound value above which remedial action is definitely required.

Generally, the measured radon concentration in the water samples indicated that apart from processing of the water which has a lot of effect on the radon concentration, other factors that like the shelve time and handling during distribution may significantly lower the radon concentration in water.

Table 5 Limits of radon in water

Regulatory bodies Maximum contaminant level (MCL)

(Bq.L 1)

USEPA** (NAS, 1999) 11.1

USEPA* (NAS, 1999) 146.0

EU+ ( EU, 2001) 100.0

EU+ +( EU, 2001) 1000.0

SON (SON, 2007) 0.1

USEPA – United State Environmental Protection Agency; EU – European Union; SON – Standards Organisation of Nigeria

** for states without radon monitor monitoring policy and enhanced indoor air programs

* for states with radon monitor monitoring policy and enhanced indoor air programs

+ measurement that warrants consideration of possible remedial actions

++ upper bound above which remedial action is definitely required

The radon concentration in the variety of water considered in this work, when applied to equation 1 translated to approximately 9 individuals out of 1 million people in the chosen cities and towns of the southwestern Nigeria are at fatal cancer risk in a year due to radon ingestion from Underground water. When compared with fatal cancer risk of 1 individual out 100 million people if tap water from surface water source is still being provided as it was about three decades ago. These

figures have thus shown that about 900 incerase in fatal cancer risk could be attributed to radon ingestion from underground water relative to tap water.

Conclusion and Major Findings

Going by the result of this study, it is pertinent to deduce that low level of radon awareness exists among the inhabitants of the study areas. This by extension implies that Nigerians need sensitization programme on radon and its carcinogenic ability. In addition, the study has revealed a growth in cancer risks due to the households use of groundwater as compared with the access to surface water, which was the practise about thirty years ago.

Recommendations

To optimize the protection of the public from the radiological hazards associated with exposure to radon and its progenies, it is necessary to carry out extensive work on radon measurements in air and water across different geological and geopolitical zones in Nigeria, so as to generate enough database for policy and enhanced radon program, using data from the work of Farai (1989) and this study as yardstick.

Contributions to knowledge

This work has revealed a low level of radon awareness in the study areas, which by extension depicting the country’s level of radon awareness. By this study, the radon concentration in many sources of drinking water has been established. The

most available sources of drinking water to the households, the groundwater has been determined to contain the highest level of carcinogenic radon, thereby increasing the cancer mortality risks.

References

CrawfordBrown DJ. 1989. The biokinetics and dosimetry of radon222 in the human body following ingestion of ground water. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 11:1017.

CrawfordBrown DJ. 1991. Cancer fatalities from waterborne Rn222. Risk Analysis 11:135143.

DURRIDGE Radon Instrumentation (2013). Big bottle RAD H2O user manual. DUIRRIDGE Company Inc Billerica,

EPA. (Environmental Protection Agency). 1994b. Report to the United States Congress on Radon in Drinking Water, Multimedia Risk and Cost Assessment of Radon. EPA 811R94001.Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Drinking Water.

EPA. (Environmental Protection Agency). 1995. Uncertainty Analysis of Risk Associated with Exposure to Radon in Drinking Water. EPA 822R96005. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency.

EPA (2003). Assessment of risks from radon in homes. Office of Radiation and Indoor Air United States Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC

EU (2001). European Union Commission Recommendation on the protection of the public against exposure to radon in drinking water supplies. Office Journal of the European Community, L 344, 28 December, pp. 85–88.

Farai, I.P. (1989). Radon222 survey in groundwater and its assessment for radiological hazards and seismic monitoring in Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Ibadan, Nigeria

Harley NH, Robbins ES. 1994. A biokinetic model for Rn222 gas distribution and alpha dose in humans following ingestion. Environment International 20(5):605610.

ICRP. (International Commission on Radiological Protection). 1989. AgeDependent Doses to Members of the Public from Intake of Radionuclides, Part. 1. ICRP Publication 56, Annals of the ICRP 20(2). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

ICRP. (International Commission on Radiological Protection). 1991. 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60, Annals ofthe ICRP 21(13). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

ICRP. (International Commission on Radiological Protection). 1993a. AgeDependent Doses to Members of the Public from Intake of Radionuclides: Part 2, Ingestion Dose Coefficients.

ICRP Publication 67, Annals of the ICRP 23(3/4). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

ICRP. (International Commission on Radiological Protection). 1993b. Protection Against Radon222 at Home and at Work. ICRP Publication 65, Annals of the ICRP 23(2). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

ICRP. (International Commission on Radiological Protection). 1995. AgeDependent Doses to Members of the Public from Intake of Radionuclides: Part 4, Inhalation Dose Coefficients.

ICRP Publication 71, Annals of the ICRP 25(3/4). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

ICRP. (International Commission on Radiological Protection). 1996. AgeDependent Doses to Members of the Public from Intake of Radionuclides, Part. 5. Compilation of Ingestion andInhalation Dose Coefficients. ICRP Publication 72, Annals of the ICRP 26(1). Oxford:

Pergamon Press

Morales MF, Smith RE. 1944. On the theory of bloodtissue exchanges III. Circulation and inert gas exchanges at the lung with special reference to saturation. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 6:144152.

NAS(1999). National Academy of Science. Report of the Committee on Risk Assessment of Exposure to Radon in Drinking Water, Board on Radiation Effects Research, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

Palazzi E, Rovatti M, del Borghi M, Peloso A, Zattoni J. 1983. Ncompartment mathematical model for the uptake and distribution of inhaled gases in the human body: an analytical solution. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 21:128133.

SON(2007). Nigeria standard for drinking water. Standards Organisation of Nigeria. NIS554:2007

Todorovic, N., Nikolov, J., Forkapic, S., Bikit, I., Mrdja, D., Krmar, M., and Veskovic, M. (2012) Public exposure to radon in drinking water in SERBIA. Applied radiation and Isotopes 70, pp 543 549

New equipment purchased by the Senate Research Grant

The senate research grant supported the work by providing support fund in completing payment for the purchase of the most acclaimed fastest and accurate equipment for radon in water measurement. The researchers are very grateful to fund providers in this regards.

Number of published articles

One (1) article published.

Radon Concentration in Groundwater of Areas of High Background Radiation Level in Southwestern Nigeria

Olatunde Michael ONI +, Olukunle Olaonipekun OLADAPO ++ , Dauda Biodun AMUDA+ Emmanuel Abiodun ONI +++, Adetola Olufunke OLIVEADELODUN +

Kemi Yemisi ADEWALE + and Mary Olawumi FASINA+

+D epartment of Pure and Applied Physics

Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria

++ Deaprtment of Science Laboratory Technology

Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria

+++D epartment of Physics

Oduduwa University, Ipetumodu, Nigeria

Nigerian Journal of Physics Vol. 25(1) June 2014 www.nipng.org

Number of articles under review

One (1)

Cancer Risks from Radon in Drinking Water in Southwestern Nigeria

Olatunde Michael ONI +, Olukunle Olaonipekun OLADAPO ++ , Dauda Biodun AMUDA+ Emmanuel Abiodun ONI +++,

Journal of Radiation Protection Dosimetry

Financial Report

The proforma invoice of the cost of the equipment valued 5817 US dollars is presented in Appendix 1. The payment for the purchase of the equipment (RAD7) was made in three installments. The first installment to the tune of 2500 US dollars was paid by the Principal Investigator via online transfer. The evidence of the payment is detailed in the telex1 (Appendix 2 Attached).

The second installment to the tune of 1500 US dollars was also paid by the Principal Investigator via online transfer. The evidence of the payment is detailed in the telex 2 (Appendix 3Attached).

The payment of third installment to the tune of 1817 US dollars (equivalent of NGN 290,720:00) was paid to me as the Senate grant. This sum highly supported the purchase. The evidence of the payment is contained in the telex 3 (Appendix 4 attached) and the email conversations of the payment and equipment delivery.

Project Reference No: LAU/SRG/13/005

Project Title: Effect of Modification on the Kinetic, Thermodynamic and computational Structural properties of Dyes on fibres. Names of Principal Investigator and Team members Dr. Isah A. Bello Dr. M. A. Oladipo

Dr. B Semire Executive Summary: (a) Synthesis of Dyes to be applied on fabrics (b) Modification of fabrics before dyeing (c) Determination of thermodynamic parameters (d) Computational Chemistry of the dyeing

Statement of research problems and objectives of research Coloured chemicals such as dyes and pigments are used in the dyeing and printing of textiles and related materials. For a long time, dyes and pigments have been of great economic, social and political importance in many countries. They are major component of the textile industry, and they affect the social and economic activities of the Nation; especially developing nations. The textile and allied industries being the major consumers of dyestuffs and pigments spend the substantial part annual budget to stock the products so as to remain in business all the year round. Billions of naira is spent annually on dyestuff. The very high cost of dyestuffs has created a sharp awareness among industrialists and indeed Government to consider local sourcing of their raw materials. The raw materials are available in large quantities from petroleum and coal tar which are available in the country. The chemical transformation of these materials to useful dyes and pigments by means of unit

process – nitration, sulphunation, reducing etc. Can be done by the experts on the ground. The main aim of this project is to: ● Modify some of the fibres to which these dyestuffs and pigments will be applied so as to determine certain thermodynamic parameters that will reduce the time, amount of dyes and energy of processing. ● By this, the cost of production will be reduced drastically in view of low consumption of energy; hence the cost of the fabrics/fibres will below. ● The determination of these thermodynamics parameters such as ΔH, ΔS, partition coeff icient (K) etc will also help in correlating the structure of the dyes with their dyeability on fibres. This will allow us to derive equations that relate the dyeing kinetics with fibres (these equations can be based on a dyeing theory derived from experimental data).

Research Methodology A (a) Synthesis of Dyes to be applied on fabrics (b) Modification of fabric before dyeing processes (c) Determination of thermodynamic parameters (d) Investigation of complex formation during dyeing processes (e) Computational Chemistry of the dyeing B Investigation carried out so far (a) Dyes were synthesis and purified

(b) Fabric was modified with number of reagents such as CH3 COOH, Na 2CO 3, (NH 4 ) 2SO 4 ,

(NH4 ) 2CO 3 and NaOH.

Results Presentation and Discussion The results obtained have shown that the fabric exhibited three kinds of behaviors to the chemical reagents used as modifying agents:

(1) CH3 COOH, and (NH4 ) 2 SO4 displayed their ability to enhance dye up – take.

(2) Na2 CO 3 and NaOH showed tendency to reduction of dye up take.

(3) (NH4 ) 2CO 3 showed inert behavior * Those modifying agents that are acidic in solution tend to undergo hydrolysisthereby making the solution acidic, which in turn enhances dye up – take. * The second group also undergoes hydrolysis but rendered the solution alkaline (basic). * The third group does not undergo hydrolysis but solution neutral. Conclusion and Major finding of the study Those reagent that enhanced dye up – take are acidic in solution due to hydrolysis, the detailed mechanism of the reaction showed that the Protonation of the fabric is essential for dyeing process to occur. Recommendations More research should be conducted in the area of modification of fabric. Every fabric has reagents/ compds it can react with that will enhance dye up – take faster.

Contribution to Knowledge This work has demonstrated that modification of fabric can alter dye up – take. Some of the modifying agents create more reactive centres for the dye fibres. So it shows that modifications processes are selective. Number of Published Articles01 Authors: Isah A. Bello Olufemi A. Peters, Abdurrahim Giwa

Title: Effect of modifying agents on % equilibrium exhaustion of an acid dye on nylon fabric Musibandeen Abdulhammed and Deborah O. Adeoye (2013) Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences pp 552 – 559 Website: hHp: /www . Scimagorjr. Com / Journal search. Php? q = 17600155 109 & tip = Sidd clean = 0 Numbers of Articles under review 01 Isah A. Bello, Giwa A.A, Olajire A.A and Mary A. Oladipo 2013 Correlation between thermodynamic parameters and % exhaustion of some carboxylated Reactive dyes on silk. Journal: Chemistry and material Research.

PROJECT REFERENCE NUMBER: LAU/SRG/13/007

PROJECT TITLE:APPLICATION OF AGRICULTURAL WASTES FOR THE TREATMENT OF WATER AND WASTEWATER

Name and address of Principal Investigator: Dr. Amuda O. S.:

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry LAUTECH, Ogbomoso

Name and address of Research Team members: Dr. Alade A.O.

Department of Pure and Applied Physics LAUTECH, Ogbomoso

Olayiwola A. O.

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry LAUTECH, Ogbomoso

Executive Summary

Water is an absolute necessity of life on earth and on it depends much of man’s food including animal protein requirement through the consumption of fish and shellfish. The various facets of hydrological cycle serve beneficial uses to mankind. However, population explosion, haphazard rapid urbanization and technological expansion, energy utilization and waste generation from domestic and industrial sources have rendered many water resources unwholesome and hazardous to man and other living resources. Water pollution is a big problem in the recent day world as it threatens aquatic life and changes water bodies into unsightly foulsmelling scenes. It also affects human health as a result of harmful substances that accumulate in the aquatic animals, one of human main sources of food.

Inadequate supply of chemical for wastewater treatment, inadequate funding, low revenue base, inadequate skilled manpower, poor operational and maintenance schedules, and use of inappropriate technology, these have led to depletion of dissolved oxygen, pollution of surface water, destruction of aquatic life, pollution of groundwater and in fact pollution of ecosystem. Inorganic salt such as those of aluminum and iron are the most widely used coagulant in water and wastewater treatment in Nigeria. In recent years, the need for safe and economical method for the elimination of inorganic and organic pollutant from contaminated water and wastewaters has necessitated research interest towards the production of low cost alternatives to commercially available activated carbon.Adsorption offers a cleaner technology, free from sludge handling problems and produces a high quality water and effluent. After the generation of the activated carbons batch adsorption and column studies shall be carried out to know adsorption capacities of the different adsorbents under the conditions of pH, adsorbent dosage, initial ion concentration, agitation time, agitation speed, particle size e.t.c. that influence adsorption. The benchscale experimental results shall later be used for the treatment of the water and wastewater on a pilot scale.

Introduction

Population explosion, haphazard rapid urbanization, industrial and technological expansion, energy utilization and waste generation from domestic and industrial sources have rendered many water resources unwholesome and hazardous to man and other living resources. The pollution problem of industrial wastewater is becoming more and more serious in the world. Consequently, the treatment of water and industrial wastewater remained a topic of global concern since waste products collected from municipality, communities and industries must ultimately be returned to receiving water or to the land. Moreover, contamination of groundwater has become a major concern in the management of water resources. Contaminants, such as heavy metals(Amuda et al. , 2007a, Amudaet al., 2007b) and organic matter (Amuda and Ibrahim, 2006) are characterized by a wide variety of processes occurring in the soil including diffusion, mechanical dispersion, chemical reaction, decay, adsorption and biodegradation. The presence of copper, zinc, lead, iron and nickel and other metals has a

potential damaging effects on human physiology and other biological systems when the tolerance level are exceeded. Many methods of treatment of industrial wastewater have been reported in literature (Navasivayam and Kadrivelu, 1997). The most important technologies include coagulation/flocculation process (Amooet al, 2006; Amuda and Alade, 2006; Amudaet al., 2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Amuda and Amoo, 2007; membrane filtration (Galamboset al., 2004), oxidation process, Peres et al., 2004). These methods are generally expensive, complicated, timeconsuming and required skilled personnel. The high cost of coalbased activated carbons has stimulated research for cheaper alternatives. Activated carbon is black solid substance resembling granular or powdered charcoal. It is a porous carbonaceous material through the carbonization and activation of organic substance, mainly of vegetable origin, such as bamboo, coconut shell, palmkernel shell, wood chips, saw dust, corncob and seeds http//www.tifac.org.in/abt/abt.htnl. Activated carbon has several important uses including solution purification (as in the cleanup of cane, beet and non sugar solutions), and effective removal of taste in water supplies, vegetable and animal fats and oils, chemicals and pharmaceuticals and in the wastewater treatment. It is also use in purification of gas liquid phase recovery, separation processes and as catalyst supports. Many organic compounds as chlorinated and non chlorinated solvents, gasoline, pesticides and trihalomethanes can be absorbed by activated carbon. It is also effective for removal of chlorine and effective for removal of some heavy metals. Activated carbon has widely been used for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from aqueous solution.

Problem Statement

The use of chemicals as coagulants in water and wastewater treatment has been capital intensive. Most industries cannot bear the cost of wastewater treatment due to declining revenues and funding, the inability of local supplies to satisfy the demand for wastewater treatment chemicals, and scarce foreign exchange problem for importing the chemicals. There is also problem of detrimental health effects of chemical residuals in drinking water supplies and effluent discharged into surface water. Synthetic polymers which are also used as primary coagulants or coagulantaid may contain contaminant

formulation during the manufacturing process, such as acrylamide and epichlorohydrin, which are all residual (unreacted)monomers, and are known to be carcinogenic, whilst acrylamide is a neurotoxin that may accumulate with continuous ingestion. There is also the fear that prolonged exposure to aluminium ions in the blood stream may induce Alzheimer’s disease and it has been also indicated to be a causative agent in neurological disease such as presenile dementia. Using alum as well as other metallic salt coagulants produces large sludge volumes that are also nonbiodegradable and therefore increase cost of sludge treatment before final disposal. The use of commercial activated carbon processed from coal has not been largely employed by industries, in Nigeria, for wastewater treatment because of its high cost, the inability of local supplies to satisfy the demand, and scarce foreign exchange problem for importing the carbon.

This project presents a viable environment friendly solution to the pollution of surface and ground waters by the use of lowcost, natural, renewable, environment friendly, sustainable agrobased waste materials such as stems of underutilized trees and shrubs, corncob, shell of seed of Chrysophyllumalbidum(star apple), Afzeliaafricana (African oak) pod, rice husk, sawdust, melon husk, orange peels, coconut shell, barks trees etc, processed into activated carbons for the treatment of water and industrial/domestic wastewater. These materials represent unused resources that are widely available.

Specific Objectives of the Project a. To contribute to the search for less expensive activated carbons and their utilization possibilities for the treatment of water and wastewater. b. To provide an economic way to convert the huge amount of agricultural solid wastes into a useful byproduct that will find many applications in water and wastewater treatment. c. To abate environmental pollution by making use of wastes that contributes pollution to the environment.

d. To encourage wide utilization of the developed activated carbons for wastewater treatment by industrialists due to its efficiency as well as its economic cost. e. To up scale the bench scale model adopted in this project into a full scale treatment plant to be used by industries for wastewater treatment as a new and developed technology of treatment at minimal cost. f. To establish base line study as well as health impact assessment of the use of adsorption technology (using agrobased wastes) in water and wastewater treatment.

Description of Research Methods and Techniques

1. Collection of agricultural wastes such as stem of Lantana camarashrub stem of Delonixregia shrub,pod of Afzeliaafricana (African oak), followed by screening from stones and debris, washing with distilled deionized water and then drying at room temperature for 72 h. 2. Carbonization of the samples in the furnace. 3. Activation of the carbons using steam. 4. Characterization of the adsorbent using BET for surface area, Fourier Transform Infra Red spectrometer, Scaning Electron Microscopy. 5. Batch adsorption experiments shall be conducted at ambient temperature using the optimum conditions of all factors that influence adsorption (e. g. pH, adsorbent dosage, agitation time, agitation speed, particle size e. t. c.). 6. Column adsorption studies using microcolumns and macrocolumns as fixed beds for the adsorbents to determine the adsorption capacities of the adsorbents using optimum factors that influence adsorption (as in 5 above), alongside flow rate of influent. 7. Instrumental analyses of treated water from the operation of batch and columns studies using UVvisible spectrometer for the organic compounds contaminants.

8. Kinetic studies of the experiment using first and second order rate equations in order to establish equilibrium time of adsorption. 9. Fitting of equilibrium data obtained from contaminant sorption capacities of the adsorbents into various adsorption isotherms (Langmuir, Fredunlich, Temkin, e. t. c.) to evaluate equilibrium distribution of the contaminants between the solid and liquid phases. 10. A bench scale model of five units operation involving adsorbents dosing unit, adsorption unit, sedimentation unit, filtration unit and storage tank will be designed and fabricated locally. 11. A pilot scale model of five units operation involving adsorbents dosing unit, adsorption unit, sedimentation unit, filtration unit and storage tank will be designed and fabricated locally.

Results Presentation and Discussion

This study investigated the adsorption of Methylene Blue (MB) present in wastewater onto the activated carbon produce from Lantana camara stem. The agricultural material (Lantana camarastem) was carbonized at 300˚C for 2 h, ground and steamactivated. The SteamActivated Lantana camara (SALC) stem carbon was characterized using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectrophotometry before and after adsorption. Batch model experiments were conducted at 20˚C to study the effects of pH, agitation time, adsorbent dosage and initial concentration of methylene blue. The equilibrium adsorption isotherms and kinetics were investigated. The FTIR bands at 3500, 2500, 2196 and 1682 cm− 1were shifted to 3646.3, 3030, 2822, 1709.05 cm− 1 after MB adsorption. Similarly, the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that the average pore size on the activated carbon was 20 µm. The Methylene Blue (MB) uptake increased with the increase in pH. Similarly, the dye adsorption increased as contact time increased, and reached equilibrium at 60 minutes. The removal of the dye increased when the dosage was increased from 0.5 2.0 g∙L− 1, at different dye concentrations (50 200 mg∙L −1). The percentage removal decreased with increasing initial dye concentration for SALC.

Theadsorption isotherm data fitted well to the Freundlich isotherm (R2 = 0.989) while the experimental data fitted very well to the pseudosecondorder kinetic model (R 2= 0.99). This study suggests that adsorbent prepared from Lantana camarastem may be used effectively for the adsorption of methylene blue and related dye in textile wastewater.

Conclusion and major findings of the study

Lantana camara stem like other agricultural waste can be used in the treatment of dyes in textile wastewater. The adsorption capacity is dependent on pH solution, contact time, adsorbent dosage and adsorbate concentration. Maximum percentage Methylene Blue removal (85%) was attained at 60 minutes. The adsorption capacity of SALC increased with the increase in pH and initial MB concentration. The Langmuir maximum adsorption capacity showed a slight increase. The Freundlich constant (n) revealed that the adsorption process was favourable and that the adsorption of MB into SALC was dominated by chemisorption. The kinetic modelling of adsorption of MB onto SALC followed the pseudosecondorder kinetic model. The value of the maximum adsorption capacity, Qo (19.84 mg/g) was comparable with the values observed for other adsorbents reported in the earlier studies. These preliminary studies suggest that adsorbent prepared from Lantana camara stem can be used effectively for the removal of MB in wastewater.

Major findings of the study

1. Investment in research and development can be sustained; there is new avenue for growth that could help to increase productivity, provide a source of opportunity in new growth areas as well as create new technology driven competitive advantages across industrial sectors. 2. There is the ease of production of alternative activated carbon (processed from agrowastes) for water and wastewater treatment with removal of solid wastes from our environment as a value added advantage.

3. Nigerian public can now have access to safe and wholesome potable water supplies using locally available agrowastes that are safe, sustainable and economically viable. 4. Through the use of wastes Nigerian public can have access to safe and contaminantfree environment. This will reduce risks to human health. 5. Development of communitybased experts and industrialists in the processing of agrowastes, which contribute to environmental pollution, for the production of activated carbons and application techniques in water and wastewater treatment. 6. Adoption of activated carbon adsorption techniques can sustain water resources management through reclamation and reuse of wastewater. 7. Production of activated carbons from cheap materials such as agrowastes will encourage their wide utilization by water and wastewater treatment industries for its efficiency as wellas its economic cost. This will lead to a good pollution control of surface and groundwater because wastewater effluent will be of good quality before discharge. 8. Export of the developed activated carbons to interested countries as in the case of Malaysia that export agrobased activated carbon as a source of income for the country.

Recommendation

There are many more waste materials that could be converted to activated carbon that finds usage in water and wastewater treatment. It is recommended that more wastes be converted to ‘wealth’ for the treatment of water and wastewater; also, for the abatement of environmental pollution.

Contribution to knowledge

This research will provide an economic way to convert the huge amount of agricultural solid wastes into useful byproduct that will find many applications in water and wastewater treatment. It will abate environmental pollution by making use of wastes that contributes pollution to the environment. It will encourage wide utilization of the developed activated carbons for wastewater treatment by industrialists due to its efficiency as well as its economic cost.

Number of Published article: One

O. S. Amuda, A. O.Olayiwola, A. O.Alade (2014). Adsorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution Using SteamActivated Carbon Produced from Lantana camara Stem.Journal of Environmental Protection. 5, 13521363 http://www.scirp.org/journal/jephttp://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2014.513129

Number of article under review: One

O. S. Amuda, A. O.Olayiwola, A. O.Alade. Adsorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution Using SteamActivated Carbon Produced from Delonixregia pod.

PROJECT REFERENCE NUMBER: LAU/SRG/13/008

PROJECT TITLE: Development of HighYielding Drought Tolerant Maize (Zeamays L.) Hybrids in the Derived Savanna AgroEcology of Nigeria.

Name and address of Principal Investigator: Dr. M.A. Adebayo

Department of Crop Production and Soil Production, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso.

EXECUTIVESUMMARY:

Maize ( Zeamays L.) is a leading cereal crop in subSaharan Africa and a major staple cereal in Nigeria. Maize forms a major component of the common diets of most tribes in Nigeria. It is also a vital component of livestock feeds in the country. Maize has been identified as one of the crops whose production and productivity must be improved in order to achieve the African Green Revolution in near distant future. There is a growing culture of maize cultivation and production in the Derived Savanna Agroecology of Nigeria but specific elite hybrid varieties that are welladapted to the peculiar agroclimatic conditions of the area are not available.

This project was based on evaluating two sets of maize hybrids developed from elite drought tolerant exotic and adapted maize inbred lines in LAUTECH Teaching and Research Farm, Ogbomoso situated in the Derived Savanna Agroecology of Nigeria. The two sets of elite maize hybrids, one comprising 96 singlecrosses of adapted and exotic inbred lines and four hybrid checks, and the other comprising of testcross hybrids of exotic and adapted lines crossed to two adapted inbred testers were evaluated over two growing seasons in 2013 and 2014. Highyielding and suitably adapted genotypes were identified over the two years that this project was executed.

INTRODUCTION

Problem Statement

Maize ( Zeamays L.) is an important cereal crop that supplies the world’s food, feed and fuel. Maize accounts for over 25% of the calorific intake of the people living in the subSaharan Africa (SSA). It is now ahead of the traditional African cereals like sorghum and millet as a staple food crop. Although maize production has risen dramatically in SSA over time as a result of improved agronomic management practices and adoption of improved varieties, the average yield of 1.3 t ha 1 on farmers’ fields is still low when compared with an average of over 8 t ha 1 obtainable on farmers’ fields in the USA. The continuous adoption of unimproved landrace varieties mostly by resourcepoor farmers, the use of seeds of Open Pollinated Varieties (OPVs) stored from previous harvests, and the devastating impacts of biotic and abiotic stress factors, have contributed significantly to the low yields in farmers’ fields in SSA. Drought is the single most important abiotic stress factor that affects maize production and productivity, causing an average annual yield loss of over 17% in SSA (Edmeades et al ., 1998) or above 70% when it coincides with the time of flowering and grainfilling (Adebayo, 2014). It is expected that drought will intensify and pose more serious threats to agriculture in the foreseeable future due to the imminent global climate change (Mir et al ., 2012). The agricultural production areas that were not droughtsusceptible in the past are now becoming more vulnerable to incidences of drought stress. Such places include the Derived Savanna Agroecology zone of Nigeria. Whenever drought stress occurs at the time of flowering in maize, farmers become helpless because they do not have the chance of resowing their fields, so they consequently lose their crops and investments for that year. Also the cost of using irrigation to mitigate the impact of drought stress is prohibitive for resourcepoor farmers in SSA. The most economically

viable means of assisting the lowincome farmers to combat the menace of drought stress is by developing for them highyielding, droughtresistant and stable hybrid maize varieties. The significant contribution of genotype by environment (GxE) interaction component of variance to the performance of these new maize hybrids has necessitated the need to test them in many more environments and select superior hybrids for each production environment. The Derived Savanna Agroecological zone of Nigeria is gaining more prominence as a maize production environment in Nigeria (Iken and Amusa, 2004). There are no known commercial hybrid maize varieties that are suitable for the peculiar agroclimatic conditions of the derived savanna agroecology. The development of stable highyielding, droughttolerant hybrid maize varieties for this agroecology will be beneficial to farmers. Two sets of new maize hybrids comprising of 96 singlecrosses and 41 testcrosses with high yielding potentials and high levels of drought tolerance that were bred by Adebayo (2012) will be screened in the Teaching and Research (T & R) Farm of LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, with the following objectives:

Specific Objectives of the Project: i. To assess the performance of two sets of new maize hybrids for grain yield and other agronomic attributes, and select promising hybrids for the Derived Savanna Agroecology. ii. To develop new singlecross maize hybrids from crosses of promising adapted and exotic lines, iii. To initiate a robust maize breeding program in the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso.

Research Methodology: i. Field Evaluation Trials involving 100 maize hybrids (96 NCD2 singlecross hybrids plus four hybrid checks), 44 testcross hybrids (41 Line x Tester hybrids plus three hybrid checks), and 48 parental lines (46 parents of the hybrids plus two inbred lines checks) were established adjacent to one another in the T & R Farm, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso in the main seasons of 2013 and 2014.

Experiments were conducted between May and November each year. The 100 NCD2 hybrids, 44 LxT hybrids, and the 48 parental lines were arranged on the field using 10 x 10, 4 x 11, and 6 x8 alpha lattices, respectively. Each year, experimental plot was a single 5m row with spacing of 0.75 m between rows and 0.50 m between hills. The field was oversown with three seeds per hill and later thinned to two seeds per hill two weeks after planting in other to attain a plant population density of 53,333 plants ha 1. Spot application of a compound fertilizer was done at the rate of 60 kg N, 60 kg P, and 60 kg K per hectare. Urea was applied as topdressing at the rate of 60 kg N ha 1 four weeks later. Weed control was achieved with the application of a mixture of gramaxone and atrazine as preemergence herbicides at 5.0 l ha 1 each of Paraquat and Primextra. Subsequently, manual weeding was done to keep the trials weedfree. ii. Data Collection Data were collected on plot basis on days to 50% anthesis (DTA) as the number of days from planting to when 50% of plants in a plot have started shedding pollen, days to 50% silking (DTS) as the number of days from planting to when 50% of plants in a plot have emerged silks. Anthesissilkinginterval (ASI) was computed as the difference between DTS and DTA. Plant (PLHT) and ear (EHT) heights were measured in centimeters (cm) as the distance from the base of the plant to the height of the first tassel branch and the node bearing the upper ear, respectively. Plant aspect (PASP) was scored visually on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 = excellent overall phenotypic appeal and 5 = poor overall phenotypic appeal. Ear aspect (EASP) was also visually rated on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 = clean, uniform, large, and wellfilled ears and 5 = rotten, variable, small, and partially filled ears. The total number of plants and ears were counted in each plot at the time of harvest, and weighed to generate the field weight. The number of ears per plant (EPP) was then computed as the proportion of the total number of ears at harvest divided by the total number of plants harvested. Grain moisture expressed in % was measured using a moisture meter at harvest. Grain yield (GY), measured in kg ha 1 and adjusted to 15% moisture content was calculated from field weight and percent moisture. The following equation will be used for estimating grain yield: GY (kg ha 1) = (GWT (kg)/ 3 m 2 x [(100 – MC) / (10015] x 10,000 m 2.

iii. Statistical Analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was computed separately for each year for the measured traits of genotypes in each trial. Thereafter, ANOVA of combined data over the two years was done using the appropriate adjusted means for each group of hybrids. Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was carried out to separate the hybrid trait means whenever F test was significant. All analyses will be conducted using SAS software (SAS, 2009).

Results Presentation and Discussion Results of the analyses conducted separately for each year and those combined over the two years showed that for each set of hybrids, genotypes differed significantly for all measured traits including grain yield (data not shown), suggesting that superior hybrids may be selected. Mean grain yields for the singlecross hybrids varied from 3,772 to 9,583 kg ha 1 with a trial mean of 7,312 kg ha 1 in 2013 and from 314 to 10,820 kg ha 1 with an average of 5,453 kg ha 1 in 2014 whereas those of testcrosses ranged between 4,986 and 9,764 kg ha 1 with a trial mean of 7,161 kg ha 1 in 2013 and varied from 1,556 to 8,006 kg ha 1 with a mean of 4,710 kg ha 1 in 2014. The relatively poor general agronomic performance of the hybrids, particularly for grain yield in 2014 could be attributed to the combination of a severe stress witnessed during flowering and the excessive rainfall prior to harvesting. Also, the breakdown of the humidifier in the cold store in which the hybrids seeds were store at IITA, Ibadan, over a period of time in late 2013 through early 2014 affected the viability of the seed negatively and led to poor germination and field establishment.

Over the two years in the singlecross hybrids category, the top 10 hybrids that were selected produced mean yields of over 8,000 kg ha 1, and the top four produced significantly higher yields than Oba Super 1 which is best commercial check (Table 1). Four out of the selected top 10, namely, ADL32xEXL06, ADL32xEXL02, EXL01xADL36, and EXL05xADL35, had stable yields over the two years (Table 1). These hybrids were among the superior hybrids identified in previous studies conducted with the same set of hybrids under stimulated drought stress conditions and across three diverse environments in Nigeria 51

(Adebayo, 2012). The stability of performance of the four hybrids over the two years in previous studies suggests that they could be advanced for release to farmers as maize hybrids that are welladapted to the Derived Savanna agroecology and having wide adaptation in other growing conditions in Nigeria.

In the testcross hybrids category, each of the top three hybrids among the selected top 10 had a yield advantage of > 10% over the best check in the trials averaged over two years, and produced mean yield in excess of 8,000 kg ha 1 (Table 2). The limited variability existing within this group of hybrids could be attributed to the relatively fewer number of genotypes in the group and their narrower genetic backgrounds because they were developed from 20 adapted and exotic inbred lines crossed to only two inbred testers. The other factors that adversely affected the performance of the singlecrosses also contributed to the poor performance of this category in 2014. However, the topmost hybrid, EXL11x9071 (Table 1), had shown superior performance in simulated drought stress experiments and multilocation trials conducted in previous studies (Adebayo, 2012). This hybrid is also suitable for consideration for release to farmers as a highyielding and stable variety in this environment.

Figures AD showed some of the operations undertaken on the field in 2014.

Table 1: Mean grain yields (kg ha 1) and statistics of the top10 highestyielding maize hybrids selected among the 96 singlecrosses and four checks evaluated at LAUTECH T&R Farm during the rainy seasons of 2013, 2014, and over the two years.

2013 2014 OVER 20132014 HYBRID GY HYBRID GY HYBRID GY ADL32 x EXL06 9583 ADL32xEXL06 10320 ADL32xEXL06 9951 EXL15 x EXL01 9540 ADL32xEXL03 9730 EXL01xADL36 9076 ADL33 x EXL15 9406 EXL01xADL36 9409 ADL32xEXL02 9063 EXL04 x ADL34 9313 ADL32xEXL02 9274 ADL32xEXL03 9058 EXL10 x EXL04 9118 EXL05xADL34 8851 EXL15xEXL04 8469 EXL05 x ADL35 8863 EXL04xADL36 8663 EXL05xADL35 8372

ADL32 x EXL02 8852 EXL15xEXL04 8574 EXL05xADL34 8258 EXL17 x EXL01 8820 EXL17xEXL05 8429 EXL15xEXL05 8211 EXL01 x ADL36 8742 EXL15xEXL05 8013 EXL16xEXL24 8110 EXL01 x ADL39 8699 EXL05xADL35 7880 EXL04xADL35 8090 Checks M10268 9273 M10268 7262 M10268 8169 M10267 6394 M10267 7065 M10267 6828 OBA SUPER 1 6004 OBASUPER1 7304 OBASUPER1 6654 OBA98 5925 OBA98 6583 OBA98 6254 Statistics Mean 7312 Mean 5453 Mean 6387 SE 101 SE 168 SE 108

LSD0 .05 2157 LSD0 .05 2151 LSD0 .05 2125

Table 2: Mean grain yields (kg ha 1) and statistics of the top10 highestyielding maize hybrids selected from 41 testcrosses and three checks evaluated at LAUTECH T&R Farm during the rainy seasons of 2013, 2014, and over the two years.

2013 2014 OVER 20132014 HYBRID GY HYBRID GY HYBRID GY EXL11 x 9071 9764 EXL22 x 9071 8006 EXL11 x 9071 8393 EXL18 x 9071 9624 ADL32 x 1368 7663 EXL18 x 9071 8311 ADL33 x 9071 8801 ADL34 x 9071 7567 EXL22 x 9071 8062 EXL13 x 9071 8642 EXL09 x 1368 7444 EXL12 x 9071 7856 ADL48 x 9071 8510 EXL12 x 9071 7368 EXL23 x 1368 7566 EXL23 x 9071 8508 EXL23 x 1368 7042 ADL34 x 9071 7400 EXL21 x 9071 8485 EXL11 x 9071 7021 EXL21 x 9071 7394 ADL36 x 9071 8354 EXL18 x 9071 6998 EXL20 x 9071 7265 EXL12 x 9071 8343 EXL20 x 9071 6689 ADL32 x 1368 7212 ADL30 x 9071 8299 EXL12 x 1368 6649 EXL12x1368 7152 Checks

OBA SUPER 8604 OBA SUPER 1 5960 OBA SUPER 1 7282 1 M10267 5633 M10267 5945 M10267 5789 OBA 98 5141 OBA 98 4918 OBA 98 5030 Statistics Mean 7161 Mean 4710 Mean 5935 SE 197 SE 243 SE 181

LSD0 .05 3453 LSD0 .05 3382 LSD0 .05 2329

Conclusion

The mean grain yields of over 6 t ha 1 for the singlecrosses and about 6 t ha 1 for the testcrosses produced onstation over the two years compared with average annual grain yield that is less than 2 t ha1 obtainable on the farmer’s field in the Derived Savanna Agroecology revealed the prospect of enhancing maize grain yield and agronomic performance through breeding in this environment. The rising culture of maize cultivation in this agroecological zone can be greatly encouraged by developing welladapted, highyielding hybrid maize varieties for the farmers.

Recommendations

The top ten hybrids selected from each category, particularly the four stable singlecrosses and one stable testcross are recommended for advanced breeding programs including onfarm trials and detailed onstation characterization. The testing stage of this breeding work will involve collaboration with agricultural extensionists in order to reach out to farmers. The preferred candidate(s) by the farmers can then be submitted for evaluation for possible release to Nigerian farmers in the next couple of years. The hybrids, when eventually released, will be credited to LAUTECH as the Institution that developed them.

Contributions to Knowledge

1. Enough data has been generated for carrying out genetic analyses to identify superior exotic maize inbred lines whose novel alleles can be introgressed into adapted germplasm for improvement. 2. The superior hybrids that were identified through this project are crosses involving adapted and exotic inbred lines. This finding underscores the rationale for sourcing and using exotic germplasm developed outside Nigeria in maize improvement programs in the country. 3. An ambitious maize breeding program for the training of undergraduate and postgraduate students has been established in LAUTECH.

Progress on Publication

The 2Year field data generated on the two sets of maize hybrids evaluated in Ogbomoso have been analyzed and some parts of the results are provided in this report. The preparation of the manuscripts for publication is ongoing. LAURESCON office will be provided with copies of manuscripts as soon as they are published.

The proposal submitted to LAURESCON was based on a year (2013) budget but when it became clear that it is mandatory for us to publish the results of the project in reputable journals, and because oneyear data on evaluation of breeding

materials in just one location will not be accepted for publication, the year 2014 evaluation became inevitable. Some of the equipment that were listed for procurement such as moisture meters and weighing balances (please see original proposal) were not purchased so that some money can be left for the second year evaluation. (The Grant provided could not support procurement of Moisture Metres because the unit price of the equipment was over $300 at the time the Grant was made available. IITA Maize Breeding Unit provided the equipment for this project). The weighing balances were rather purchased with supports from LAUTECHAGRA Maize Breeding project.

PROJECT REFERENCE NUMBER: LAU/SRG/13/010 PROJECT TITLE:ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL, ANTIOXIDANT AND PROVITAMIN A INDICES OF TOMATOES UNDER FIELD AND POSTHARVEST RIPENING CONDITIONS. Name and address Principal Investigator: Dr. M. ABDULHAMMED Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria Executive Summary: The approval letter for the grant was communicated in a letter dated 13th August, 2013 and the work has commenced since then. However, due to the nature of the work whichinvolved tomato plantation and its seasonal orientation, the work has started earlier before theapproval letter was sent. A Laboratory/ Research Assistant, an unemployed but experiencedyoung Fresh graduate of Chemistry, was recruited. This report covers the period from 10th July, 2013 to 14th August, 2014. Itsummarises the timeline of the work done. Timeline of the Work First Quarter (July September, 2013): Nursery bed preparation and seedplantation. Two different tomato plantations were employed. In one plantation at Kuye farmland, a tomato nursery bed (already prepared as at June, 2013) was acquired from an experiencedlocal farmer and a collaborator working with the same tomato varieties. The seeds of thetomato cultivars used were AjindiKerewa, UC, Cherry Nasmata, Var10 and Beske as wellas Petomech, F1 Lindo, F1 Jaguar and Tropimech. The second plantation was on theLAUTECH Research farm. The trial tomatoes were planted in sandyloamy soil, in singlerows on 152 cm beds in 30foot plots. The plants were thinned to a density of one to twoplants per 30 cm. The fields were subjected to common and standard agricultural practicesand under open field conditions, without fertilizer/ manure application. Second Quarter (September to December, 2013: Harvesting and laboratory Analysis

The yields from the two plantations were completely different, with that on Kuye plantation having much higher yield. The differences in the yield might be as a result of therainfall pattern in the year (2013). The Kuye plantation was prepared a month ahead of that ofLAUTECH Research farm. The harvest was done by hand picking. Preliminary analysis werecarried out on the fruits variability, by picking 1025 tomato fruits belonging to the sameripening class and analysed for the parameters in each fruits. A correlation coefficient of r >0.88 was obtained overall. The ripening techniques involved were field ripening and postharvest (ambienttemperature) ripening conditions. For field ripening technique, about 1015 tomato fruits belonging to the same group were picked at random with respect to the targeted ripeningstage every morning of the period of study. For ripening at ambient temperature, the tomatofruits were picked at once on reaching the breaker stage (in line with common practices) andwere left to “selfripe” in a wellventilated laboratory. In both methods of ripening, the fruitswere packed into polythene bags and taken into the laboratory, where they were rinsed withdistilled water and left to drain for some minutes. Individual tomatoes were sliced and allparts of the fruits were utilized. Laboratory Analysis Extraction and quantification of lycopene and βcarotene Conventional solvent extraction methods (PerkinsVeazie et al., 2001; Sadler et al., 1990) were employed for carotenoid extraction. The absorbance of the hexane extracts weremeasured at 450 and 502 nm through direct reading as well by scanning within a wavelengthrange of 400 to 600 nm using a UVVisible spectrophotometer. This was carried out at theUniversity Central Research Lab, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso. The lycopene and βcaroteneconcentrations were determined using previously reported protocol (Fish, 2012; AbdulHammed et al., 2013). Determination of titratable acidity, pH, total solid, Vitamin C and reducing sugar contents of tomatoes The titratable acidity, TA (expressed as % citric acid) was determined as previously

described (AOAC, 1990). The pH was measured with a digital pHmeter. The total solidcontent (TS) was determined by the method of AOAC, 1990. The reducing sugar content wasdetermined by the phenolsulphuric method involving the measurement of the absorbance ofthe complex formed at 490 nm. Third and Fourth quarter (Data Analysis and Modelling) The kinetic analysis of the data for lycopene and betacarotene is completed but the kinetic data is still being subjected to ordinary differential equation (ODE) modelling technique (in collaboration with another scientist) and a maximum number of days to attainfull tomato ripening will be predicted. Contribution(s) to knowledge: This study shows that tomatoes allowed to ripe on the field are of higher quality in terms of sweetness which appeases customers and are better sources of antioxidants thanthose ripened at ambient temperature. Some of the tomato varieties (such as AjindiKerewa) investigated could be of greater benefits to the farmers than the consumer due to its lowshrinkage rate, but others with higher nutritional and health benefits are more beneficial tothe consumers. The kinetic/ ODE model desired to be developed could be used to predict theeffective concentration of geranyl geranyl pyrophosphate in the carotenoid biosyntheticpathway, which may be a future useful and cheaper tool in biotechnology to manipulate thebioaccumulation of carotenoids in tomatoes on a small to medium scale basis. Number of published articles: 1 (Full article attached) Number of articles under review: 2 (1 accepted; 1 under data processing) However, the late release (in February, 2014) of the grant money served as a great impediment to the original design of the work. REFERENCES

AbdulHammed, M., Bello, I. A. and Oladoye, S. O. 2013. PakJ. Sci. Ind. Res, Series B: BiolSci. 56(2): 9097. AOAC. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th Ed. Arlington, Virginia: Association ofOfficial Analytical Chemists. Fish, W. W. 2012. Postharvest Biol. Tech. 66: 1622. PerkinsVeazie, P., Collins, J. K., Pair, S. D. and Roberts, W. 2001. J. Sci. Food Agric. 81:983987. Sadler, G., Davis, J. and Dezman, D. 1990. J. Food Sci. 55: 14601461. Signature and Date: 14/ 08/2014

PROJECT REFERENCE NUMBER: LAU/SRG/13/011

RESEARCH TITLE: Biosystematic Studies ON Capsicum L. and Solanum L. in Nigeria.

Name of Principal Investigator: Dr. A.T.J. Ogunkunle

Department of Pure and Applied Biology, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso

Name of Team members: D r. M.A. Azeez, Prof. M.O. Liasu and Mr. A.O. Adepoju

Department of Pure and Applied Biology, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso

Executive Summary:

This research was borne out of passion for solving the long timeexisting problem in the Nigerian Capsicum and Solanum genera of the Solanaceae family. The application for Senate research grant was submitted along with the research proposal for this study, on 27 th June, 2013. All hands were on deck since the day of research grant approval, to ensure originality and success of the work. Even though several hitches were encountered and several expenses made that were not planned for, the work can be said to be a successful one. The samples were sourced for, grown to fruiting and maturity, harvested and stored. The Leaf anatomical features of the two genera have been revealed through Scanning Electron Microscope studies conducted at the Materials Science Laboratory, Kwara State University, Malete; their stem and root anatomical were carried out in the Old Biology department Laboratory, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso. Their features were revealed on three planes each (Transverse, Transverse Longitudinal and Radial Longitudinal Sections), making a total of about 72 planes. Furthermore, the seed protein profiles of 24 seedproducing plants involved in this research were analysed through the molecular technique called Sodium Dodecyl Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDSPAGE) carried out at the Nigerian Institute for Medical Research, Yaba, Lagos State. The GCMS spectra of each plant extracts were also generated at the chemical Engineering department, University of Ilorin. A

total of N 403, 000:00k has been spent on the Research work (see the last section below for the details of the expenses). The results of this work are currently being analysed and are being collated for publications. About five publications are expected based on the problems in the groups of plants under study.

❑ INTRODUCTION

The genera Capsicum and Solanum both belong to the Solanaceae family. In West Africa, Capsicum (peppers) species are widely grown and used in a number of ways. They are the third in Nigeria among the cultivated vegetables being utilized as spice and as vegetable (Burkill, 2000). According toNwachukwu et al., (2007), peppers account for a large portion of vitamins A and C in many Nigerian diets. Moreover, species of the two genera have medical and ornamental applications (Bosland and Votava, 2000; Hunziker, 2001).

Problem Statement and Specific Objectives of the Project:

Capsicum and Solanum species have been regarded as a taxonomicallydifficult genus by many workers (Eshbaugh, 1970 and 1975; Heiser and Pickersgill, 1975; Pickersgill et. al. , 1978; Eshbaugh, 1980; Sękara et al., 2007 and Edeoga et al., 2010). Where their classification is confused, so is their nomenclature. As such, any information about such taxa is not specific and therefore, less useful. Against the backdrop of these taxonomic problems, many taxonomists have contributed to the description of species of Capsicum and Solanum, but only few publications have treated a few African species (Manoko, 2007). Some Capsicum (Peppers) and Solanum (Eggplant, Potato and Tomato) species available in Nigeria are closely related plants whose taxonomic status still remains controversial. Morphometry as important, and as useful as it is, could not solve complex taxonomic problems like the one that exist within the species of these two genera. So far, no report on the stem and root wood anatomical relationship of the species in the genera could be traced. Moreover, their seed protein profiles by SDSPAGE analysis have not been reported.

The study has been designed to carry out anatomical and molecular studies on the species of Capsicum and Solanum available in Nigeria, with the goal to resolving the controversies on their taxonomic status. The specific objectives of this study are:

● to identify the leaf anatomical markers for the species of C apsicum and S olanum available in Nigeria;

● to elucidate their wood anatomical characteristics for the purpose of documentation and for proper identification of the species of both genera;

● to document the variations in the root anatomy of the species with a view to creating identification markers for the species;

● to identify the biochemical markers usable for the proper identification of the species using SDS PAGE.

❑ Research Methodology:

Sample Collection: According as it was stated in the proposal for this work, plant samples of the three Capsicum species and the eighteen Solanum species investigated in this research was gathered (some of them were purchased). The seed samples were obtained as stated in tables 1 and 2. The seeds of the abovelisted species have been gathered and grown (with the exception of S. erianthum which is a woody perennial crop) in the Botanical Garden of LAUTECH, Ogbomoso. The seeds were grown for the purpose of regeneration and also to be able to harvest the leaves, seeds/buds, stems, roots and which are needed for the various analyses which were proposed to be carried out. In the case of S . erianthum, materials needed for various analyses were obtained from freelygrowing trees around the LAUTECH botanical garden.

Table 1: List of the species of Capsicum species collected for the study S/N Species Name Place of collection 1 C. annuum NACGRAB, Ibadan 2 C. fructescens (3) NACGRAB, Ibadan 3 C. chinense Field collection, Ogbomoso

Table 2: List of the species of Solanum species collected for the study S/N Species Name Place of collection 1 Solanum aethiopicum NACGRAB, Ibadan 2 S. americanum Field collection, Ogbomoso 3 S. gilo Field collection, Ilorin 4 S. villosum. (4) NACGRAB, Ibadan 5 S. macrocarpon (2) Field collection, Ogbomoso and Ilorin 6 S. melongena Field collection, Ilorin

7 S. nigrum UNAAB, Abeokuta 8 S. anomalum NISPRI, Ilorin 9 S. dasyphyllum UNAAB, Abeokuta 10 S. tuberosum Field collection, Jos 11 S. scabrum NACGRAB, Ibadan 12 S. pimpinellifolium Field collection, Osogbo 13 S. lycopersicum (2) Field collection, Ilorin and BirninKebbi 14 S. erianthum Field collection, Ogbomoso 15 S. torvum Field collection, Ogbomoso Note: The numbers in the parentheses indicate the number of varieties of the species gathered; Total number of specimens= Twentyfive (25)

Morphological Studies: While on the field, the Leaf morphological data of the Plant species involved in this study was taken and recorded. The data that was taken include: Leaf Length, Leaf width and Petiole Length. The data was taken in order that calculations would be made through them to obtain Leaf Petiole/Leaf Length ratio and Leaf Length/Width Ratio. The readings were taken in replicates on ten leaves per plant species grown. Some qualitative and quantitative data were also collected from the fruits of the plants under study.

Leaf Epidermal Studies:

This was carried out according to the method of Edeoga et al. (2010). Epidermal preparations from leaf blades were made from both adaxial and abaxial surfaces according to the conventional techniques found suitable for specific specimens. Observations and readings were made on the epidermal cells, stomata, stomatal complexes and epidermal hairs, both on the leaf blades and on the petioles.

Wood Anatomical Studies on Stem and Root:

Studies and observations on woody stem and root sections were carried out in accordance with the provisions of the International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA, 1989). With regard to nonwoody stems and roots, the primary structures of their

anatomy were studied and documented using standard procedures.Detailed wood anatomical descriptions shall be undertaken following the standard procedures in IAWA (1989) for hardwood identification. Microscopic observations on the slides were made and recorded in photographs, using a computerfitted photomicroscope.

SDSPAGE (Determination of Protein Markers)

This process will be carried out at the Biotechnology Laboratory, International Institute for Tropical Agriculture Headquarters, Ibadan, Nigeria. The Nigerian species of Capsicum and Solanum being investigated shall also be selected as material for SDS PAGE analysis according to the method of Essiet and Illoh (2010). The major steps that shall be followed are included in Figure 1.

Analysis of Data from SDSPAGE:

Presence and absence of the band would be scored “1” and “0” respectively and would be entered in a binary matrix. The data would be analysed for simple statistics and cluster analysis using the standard procedures with the help of computer software SPSS, Origin 8 and other relevant programs found suitable.

Figure 1: Major processes involved in the Analysis of Secondary Metabolites.

❑ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Morphological Data: Leaf Length, Leaf width and Petiole Length data were taken and calculations were made through them to obtain Leaf Petiole/Leaf Length ratio and Leaf Length/Width Ratio. The readings were taken in replicates on ten leaves per plant species grown. The data were analysed through Microsoft Excel and the results presented in tables.

Leaf Epidermal Data:

Observations and readings were made on the epidermal cells, stomata, stomatal complexes and epidermal hairs, both on the leaf blades and on the petioles.

Plates 17 reveals the appearance of the leaf epidermal features of some of the taxa investigated.

Plate 1: SEM of the adaxial surface of C . annuum

Plate 2: SEM of the adaxial surface of C . fructescence v ar. bawa

Plate 3: SEM of the abaxial surface of S . erianthum.

Plate 4: SEM of the abaxial surface of S . tuberosum

Stem and Root Anatomy: After harvesting the stems and roots of the species involved in this study, they were transferred to the laboratory of the department of Pure and Applied Biology, LAUTECH for sectioning and mounting. Sections were made at three planes (Transverse Longitudinal, Transverse and Radial longitudinal planes) per sample (Plates 57). Apart from these, the tissues of the stem and root woods were macerated in order to separate the materials that make them up.

Studies and observations on woody root sections shall be carried out in accordance with the provisions of the International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA, 1989). Detailed wood anatomical descriptions are being undertaken following the standard procedures in IAWA (1989) for hardwood identification. Microscopic observations on the slides are being made and

recorded in photographs, using a computerfitted photomicroscope. With regard to nonwoody roots, the primary structure of the root anatomy are being studied and documented using standard procedures.

The variability in the qualitative and quantitative features among the taxa being studied are being documented. Means and ranges of quantitative characters (leaf, root and stem) have been determined and standard errors were calculated. Data obtained from anatomical studies shall be analysed numerically with the construction of dendograms for each of the two genera. These are intended to show affinity among the species of each genus and between the infrageneric groups.

Plate 5: Transverse Section through S olanum americanum stem

Plate 6: TangentialLongitudinal Section through S olanum americanum stem

Plate 7: RadialLongitudinal Section through S olanum americanum stem Analysis of Data from Anatomical Studies:

from anatomical studies are being analysed numerically with the construction of dendograms for each of the two genera. These are intended to show affinity among the species of each genus and between the infrageneric groups.

Results on SDSPAGE (Protein Markers):

This process was carried out at the Biotechnology Laboratory, Nigerian Institute for Medical research, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria. The seeds of Nigerian species of Capsicum and Solanum being investigated were selected as material for SDS PAGE analysis according to the method of Essiet and Illoh (2010). The major steps that were followed include Protein Extraction, Electrophoresis, Staining and Destaining and running of the gel. Presence and absence of the band was scored “1” and “0” respectively and was entered in a binary matrix. The data is currently being analysed for simple statistics and cluster analysis using the standard procedures with the help of computer software SPSS, Origin 8 and Microsoft Excel.

P late 8: SDS PAGE of the first 14 Solanum and Capsicum cultivars.

❑ Conclusion and Major Findings:

▪ Leaf, root and stem Epidermal Anatomy of the Capsicum and Solanum genera showed different levels of variations between the plants investigated.

▪ SDS PAGE of the seed proteins of the plants also revealed variations between the plants.

❑ Recommendations:

This study has been able to reveal the variations between the two genera. However, there is need for clarification of this study through appropriate DNA Markers. This will serve as confirmatory measure to the findings of this study.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE

❑ Documentation of the leaf anatomical characteristics for better identification of species of C apsicum and S olanum in Nigeria;

❑ Identification of the wood anatomical markers for identification of Nigerian species of C apsicum and S olanum;

❑ Enumeration of the root anatomical features for the proper identification of the Nigerian species of both genera;

❑ Documentation of the biochemical characters for diagnosing the Nigerian species of C apsicum and S olanum using SDSPAGE and GCMS.

▪ Photomicroscope (Bresser Brand)

❑ PUBLICATIONS: ▪ Number of Publications Expected: F ive (5) ▪ Number of Published Articles: N one yet (0) ▪ Number of Articles under review: T hree (3)

Project Reference number: LAU/SRG/13/014 Project Title:Isolation, Characterization and Biological activity studies of chemical constituents of Leaf extracts of Jatropha tanjorensis.

Name of Principal Investigator: Dr. Oladoye Sunday Olusegun

Name of Research Team: Prof. E.T. Ayodele

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry,Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.

Executive Summary: The project investigated the leaf extract of Jatropha tanjorensis for antimicrobial activity and for its’ bioactive constituents. Two novel compounds – Taraxerol and Taraxer 14 – 3 – one were isolated and characterized from the study. The study also established that the leaf extract of this plant has a broad spectrum antimicrobial activity.

Introduction: Jatropha tanjorensis is a plant that is native to Central America but has become naturalized in many tropical and sub tropical countries of the world (Prabaka & Sujatha, 1999, Oyewole & Akingbala, 2011). It is an herbaceous plant of the euphorbiaceae family commonly called catholic vegetable, hospital too far, Iyanaipaja and lalapa in Nigeria(Iwalewa et al., 2005). The plant is used in Nigeria primarily for fencing and as a source of leafy vegetable (O’ Hara et al., 1998) and medicinally for the treatment of hypertension and diabetes. A number of studies have also been carried out to validate the ethno medical uses of this plant, for instance, evaluation of the leaf extract for antidiabetic potentials gave a positive result (Olayiwola et al., 2004). Similarly, investigation of the plant extract for anti microbial and anti inflammatory effects was positive (Viswanathan et al ., 2009, Omobuwajo et al ., 2011, Arun et al ., 2012) and different levels of activity reported. However, there has not been any attempt at identifying the compounds responsible for the documented observed activity of this plant extract. It is this gap in knowledge that the study sought to bridge.

The objective of this study is to isolate and characterize the constituents of the leave extract of Jatropha tanjorensis with emphasis on antimicrobial, antidiabetic and hypoglycemic principles.

Research Methodology: The experiment involved the following steps: a. Collection, airdrying and pulverization of sample.

b. Extraction of the pulverized sample and concentration of the extract. c. Screening of the crude extract for biological activity. d. (Bioassay guided) chromatographic fractionation of the crude extract. e. Purification of the biologically active fractions by Column and thin layer chromatography. f. Spectroscopic analysis (IR, UVVIS, 1 H and 1 3C NMR, MS) of isolated compounds Result Presentation and Discussion: Successive extraction of the dried pulverized leaf sample of Jatropha tanjorenis with nhexane, ethylacetate and methanol and concentration of the extracts gave crude extracts with these solvents. These crude extracts were subjected to series of column and thin layer chromatographic fractionation through which two compounds were isolated and purified. The isolated compounds were characterized through their Melting points, spectroscopic data (IR, 1H& 1 3CNMR and MS) and comparison of the data with literature. Evaluation of the crude extracts and the isolated compounds for antimicrobial (antibacterial and antifungal) and anti oxidant potentials showed the crude extracts exhibiting moderate to high inhibitory effects on the test organisms while the column fractions exhibited very high antimicrobial activity on both the bacteria and fungi organisms. However, only the nhexane extract revealed moderate antioxidant activity. Conclusion and Major findings: The study has shown that Jatropha tanjorensis is a potential source of antimicrobial agents and that Taraxerol and Taraxer14ene3one are some of the antimicrobial agents in Jatropha tanjorensis. The compounds could therefore be exploited as nuclei for development of new broad spectrum antimicrobial drugs to replace existing drugs to which these organisms have developed resistance. Recommendations: Further study to isolate and characterize other bioactive constituents of the plant is recommended. Studies could also be extended to the plant root.

Contributions to knowledge:

(a) The study has shown that the leaf extract of Jatropha tanjorensis has a broad spectrum antimicrobial activity.

(b) Taraxerol and Taraxer14ene3one were isolated and characterized from Jatropha tanjorensis for the first time.

(d) Jatropha tanjorensis may not be a good source of antioxidants.

New Equipments Purchased by the Senate Research Grant: No new equipments were purchased, however, these items were purchased in the course of the study: Soxhlet apparatus, Leibig condenser, Distillation flask, Seperating funnel, Chromatographic columns. Number of Published Articles: 1 Sunday Olusegun Oladoye, Ezekiel Temidayo Ayodele, Misbaudeen Abdulhammed and Olajumoke Tolulope Idowu (2014). Characterization and Identification of Taraxerol and Taraxer – 14ene 3one from Jatropha tanjorensis (Ellis & Saroja) leaves. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Reseach, Ser. A: Phys. Sci. In Press (see the attached galley proof) Impact Factor: 0.1 (SJR), H – Index = 11 Country of Publication : Pakistan, Website : www.scimagojr.com/journals earch.php?q=22276&tip=sid

Number of Articles under review: 1

Oladoye S.O ., Ayodele E. T. and Idowu O.T : Antimicrobial and antioxidant studies of Crude extracts and Chromatographic fractions of Jatropha tanjorensis leaves.

Project Reference No.: LAU/SRG/13/018 Project Title: Value addition to underutilized legumes for reduction of proteinenergymalnutrition and micronutrient deficiency at rural levels Name of Principal Investigator:Dr. Bolanle Aishat Akinwande Name of Research Team:Babarinde, Grace Oluwakemi, Abioye, Victoria Funmilayo and Adejuyitan, Johnson Akinwumi Executive Summary : The research initiative looked into development of innovative, lowtechnology and locally adaptable value added products from pigeon pea ( Cajanus cajan ),bambara groundnut ( Vigna subterranea) and African yam bean ( Stenostylis stenocarpa), toenhance their utilization and change their status from being neglected by local stakeholders. There was focus group discussion with village heads of Onilaru village in Orire LocalGovernment in Ogbomoso and it was established that they cultivate and consume indigenouslegumes. Products (readytoeat breakfast cereal, improved ogi, moinmoin, biscuit and ‘kokoro’) weredeveloped from the three indigenous and underutilized legumes using different formulations. Compositional and sensory analyses of developed products from different formulations, withsubsequent statistical analysis of the generated data, gave ideal ingredient formulation to use. Introduction: In addition to availability and access, the third pillar of food security, use of food is a critical challenge in Africa, particularly for the rural poor (FAO, 2006). Improving the food’s nutritional quality addresses the third pillar of food security (food use). Nutritional deficits in a child’s first 2 – 3 years cannot be compensated for later in life (Ruel etal., 2010; Benton, 2010) and significantly affect its productivity later in life (Banerjee and Duflo, 2011). The major problem in Nigeria and other developing countries in the world today is how toaddress the problem of food security being faced by the population, especially the rural dwellers.

The diets of people in many of these countries comprise mainly starchy materials. Unfortunately,animal sources of proteins, which are used to compliment the starchy diets are expensive and outof reach for lowincome families (Obatolu et al., 2007). Some indigenous legumes like pigeon pea, African yam bean, bambara groundnut growwild and require no formal cultivation. Their availability has declined due to excessivecultivation of field crops. These neglected legumes that are not commonly consumed due to thehardtocook phenomenon and lack of adequate knowledge on ways of utilization are at the pointof going into extinction. Bambara groundnut is cultivated by farmers as a "famine culture" cropbecause it is drought tolerant (Anchirinah et al., 2001; AzamAli et al., 2001). Some neglected legumes have been used severally in product formulations by differentresearchers but there was no consumer sensory test to determine product acceptability. Also,there is still lack of dissemination of research findings to the grass root, where the information ismost needed. Another limitation in the use of some legumes for some value added products isdue to the inherent beany flavor which could, however, be controlled in several ways. It was verypertinent to evaluate the potentials of some locally available wild grown and cheap legumes as raw materials for food processing. This will add value to the product in order to improve theirutilization as food for improved nutritional status. The aim of the research initiative was to develop innovative, low technology and locallyadaptable value added products from pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan ), bambara groundnut (Vignasubterranea ) and African yam bean (Stenostylis stenocarpa), and enable their futureimplementation by local stakeholders. These cheap legumes are to replace soybean in itsacceptable soybean and soysupplemented cereal products for ease of adoption. This willguarantee availability of and access to food through the production of more products as well asmore and nutrient and energy dense foods for people in different age brackets for both immediateand marketoriented food products. The research is to encourage provision of nutritious food tomore people at affordable cost and also contribute to economic empowerment throughagricultural development of the youth and women in rural settings. This was achieved throughthe following specific objectives:

i. Development of simple processing techniques for valueadded products in form of snacks(‘kokoro’ from maize and pigeon pea flour and biscuit from plain and roasted pigeon pea flour),breakfast meals (improved ‘ogi’ and instant cereal from maize and African yam bean), andmoinmoin from bambara groundnut. ii. Determination acceptable formulation ratio through sensory evaluation of products usingconsumer oriented test. iii. Promotion of value added products through training of women. Research Methodology: Activity 1: Survey in Orire Local Government in Ogbomoso to know communities that processlegumes and eat the products (especially soybased products) through focus group discussion. Activity 2: Product development from three different legumes (pigeon pea, bambara groundnutand African yam bean) and maize into various products in form of biscuit, ‘kokoro’, moinmoin,improved ogi, and instant breakfast cereal. Activity 3: Laboratory analyses of nutrient components of developed products: Physical,chemical, physicochemical, antinutritional and microbiological properties. Standard methodsfor the determinations of all the parameters would be explored. Activity 4: Sensory evaluation of developed products using consumer oriented test. Activity 5: Training through organization of workshop for women group. Activity 6: Final report writing. Result Presentation and Discussion: a. Instant breakfast meal from maize and African yam bean (AYB): Inclusion of AYB into breakfast cereal increased the protein content of the breakfast cereal. Ant nutritionalfactors, which are the major limitation of consumption of AYB were also reduced. Sensory evaluation result revealed acceptability of the product at 70:30 ratio ofmaize to AYB for formulation. b. ‘Kokoro’ from maize and pigeon pea flour: It was observed that protein and fat

contents of ‘kokoro’ increased with increase in the level of substitution of pigeon pea flour. However, considering the sensory analysis result, kokoro that was supplementedwith 30% pigeon pea had least ratings for sensory attributes. Preference for 20% pigeonpea substituted samples for all the sensory qualities were not significantly different (p<0.05) from that of the control except general acceptability. Based on these facts,substitution of maize flour with pigeon pea flour up to 20% level could be encouraged atcommercial level. c. Improved ‘ogi’ from maize and African yam bean: The nutritional status of ogi could be improved through supplementation with African yambean. The developed African yambeanogi had more nutrients, especially protein, it is inexpensive and caneasily be prepared from locally available raw food materials that are readily available. Considering the result of the sensory evaluation of products from different formulation,use of maize and African yam bean at ratio 80:20 is advised for use in production ofimproved ‘ogi’. d. Biscuit from cassava and pigeon pea flour: Composite flour of 70:30 of cassava andpigeon pea had sensory ratings that compared with that of the control that was made formrefined wheat flour. Based on the fact that the protein content is higher than that of thecontrol, supplementation of cassava flour with up to 30% of pigeon pea flour could beencouraged. e. Moinmoin from bambara groundnut : Flour obtained from Bambara groundnut hadhigher swelling capacity than cowpea flour. The sensory ratings in terms of preferencefor taste, aroma, softness appearance and general acceptability was higher for moinmoinproduced from Bambara groundnut when compared with that from cowpea. The processof making moinmoin from Bambara groundnut required more volume of water for thesame weight of the two legumes used. This showed that it is more profitable to producemoinmoin from Bambara groundnut than cowpea, especially with the fact that that it hadgood sensory attributes.

Conclusions and major findings of the study:

All the developed products have the potential of being accepted by the low income earners,especially if there is followup with distribution of recipe booklet to rural dwellers. Production ofmaizeAYBblend breakfast food at 70:30 ratio using low technology process is an opportunityfor value addition, most importantly, of the underutilized AYB. Production at commercial levelhas the potential to reduce proteinenergy malnutrition and also increase food security in most developing countries. This will strengthen the innovation capabilities of African agriculturalsystems as a means of addressing poverty, improving food security and achieving broadereconomic growth and development. Recommendation: Further research should be carried out on production of intermediateproducts from underutilized legumes to enhance utilization for healthy living and wealthcreation. Contribution to Knowledge: This research has been able develop products from neglected and underutilized legumes for food use. Findings from this research were not just lefton the shelf for the purpose of publication and promotion exercise only, there was disseminationto the rural dwellers on how to process the crops to food using low technologies. Women groupsin ‘Onilaru’ and surrounding villages of Orire Local Government Area of Ogbomoso weretrained. The participants appreciated the gesture and requested for recipe booklet for ingredient formulation for all the introduced formulated products.

Number of Published Articles: One. Authours: Akinwande, B.A.*, Babarinde, G.O. and Ajeigbe, O.P. 2014 Title: ‘Production and evaluation of ready to eat breakfast cereals from blends of wholemaize and African yam bean ( Sphenostylis stenocarpa)’. Elixir Food Science, 72: 2562525628 (copy attached). Number of Articles Under Review: (two) i). Akinwande, B.A., Abioye, V.F. and Adebayo, K.F. ‘Potentials of African yam bean insupplementation of ogi’.

ii) Akinwande, B.A., Adejuyitan, J.A. and Seriki, F.O. Effects of addition of pigeon pea flour onsome properties of local snack (‘kokoro’).

Project Reference no: Ref: LAU/SRG/13/019

Project Title:Evaluation of Antioxidant Potential of Medicinal Plants use in the Management of Cardiovascular and Inflammatory Diseases in Ogbomoso.

Name of Principal Investigator: O.S. Olorunnisola , College of Health Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State

Name of Research Team: A. Adetutu and A.J. Afolayan College of Health Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State

Executive summary : The project is divided into two phase and they have been concluded.

The first phase involved ethnobotanical surveywhile the second phase involved ln vitro assessment of antioxidant and antiinflammatory potential of some selected Medicinal plants commonly used in Ogbomoso.

Introduction:The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) is assuming an alarming rate worldwide. It was reported that by 2020, CVD will account for approximately 40% of all global deaths (Neal et al., 2002). The expected higher incidence of atherosclerotic diseases in Africa and the world at large has necessitated the search for antiatherosclerotic potential of indigenous medicinal plants commonly used in the management of cardiovascular diseases in Ogbomoso. Atherosclerosis is characterized by partial or full blockage of the arteries that supply blood to the heart due to deposition of cholesterol in the endothelium of the arteries (Peter et al, 2002; Ostos et al., 2002) leading to cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack, hypertension, high blood pressure, stroke and myocardial infarctions. Oxidation of lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) has been strongly implicated as a major factor in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (Yekini et al., 2009). The use of some natural antioxidant and medicinal plants may lead to the inhibition of production of oxidized LDL and may decrease both the development and the progression of atherosclerosis. Recent study support a role for oxidatively modified LDL in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (Ghaffari and Ghiasvand, 2010). The uptake of oxidized LDL (OxLDL) by macrophages

results in the formation of foam cells and cellular cholesterol accumulated in vascular endothelial cells, and promotes the development of the characteristic fatty streaks found in atherosclerotic lesions. OxLDL is cytotoxic to arterial wall cells, where it stimulates haemostatic and thrombotic process and promotes secretion of cytokines and growth factors from cells of the arterial wall (Peter et al, 2002; Ostos et al., 2002).OxLDL has already been detected in human and animal atherosclerotic lesions, adding support to the contributory role of OxLDL in this clinical condition. Ox LDL has also been reported to compromise endothelial integrity, a silent feature of atherosclerosis. In recent years, the clinical importance of the medicinal drugs has received considerable attention as orthodox drugs such as statins and synthetic antioxidants which have been employed in the management and treatment of CAD have been shown to have one or the other side effects (Musk et al., 2001; Bradford et al, 2002). Due to easy access and economic reasons (Chandra et al., 2006), a large part of the world population still relies on medicinal plants for the management of various diseases (Chandra et al., 2006). Plants have been reported to contain bioactive compound (s) which may prevent the onset of many diseases.

Specific Objectives:

To conduct an ethnobotanical survey of plants commonly used in the management of some cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases in Ogbomoso.

To determine the antioxidant effects of the most commonly use plants in the management of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases in Ogbomoso using the in vitro model.

Research methodology

Ethnomedical information on the plants used in the treatment of cardiovascular (hypertension, high blood pressure, heart attack and stroke) and inflammatory (Asthma, Appendicitis, Rheumatism, Pneumonia and Eczema) were obtained by consulting herbalists and traditional healers (both male and female from ages 40 years and above) in the five local

governments. The use of semistructured questionnaire and oral interviews were adopted to obtain the relevant ethnomedical data. A total of 125 questionnaires divided into three sections were administered by trained interviewers and in some cases, monetary incentives were given to unwilling respondents. Section (a) dealt with personal information such as age, sex, religion local tribe and nationality. Section (b) was about the names of plants commonly used in the treatment of the above mentioned diseases, diagnosis method and duration of treatments. In section (c) deals with plants, recipes and likely side effects of recipes were documented. A total of 101 plant species was mentioned in the study.

The antioxidant activities of the plants were assessed using 1,1diphenyl2picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing agent, inhibition of Cu(II)induced LDL oxidation and lipid peroxidation while the antiinflammatory properties of the plant extracts were determined by measuring the ability of the plant extracts to inhibit nitric oxide (NO) production and protein denaturation . The phenolic contents of the extracts were also determined using Folin–Ciocalteu reagent assay.All the above were carried out using standard procedures.

Results and discussion First phase involved Ethnobotanical survey: The survey revealed that about 101 plant species and 51 different families are commonly used for the treatment of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. The informants consulted in the investigation claimed that ulcer, appendicitis, asthma, rheumatism, pneumonia and eczema are common inflammatory diseases while hypertension, stroke, high blood pressure and heart attack are common cardiovascular diseases in the study area. Though, the majority of the informants does not have formal education, they described the various diseases in a way that explain they have knowledge of the diseases. They claimed that their knowledge and experienced come from their forefathers and that some of it comes from thousands of years of trials and errors. Most of the plants they mentioned are used singly or combined to prepare a particular recipe.

1.1 Plants commonly used to treat inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases

The most represented plant families employed in the management of the inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases mentioned during the survey is Euphorbiaceae, followed by Mimosaceae, Liliaceae,Zingiberaceae and Caesalpiaceae respectively. Mac Donald et al. (2004) and Laporta et al. (2007) reported that members of these families are usually employed in the preparations of recipes for common cold, hypertension, psoriasis, urinary tract infections, prostate diseases, gastrointestinal complaints, and even mental disorder. Euphorbiaceae is widely distributed worldwide and ranges in morphological form and genetics (Cateni et al., 2003; Julius and Patrick, 2011). Some of its species had earlier been reported by various researchers to possess antinociceptive and antiinflammatory effect (Borges et al., 2012). Jäger et al. (1996) revealed that Synadeniumcupularis are a potent inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis. Also Brideliaretura (Mehare and Hatapakki, 2003), Alchorneacordifolia (Manga et al., 2004) and Euphorbia splendens demonstrate potent antiinflammatory activity. In the present survey, eight species of Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia unispina, Margaritaridiscoidea, Brideliaferruginea, Euphorbia lateriflora, JatrophacurcusMicrodermsicearara, Ricinuscommunis and Manihotesculata) were mentioned by the respondents. Pharmacological activities of some members of this plant family has been reported in literatures, for example, Palatnick and Tenenbein (2000) reported that Ricinuscommunis as the source of one of the most poisonous substance of plant origin. Also, Hirota and Suttajit (1988) and Julius et al. (2011), reported that Jatrophyacurcus and others be co carcinogenic and able to influence and promote excessive cell division which can result in tumour growth. In spite, of these reports, information on bioactivities of most of the species of Euphorbiaceae mentioned in the survey is scanty in the literature. Among all the plant species documented for the management of cardiovascular diseases in this survey, Annonaceae species were the most commonly used. This observation was in agreement with the observation of Nadkarni, (2000) who revealed that Annonaceae species are used in the management of cardiac problems. A. muricata tree, a member of Annonaceae, has also been describe to demonstrate hypotensive potential (Stephen and Ezekiel, 2006). Scientific evidences have equally shown that most of the mentioned plant families are rich in phytochemicals such as alkaloids, 87

flavonoids, carbohydrates, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, saponins and phenol. According to Savithramma et al. (2011) and (HoFai and Geoffre (2002), Artabotryshexapetalus (Linn.f.) a member of annonaceae is a rich source of steroids, terpenoids, saponins and leucoanthocyanin, bisabolane, guianesesquiterpenes, aporphinetetrahydroherberine alkaloids and long chain hydrocarbon. Also, phyllantus species a member of Euphorbiaceae contains bioactive compounds like alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols and steroids (Venkata et al., 2012). Bamisaye et al. (2013) reported that alkaloids possess antihypertensive, while tannin, phenolic and Flavonoids demonstrate antiinflammatory (Parekh and Chanda, 2007; Bamisaye et al., 2013) potentials. The observed pharmacological activities of most of these plants may be due to the phytochemical content and this may account for their folklore usage in the study area.

2.2 Recipes used for the treatment of inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases

Regarding the modes of remedies preparation, the parts of the plants used, administration and likely side effect, our results revealed that eightytwo different recipes are employed in the treatment of six inflammatory and four types of cardiovascular diseases. Almost all the recipes recorded are prepared from single or mixed with other plants. According to the informant, the choice on number(s) of plant(s) to be use is based on knowledge and observations that have endured over time because of their continuing usefulness. This is consistent with the report of Abubakaretal . (2007). The use of Allium specie in the preparation of most of the recipes mentioned in the survey is understandable considering its antioxidant, antiinflammatory properties (Emily etal., 2007) and ability to protect against high blood pressure Ginter and Simko, 2010; Londhe et al., 2011) as earlier reported. However, the present survey also revealed eight plants ( Terminaliaavicenniode, Citrusaurantifolia, Tetrapleuratetratera, Spondiamombin , Angiesussusleiocarpus and Xylopiaaethiopia) as common components for preparation of inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases recipes. The use of Citrusaurantifolia in the preparation of most the recipes may be due to its high vitamin C content and acetic acid (Souci etal., 2000) which possess antioxidant potential. 50 % of the methods of preparation are by infusion while 15.0 % is by decoction. The leaves followed by the root (45.0 %) are the

most used plants for the treatment of both diseases. Our results agreed with Buwa and Afolayan (2009) who had earlier reported that the roots and leaves of plants are mostly used as decoctions for the treatment of various ailments such as colds, asthma, tuberculosis and stomach problems. Most remedies are taken orally twice per day (morning and afternoon) and for a long period of time depending on the severity of the disease while few are for bathing and creaming. According to our informants, 27.1% of the recipes for the treatment inflammatory and (4.4%) cardiovascular diseases have side effect, which suggested that the recipes should be taken with caution.

2.0. ln vitro assessment of antioxidant and antiinflammatory potential of some selected Medicinal plants commonly used in Ogbomoso.

Conclusion and major findings

The traditional healers in Ogbomoso possess high knowledge of plants for the treatment of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. These studies allows for identifying many high value medicinal plant species and also indicate high potential for economic development through sustainable collection and preservation of these medicinal plants.

Majority of the plant reported in our ethnobotanical survey demonstrated high antioxidant, antilipidemic and antiinflammatory property.

Recommendations Most of the plants identify and evaluated for antioxidant, antilipidperoxidation and antiinflammatory properties should be investigated further to identify the active compound(s) responsible for the observed activities. Furthermore, direct ameliorating effect of the plants on the diseases investigated should be investigated and finally, toxicity evaluation of the plant(s) extracts should be carried out. Contribution toKnowledge

This is the first reports on plants commonly used in the treatment of some cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases in Ogbomoso. i. No equipment was purchased with the grant. ii. A manuscript on ethnobotanical survey has been accepted for publication by Journal of ethnopharmacology. Proved attached. While, am still preparing the second manuscript title “ ln vitro assessment of antioxidant and antiinflammatory potential of some selected Medicinal plants commonly used in Ogbomoso” for publication iii. No article under review

GRANT REFERENCE NEMBER: LAU/SRG/13/024:

PROJECT TITLE: INTRAUTERINE INVIVO FERTILIZATION, LOW COST, LOW TECH MANAGEMENT OF TUBAL FACTOR INFERTILITY

Name of Principal Investigator: Dr. J.O. Komolafe

College of Health Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State

Name of Research Team member: Dr. A.M. Tijani

College of Health Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State

SUMMARY:

10 to 30% of Nigerian couples suffer from infertility at one point of their life. Tubal factor infertility accounts for about 20% of infertility. It is managed currently with in vitro fertilization (IVF) when the two tubes are blocked. Eight couples with exclusive bilateral tubal blockage in the female partners were recruited for intrauterine gametes transfer (IUGT) for possible intrauterine in vivo fertilization as a cheaper alternative to IVF. Only five clients out of the eight recruited had IUGT but none achieved pregnancy.

Introduction

Infertility is a problem of couples worldwide with the highest prevalence in low income countries especially in subSaharan Africa where tubal disease from pelvic infections is a major cause. Though not life threatening, it is a major cause of social and psychological distress to the couples in this part of the world where a marriage without a child is often regarded as a failure. Assisted conception remains the mainstay of treatment for couples with tubal disease but this remains beyond the

reach of most couples because of cost and accessibility. There is therefore the need for the development of low cost procedures like in vivo intrauterine transfer of gametes where less sophisticated equipments, less expensive materials and media are used.

Problem Statement and Specific Objectives

Tubal disease accounts for a significant proportion of female factor infertilityin Nigeria and other developing countries world over due mainly to poor prevention & management of ascending pelvic infections especially sexually transmitted infections. Human reproduction naturally involves joining of male gamete (spermatozoon) & female gamete (ovum) in the fallopian tube (invivo salpingo fertilization), however if the two female tubes become blocked or diseased then definite treatment available is to bypass the fallopian tubes by way of outside fertilization (invitro fertilizationIVF) or recourse to tubal surgery. Tubal surgery yields poor results & has been virtually abandoned for IVF.

The cost of IVF is presently unaffordable by majority of Nigerians. IVF involves inducing ovarian hyper stimulation, egg retrieval & preparation, semen preparation, invitro fertilization & culture followed lastly by embryo transfer into the female womb. This implies use of complex & detailed laboratory processes involving use of expensive equipment like Stereozoom microscope, Laminar flow work station, air filters, carbon dioxide incubator & specially designed laboratory which mimics sterile environment of a female internal pelvic organs. The cost of equipping this laboratory is exorbitant and laboratory skills required are not being taught in any of Nigerian Universities for now. Thus evolving a low tech, low cost technique which requires less technical laboratory procedures with fewer and less costly equipments that can be made available in many public health facilities is highly desirable.

Objectives of the Research Study

The objective of this research is to use invivo mixing of human gametes placed in the uterus (in order to produce pregnancy) to treat bilateral fallopian tubal blockage.

Specific Objectives 1. To demonstrate identification of oocyte after isolating it with simple technique of centrifuging following follicular aspiration. 2. To demonstrate that ova isolated by centrifuge remains viable by culturing them in standard IVF incubators with sperm cells to demonstrate fertilization. 3. To determine if intrauterine placement of human gametes can lead to fertilization & implantation of embryo.

Research Methodology

Study Design: Experimental study Research Locations : Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, College of Health Sciences, Isale Osun, Osogbo. Has 11 full time lecturers that double also as researchers, a Professor & two readers inclusive.

● LAUTECH Teaching Hospital (LTH), Osogbo. Has 8 clinical consultants in Obstetrics &Gynaecology (O&G). It receives patients as referrals from government general hospitals, Comphrensive health centres, private hospitals in & out of Osun States. Has twelve gynaecological beds for admission. (Dr J.O Komolafe was the anchor researcher in this study for LTH, Osogbo.

● LAUTECH Teaching Hospital, Ogbomoso. Has 7 clinical consultants in O & G. Receives patients as referrals from government General hospitals, Comphrensive health centres, private hospitals in & out of Ogbomoso & other parts of Oyo States. Has thirty gynaecological beds for admission. (Dr A.M Tijani was the anchor researcher in this study for LTH, Ogbomoso.

o Ayomide Women’s Health Specialist Hospital, Osogbo. Located at 2 nd Gate, Power Station, Ikirun road, Osogbo. It offers assisited reproductive technology (ART)/ Invitro fertilization. Dr Komolafe will provide link to make this IVF laboratory available for use.

Subjects: Couples who have been unable to achieve pregnancy after at least one year of having unprotected & adequate sexual exposures. The male partners on assessment must have normal semen parameters using world health organization bench marks. The female partners should have both fallopian tubes blocked following use of hysterosalpingography (HSG) or laparascopy. All other reproductive parameters in the female partners must be normal. The female had to be less than 36years of age. Subjects were drawn from three clinical locations mentioned above

Sample: Only the first ten couples that met above inclusion criteria were recruited in order to stay within the approved budget for this study.

Design Details:

Phase 1: Recruited patients were started on daily combined oral contraceptive pills at a predetermined time for 4weeks. This made them to have withdrawal bleeding (menses) about the same time so they can be followed up at the same time. All the women were started on buserelin (suprefat) 0.5ml daily five days to expected day of menses & continued till a day before administration of human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG). 50mg of clomiphene citrate tablet (Clomidserono) was given daily for 7days from a predetermined day (2 nd or 3 rd day of withdrawal bleeding as applicable to particular client). They were also given intramuscular injection of Merional (follicular stimulating & luteinizing hormones) 150 I.U from 3 rd day of menses for 8 to 10days of menses in order to induce some hyperstimulation of egg production. They were monitored with transvaginal ultrasound from day 8 of menses & on alternate days. Once there were at least 2 follicles with diameter of greater or equal to 18mm, an injection of human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG 10,000I.U) was given to mature the eggs

and cause them to be released. 34 hours after HCG administration, follicular aspiration was done under transvaginal ultrasound machine guide. Oocytes were identified by examination using sterozoom microscope in the follicular fluid Oocytes identified for each recruit were put in petri dishes & layered with G mops media, they were subsequently transferred into the incubator & left for 2 hours to allow oocytes complete 1 st meiotic division with extrusion of 1 st polar body. Subsequently two oocytes were taken from what candidate have in their dishes & were loaded along with washed semen of corresponding male partner into soft pass embryo transfer catheter. Content was then emptied into the uterine cavity. Candidate was made to remain in lithotomy (with head down) position for one hour after intrauterine gamates insemination. Subsequently she was free to go home. All candidates were commenced on dydrogesterone (duphaston) one tablet (10mmg) daily from IUGT day till 20 th day post gamates transfer when serum pregnancy test was done if client had not seen menses.

Phase 2: To demonstrate that centrifuging of follicular fluid aspirate can be used to identify the follicle. Two of the recruited patients were meant to participate in this phase 2. Follicular fluid aspirate got will be centrifuged at 2000 revolutions/minute for five minutes. A pellet so formed was to be layered with Gmops media and mixed thouroghly before being identified under the stereozoom microscope. The egg (oocyte) was identified as shining mucified complex with transparent internal ooplasm. Procedures were done strictly at 37 oC. Eggs so identified were incubated with donated semen; 100,000 washed spermatozoa to each egg so identified & kept in an Hera cell incubator maintained at 37 oC all through time of incubation, with 5% constant flow of medical carbon dioxide (CO2 ). The laboratory dishes were checked for sign of fertilization after 18 hours (2 pronuclei in centre with an extruded polar body at margin of cell) . Cell so fertilized were allowed to continue till day 3 of life . This was frozen for the owner of the eggs for possible embryo transfer in later natural cycle.

Results Presentation and Discussion

Ten Subjects that met the inclusion criteria were initially recruited and counseled. Two subjects were dropped as it became clear that the funding available would not be able to accommodate all the ten recruits. At the point of commencement of medications, one of the subjects called to opt out of study as her husband changed his mind on the study. Another woman of the remaining seven did not see her menses following initial medications and was found to be pregnant. She also was excluded automatically leaving only six patients that continued with study.

One of the six clients that had complete medication did not produce any follicle (egg) as monitored by transvaginal ultrasound scanning. The remaining five had follicular aspiration done yielding 4,3,3,2 & 1 egg respectively. They had intrauterine gametes placement as described in protocol.

Due to paucity of eggs the phase 2 of the study could not be done as only one client had more than 3 eggs & by study protocol we planned to put 2 eggs back into the uterus.

All the patients saw their menses before the preset date for pregnancy test. One of them whose bleeding was scanty & presented for pregnancy test, tested negative for pregnancy.

Discussion

Fertilisation occur in humans in the ampullary region of the fallopian tubes. It is the fertilized egg (embryo) that get into the uterus (womb) for implantation after about five days of life. The study sought to find an alternative location of fertilization invivo for clients whose tubes were blocked or cut because of previous surgery. Science found alternative location however out of the human body over three decades ago, the so called testtube babies (invitro fertilization) where the gametes meet in

a dish in the laboratory and were incubated at body’s temperature till 3 rd or 5 th day of embryo life before replacing embryos back into the uterus.

One of the client did not make any egg despite taking similar medications as the other participants. She claimed that her age is 34years. A woman who is less than 36 years should make at least one egg in natural unstimulated cycle. For her not to have made any meant she was probably older than her claim. We have seen a case of a 44year old lady with small built presenting as egg donor which should be less than 33years and starting medications as donor only to confess her true age after initial administration of medications but ovary showed no activity. We did not insist on clients bringing birth certificate though some were disqualified by their facial look. This woman had a good built & managed to be included. Another possible reason is if she had poor ovarian reserve meaning she had few follicles left in the ovaries though she was still menstruating normally. Women empty their ovarian (egg) pool at different rates.

None of the five clients that had intrauterine gametes transfer achieved pregnancy. The small number of participants as dictated by the available grant may be a factor since we know that reproduction in humans is rather inefficient and among the best couples we expect only one pregnancy among five couples in a month i.e 20% with most average couple achieving one pregnancy after six months of regularly trying to achieve one.

It could also mean that the endometrial lining is not conditioned for fertilization after all its only fertilized eggs that it nurses in life. Scientists talk of receptive window of the endometrium which is said to be narrow & only occurring from 6 th to 7 th day following ovulation. Despite this theory pregnancy has been recorded when embryo are transferred into the uterus on day 2 of embryo life (3r d day from ovulation). It means we might need to study the endometrium more closely to know how to adapt it to so that it can be an alternative location for gamete mating in couples whose fallopian tubes have been blocked by infection or surgeries or endometriosis.

Another factor to consider is the protocol used. Only 2 eggs were put with appropriate number of motile sperm cells back into the uterus. Naturally only one egg is released usually & to avoid the risk of multiple pregnancy of higher orders egg transferred was limited to only two. May be another protocol can try putting four or six eggs since we are aware of phagocytic leucocytes in the endometrium that would attack weak or morphologically abnormal sperm cells (e.g big head sperms), may be the eggs are phagocytosed by the leucocytes erroneously viewed as immotile & weak sperm cells.

Lastly, we must consider measures to ensure that the transferred gametes do not just flow back out of uterus as the tube is withdrawn from uterus. The isthmoampullary junction via a physiological valve retains the egg for some time to allow interaction with the sperm. Even though transfer tube was checked for attachment of egg after the transfer, no way of checking if the eggs flowed back into the vagina & then out subsequently.

Conclusion and Major Findings of the Study

No pregnancy resulted after intra uterine transfer of gametes among five clients used. Only one of the three set objectives could be tested due to limitation of research grant. Number of clients too few to draw conclusive statement.

Recommendations

The results of this work should be adopted as a starting point in the quest for the development of a low cost procedures like in vivo intrauterine insemination of gametes where less sophisticated equipment, expensive materials and media are used. More subjects should however be recruited in follow up studies.

Contributions to Knowledge

This study showed that if two oocytes along with washed semen are transferred into the uterus it may not result in pregnancy meaning more things would have to be done to achieve fertilization & implantation.

Number of Articles under Review: 1. Komolafe J.O, Tijani A.M, Oyewo T.J, Komolafe M.O, Oyedele O.A, Komolafe O.B. Is Gamates intrauterine transfer an oprtion in Tubal factor infertility? Clinical Medicine Insights: Reproductive Health (Libertas Academica) Under review

Project Reference Number: (LAU/SRG/13/025)

TITLE RESEARCH : DEVELOPMENT OF A NEURAL NETWORK BASED CHARACTER RECOGNITION SYSTEM FOR ONLINE AND OFFLINE HANDWRITTEN WORDS

Name of Principal Investigator: Prof. E. O. OMIDIORA Department of Computer Science, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomos, Oyo State.

Name of Research Team member: Dr. (Mrs) O. D. FENWA, Dr. I. A. ADEYANJU Department of Computer Science, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomos, Oyo State.

Executive Summary:

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Our project on Character Recognition is based in the intersection between Pattern Recognition, Computer Vision and Artificial Intelligence and specifically aims to develop novel techniques that enable a computer to recognise handwritten words; whether they are written on paper (offline) or on an electronic surface (online). Though our research is word recognition, words are composed of one or more characters. Therefore the first phase (first 6 months) of the project focused on reviewing, exploring, comparing and experimenting with the stateoftheart techniques for recognising single handwritten characters. The remaining time (~6months) was used for data acquisition and work on extend the implemented software to word level Character Recognition. The project designed and created a standard recognition dataset by acquiring online and offline characters and selected common words from sixty four (64) participants. Apart from the 62 single English characters (az, AZ, and 09), thirty English words having between two to four characters each were also handwritten by our data acquisition participants. The words were selected in such a way that will cut across all the twenty six English alphabets. HP Scanjet 8270 Document Flatbed Scanner, bought as part of the project, was used to transform all the usercompleted paper forms into an electronic format at an optical resolution of 300dpi with the scanned images saved in PNG format. The online data acquisition of characters and words was done using two WACOM BAMBOO digitizers, purchased as part of the project and one GRAPHIC SKETCH IMP 4030 digitizers loaned from one of the Investigators. Our research project extended the doctoral work of one of the coinvestigators who also developed a (demonstration) software application as part of her work. We understudied her software and extended it with necessary modifications for Word Recognition in this project. The user interface was also redesigned in accordance with the five basic steps of character recognition (i.e. data acquisition, preprocessing, feature extraction, training/Model development and evaluation/Testing) as well as the inclusion of baseline and other stateoftheart classifiers such as kNearest Neighbours in addition to our neural network based techniques. A data mining tool called WEKA was also used for experiments pending the completion of some of the substantial modifications to the initial software application. This was used in most of our published experiments as the modifications to the software were not completed until the end of the 12months project duration. We are

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currently designing experiments at the wordlevel to test the modified software and will acknowledge LAURESCON in any published articles.

Introduction Humans have been writing important information on paper (and other primitive materials such as woods, clay tablets etc.) even before the advent of computer systems. However, storing such information has typically been very cumbersome and expensive. The use of these handwritten data on paper is generally limited to those around where it is stored though several others across the globe might benefit from it. Digitising such information and converting them to recognisable text allows search engines such as Google to be able to index and make them available for user around the world once they are uploaded to the web. Recognition of handwritten characters is a difficult problem because of the high variability and ambiguity in the character shapes written by different individuals (Muhammad, Dzulkifli and Razib, 2006; Shanthi and Duraiwamy, 2007). Selection of a feature extraction method is probably the single most important factor in achieving high recognition performance in character recognition system (Pradeep, Srinivasan and Himavathi, 2011). No matter how sophisticated the classifiers and learning algorithms, poor feature extraction will always lead to poor system performance (Marc, Alexandre and Christian, 2001). Most feature extraction techniques proposed have used only one property of the handwritten character. This research focuses on developing a feature extraction technique that combined more than one property of a handwritten character such as stroke information, contour pixels and zoning of the handwritten character to create a global feature vector. The back propagation algorithm has been reported to be an effective and most widely used supervised training algorithm for multilayered feedforward neural networks but has the shortcomings of longer training time and entrapment into a local minimal (Freeman and Skapura, 1992). Efforts to improve the back propagation algorithm include the use of a ‘learning parameter’ which in some cases slowed down the training process (Minai, 1990; Riedmiller and Braun, 1993; Otair 102

and Salameh, 2005). This research work proposes to alleviate the problem of standard backpropagation algorithm by combining it with other classifiers into a hybrid algorithm for character recognition. The aim of this research work was to develop a character recognition system for both online and offline handwritten words using a hybrid of Artificial Neural Networks and other classifiers. The specific objectives were to: i. Develop an effective feature extraction technique using hybrid of Geometrical and Statistical (Geomstatistical) features for the proposed character recognition system. ii. Develop hybrid approach which combines a neural network model with other classifier(s) in order to improved recognition accuracy and processing time. iii. Evaluate the developed character recognition system and compare its performance with a stateoftheart character recognition system. At the end of the twelve (12) months project duration, Objective (i) was completed based on our data acquisition from sixty four (64) participants while Objectives (ii) and (iii) were partly achieved due to time constraints.

Research Methodology

No matter which class the problem of Automated Character Recognition belongs in general, there are five major stages in an ACR problem (Jain, Duin and Mao, 2000) and these were used in our work. The five stages as used in the project are as follows: 1. Data Acquisition: The project designed and created a standard recognition dataset by acquiring online and offline characters and selected common words from sixty four (64) participants. The offline data acquisition involved the use of nine (9) A4forms with predefined boxes designed specifically for our data collection process. Above each box, the ground truth of the character or word to be written is provided in machine print. The first 5 forms contained; 2 forms for uppercase letters (AZ), 2 forms for lowercase letters (az) and 1 form for digits (0 9). The remaining 4 forms

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contained thirty English words having between two to four characters each. The words were selected in such a way that will cut across all the twenty six English alphabets. Each completed form consists of boxes and character or word written by the participant with his or her natural handwriting, each participant was required to write twice in order to obtain their individual variability of writing style, also the same inking pen (black) was used by all writers. A human operator verifies each filled form to ensure that it has been correctly filled by the participant. HP Scanjet 8270 Document Flatbed Scanner, bought as part of the project, was used to transform all the usercompleted paper forms into an electronic format at an optical resolution of 300dpi with the scanned images saved in PNG format. The scanner comes with an automatic document feeder (ADF) that can be used to scan multiple documents quickly and easily with a paper tray capacity of 50 pieces at 75 g/m. In order to automate the process of extracting each individual character or word image out of the scanned forms, a blob detection algorithm was used to correctly determine the coordinates of the region that contained each image box. The online data acquisition of characters and words was done using two WACOM BAMBOO digitizers, purchased as part of the project and one GRAPHIC SKETCH IMP 4030 digitizers loaned from one of the Investigators. A software application was written in C# to enable the online data acquisition and involves the participant (author) completing fields similar to those on the paper forms used for offline data acquisition. The fields include User ID, Character/ Word and actual writing of a chosen character or word on the digitizer using the stylus. Then the written character or word is then saved as an image on the computer used. Each character is written twice and online dynamic information like number of stroke, pen up, pen down, pixel position(x,y), and time taken is stored in .txt file corresponding to its image name for each image. The data collected is similar to other standard handwritten character recognition databases such as NIST, MNIST, IAM, UNIPEN, AWS and IRONOFF but readily available for our experiments as obtaining most of these datasets was difficult especially because of slow internet access. We also hope to make available our dataset for use by others as part of the contributions of this project.

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2. Pre processing: Two basic preprocessing methods were used in our project. These were binarization and blob detection. The binarization ensures that each collected coloured image was converted into a black and white format where the handwritten character is in black on a white background. The blob detection method was used for two things; one, to correctly determine the coordinates of the region that contained each image box for our offline acquired data and then save each image separately. Secondly, was to split word images into character images. Other preprocessing methods explored include the Otsu method and in/out segmentation techniques for word level recognition. But these were not fully implemented nor used in our reported experiments due to time constraints. 3. Feature extraction: This research project focused on combining two or more features of the handwritten character to create a global feature vector. Although we collected several features such as userID, agegroup, gender, pen colour, number of strokes, right/left hander, and time taken to write the characters/ words, our experiments only used the pixel values, number of strokes and whether the writer is right or left handed. The number of strokes is a geometrical feature while the pixel values are statistical features of the handwritten words. We also varied the dimension of the character images at different reasonable sizes to determine the effect on character recognition. 4. Training and Classification: Our project investigated and compared different state of the art classifiers. Specifically, we used the Multiperceptron Artificial Neural Network, Support Vector Machine, Naive Bayes and the Instance based learning algorithms in different experiments throughout the project period. 5. Character Testing: The same classifiers used for training character recognition models are evaluated on previously unseen data (i.e. data not used for training). The performance measure is mainly accuracy but other measures such as training and testing time were also recorded. Results Presentation and Discussion

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Our experiments were varied across different parameters and have been published in journal articles and conference papers. We would therefore want to refer interested readers to our published papers. Most of our results were excellent and at par with or better than comparable classifiers in the research area. Conclusions and major finding of the study A major observation from our work is that neural networks might not be best for Character Recognition due to their inherent inability to effectively handle nominal values. Though, our original objective was to create a neural network based system for character recognition, our experiments showed that Support Vector Machines with a linear kernel and Instance Based Learners outperformed neural networks and with less computational time in training and testing. However, experiments with our hybrid classifiers are still ongoing and we hope to get more insights from the results.

Recommendations Hybrid classifiers are the future of pattern recognition though with more intensive computation. We recommend experimenting with a range of hybrid classifiers for character recognition. Some of these hybrid classifiers might be neural network based while others might not be. Contribution(s) to Knowledge: The major contributions to knowledge of the project are i. Design and acquisition of a new standardised Online and Offline acquired Character Recognition dataset at Character and Word Level ii. Introduction of a novel Neural Network based hybrid approach to character recognition at word level. Number of Published Articles: 3 (i) Omidiora E.O., Adeyanju I.A. & Fenwa O.D. (2013): Comparison of Machine Learning Classifiers for Recognition of Online and

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Offline Handwritten Digits, Computer Engineering and Intelligent Systems (CEIS), 4(13), ISSN 22221719, 3947, USA. (Impact Factor [Index Copernicus Value] = 6.39 available at http://www.iiste.org/journals/index.php/CEIS; Accessed November 2014) (ii) Omidiora E.O., Fenwa O.D., Adeyanju I.A., Babalola O.V., Durodola O.E. & Jimoh H.O. (2014): Performance Evaluation of Support Vector Machines and Multilayer Perceptron for Recognition of Handwritten Digits, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Engineering and Technology Research , 141148, (iii) Adeyanju I.A., Fenwa O.D. & Omidiora E.O. (2014): Effect of NonImage Features on Recognition of Handwritten AlphaNumeric Characters, International Journal of Computers & Technology (IJCT), 13(11), ISSN 22773061, 51555161, INDIA. (Impact Factor = 1.532 available at http://cirworld.org/if; accessed November 2014)

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Project reference Number: LAU/SRG/13/026

Project Title: ANALYSIS OF GENERATOR USE AND RESIDENTS LIVABILITY IN OGBOMOSO, NIGERIA

Name of Principal Investigator: Dr. O.A. Akindele Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomos, Oyo State.

Name of Research Team members: Tpl D.O. Adejumobi Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomos, Oyo State.

Executive Summary

Against the background of epileptic electric power supply and the myriads of both intrinsic and extrinsic consequences of the proliferation and extensive usage of electric power generators, this study analyses the usage of generator in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. It appraises the incidence of generator use, measures the livability of residents and examines the interrelationship between generator use and livability in the study area.

Relevant primary and secondary data shall be obtained. A structured questionnaire was administered to 500 residents in the city sampled, using multistage sampling procedure. The questionnaire investigates the social, economic, environmental and health effect of generator use on the residents of the study area. The city is subdivided into land use districts and urban blocks which forms the basis of sampling. Noise dosimeter was used to measure the sound intensity of generators. Air samplers shall be used to measure air quality as a result of generator usage. Qualitative and quantitative analysis are done. Principal component variant of Factor analysis was used to resummarize the data. Likert scaling shall be used to scale ordinal data, making them amenable to parametric testing. One way ANOVA was used to explain the difference in the rate of generator usage and the effects of such usage within and among the sampled cities and units within the cities. Bivariate

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correlation and multiple regression analyses were used to explain the relationship between Relative Incidence of Generator Use Index (GUI)and Residents’Livability Index (RLI)in the study area.

The study revealed a high social, economic, environmental and health effect of generator use on residents especially in the salient areas in the medium density of Ogbomoso North. The result indicated that the irregularity in electricity supply and the need for electricity in the study area fordomestic, commercial, and relaxation purposes brought about an increase in generator use. . A high level incidence of power outage (81%) was observed to have encouraged a high incidence (78.6%) of electric generator use with X2 , Ttest showing a significant difference in the noise levels comparing distance intervals to the generator at α=.05. distance was observed to abate noise and air quality was better with greens at 1.916. Electric Generator use was observed to have high association with economic loss (7.1), health (8.64), environmental management (8.1), and social development (5.5).Noise varies inversely with distance having a negative correlation of .851 and R 2 of .996. Air quality was observed to increase with increased green landscape. Relative incidence of electric generator use Index (GUI) has a reliable association with Residents’ Livability Index (RLI) having a regression coefficient of .811 and R2 of .658 at α=.05. The study thus recommends on a short term, a distance and green buffer to mitigate the negative effects of electric power generator use. On a long term; the exploration of alternative electric power source as well as legal and administrative interventions among others.

Introduction

Electricity is undoubtedly very central to city functions in our contemporary towns and cities; having a nature of derived demand. Almost everything depends on electricity; if they would be sustainable and efficient. Development of smart cities largely depends on electricity. City policing, information dissemination,domestic, industrial, educational, health, social, financial and even our contemporary cultural lifestyles are hinged on electric power. Technology; which is often times is only functional with electricity is no longer regarded as the human instrument for manipulating the environment today, but

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a part of our city environment (Adeboyejo, 2003). Given its function and importance of electricity to city livability and the entrenched and endemic electric power failure in the country, electric generators have become a compulsory item for every individuals and households if they must enjoy any meaningful living in the cities.

Carbon monoxide is the major product of combustion arising from the use of electric generator. It is the commonest cause of accidental poisoning (Guy et al, 1999). Itwas noted to be poisonous and dangerous as a result of its reversible displacement of oxygen from haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin(Blumenthal, 2001).Poisoning may still result even with passive ventilation (McDonald et al, 2010) this suggests that multiple use of electric generators in high density areas is one of the greatest risk to human livability in cities. Britain records an average of 50 deaths and 200 severe morbidity cases annually (Guy et al, 1999). Annual death rate as a result of carbon monoxide poisoning in America was put at 1.5 per million persons. This vulnerability increases with increase in age of the victims. For instance, fatality of carbon monoxide poisoning was highest in Americans aged 65 years and older (Gasman et al, 1990). This means more doom especially to traditional cities in Nigeria; where more elderly people live in the high density areas and where there is high concentration of small electric power generators that are known for incomplete combustion.

Electric power in Nigeria has a long history of inefficiency and unreliability. More than 70% Nigerians do not have access to good electricity (Oyedepo, 2012). Therefore, almost every household are forced to live with carbon monoxide through the use of electric power generator. The overall productivity of businesses has been hampered by the incessant electric power failure. Pupils and households even hospitals still use open flame lanterns to lighten their homes and workplaces to read, do assignments and attend to issues. Frustrations, boredom and other difficulties have discouraged learning, making the children very lazy at studies. Volatile and flammable hydrocarbons are stored in unspeakable places which have often times resulted in terrible fire accidents that brought loss of lives and properties. No wonder that there is frequent mass casualty reports in the Nigerian mass media on carbon monoxide poisoning from electrical power generators (Ajiboye et al, 2014).

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The number of electric generator used by individuals in Nigeria probably equals the number of activities he does. Home, workplace, place of worship and social gatherings among others depend on electric generator. Some artisans move about with a portable generator for example to fix aluminum windows. All of which point to high level usage. The amount of fossils fuel burnt and the resulting environmental pollutant produced daily is therefore only better imagined.Electric generators; in its process of electric generation combust hydrocarbon (complete or incomplete),they therefore produce harmful gaseous pollutants killing the unsuspecting users gradually. Carbon monoxide, CO, carbon dioxide, CO 2, and the hydrocarbons are the "greenhouse gases," believed to be responsible for global warming. SOX and NOX produce acid when released into the atmosphere, leading to the production of acid rain. (Lopez, 2007).However, public electricity today has been relegated to the background for the popularization of generator use. Since the industrial revolution, the carbon cycle is found to have been dramatically and dangerously influenced by man (Canan 2004)

With the trend of generator use, a decarbonized future is an illusion. The pathology of global warming, loss of biological diversity, inequality, ecological injustice and poverty are inextricably connected. All of them centre on the urban context; where the fluorochlorocarbon compounds are generated in volume that exceeds the carrying capacity of the local environment (UNHABITAT 2011). With the view to proffer pragmatic and sustainable solutions, this complex problem must be approached from diverse directions as it also has implications in multiple connections with physical, social, economic and political dimensions. To this end, the visible and ingrained problem of alternative power and energy use which has found expression in the use of electric generators cries for attention. The scientific approach to what, where and how to intervene positively ranging from macro to micro social dynamics need to include utility provision that is cognizantwith sustainable environment, this is supposed to regard environmental history, social economic behavior, social movement as well as technological innovations. All these and much more comprise the human dimensions that are implicated in understanding the hindrances to sustainable environment; part of which this study addresses.

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Formulation of Problem

Nigeria is experiencing the worst electric crisis among its contemporaries (World Bank, 2004); currently generating 4,500 megawatts of power (for more than 150M population) as against the needed 30,000. This put actual electrification at 2% (Nanaghan, 2009). It took Nigeria four years to build 283 megawatts (Aba project) so, transformations in the power sector should not be expected overnight. Credit worthiness and profitability has become a bane to publicprivate partnership towards stable electricity. Investors are unwilling to invest as long as the government insists on setting tariffs that are below the cost of generation. To this end, the major alternative that Nigerians shifted to is the use of electric generator.

Nigeria spends 15% of its annual budget to import diesel. In 2009, it was estimated that aside commercial and industrial consumption, about six million Nigerians owns power generating set and spent a staggering N 1.56 trillion (s13.35M) to fuel them in a year(Nanaghan,2009). All firms experience power outage. More than 85% rely on only generator costing average of 10M.. Businesses, manufacturers, banks etc spend between 3040% of their revenue on diesel. Electricity crisis remains key infrastructural development bottleneck in Nigeria today.

There are several intrinsic and extrinsic effects of generator use. It contaminates air, water, soil material which interferes with human health, the good quality of life, and natural functioning of the ecosystem. (Wakefield, 2002, Stansfeld, S.; Haines, M.; and Brown, B. 2000). Fine particulate air pollutant is known to contribute to cardiovascular and lung disease, increasing the risk of heart attacks and a heartrelated death. (Pichot,1992).Bronchitis pneumonia, chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, damage to the brain, nerves, liver, etc are also associated with the pollutants from generators(Passchier and Passchier, 2000). The unwanted sound from generator can damage physiological and psychological health. Unwanted sound can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus,

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hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects(Pichot, 1992; Kryter, 1994). This study therefore analyses the significance of the usage of electric generators in Ogbomoso Nigeria.

The most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas that triggers climate change or Global warming is the carbondioxide (UN, 2011). The main source of this gas is from the burning of fossil fuels. Combustion of fossil fuels is responsible for more than 75% of the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide since the preindustrial time. In recent time, especially in the most urbanizing developing countries like Nigeria, a major way of burning fossil fuel is through generator usage. Sulfate particles from generator change the pH (power of hydrogen) of water making it more acidic (Humphreys,

2009). Overall is the emission of air pollutants, particularly SOX , NOX , CO, CO 2, and hydrocarbons. Carbon monoxide, CO, carbon dioxide, CO 2, and the hydrocarbons are the "greenhouse gases," believed to be responsible for global warming. SOX and NOX produce acid when released into the atmosphere, leading to the production of acid rain (Lopez, 2007;Humphreys, 2009).

Air pollution caused by generator, both indoor and outdoor, is a significant cause of health problems such as cardiovascular and lung disease, chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, damage to the brain, nerves, liver, etc.(PasschierVermeer and Passchier, 2000). This increases the risk of heart attacks and a heartrelated death. (Pichot, 1992; Stansfeld et al., 2000). The unwanted sound from generator can damage physiological and psychological health. According to Pichot, 1992 and Kryter,1994, unwanted sound can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.

Electricity among other technologies has come to be an indispensable part of our environment. Living without it is only better imagined; hence, generator has become almost indispensable in areas like Nigeria where there is no guarantee to get electricity from other sources. This leaves us with many important questions: is the rate at which generators are been used not high enough to be significant in environmental degradation? What are the real and imagined consequences of the

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incessant usage of generators? In regions where the use of generators has become a sinequanon, are there no measures that should be put in place as policy options to checkmate the attendant consequences of generator use? How serious are the damages already caused by generator use and what are the implications for the future? These and many other pertinent questions would be answered in this study. Answering the questions is hoped to fill certain gaps on how the energy sector competes with the natural environment and how the problems so created may be abated.

Aim

This study analyses the usageof generator in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. The rate of use, the significance of the usage on humans and the environment was analyzed with the view to evolve practicable policies towards sustainable environmental management.

Objectives

The aim shall be achieved through the appraisal of:

1. the incidence of generator use, 2. the livability of residents and 3. the interrelationship between generator use and livability in the study area. 4. relevant suggestions towards carbon mitigation and environmental sustainability

Research Methodology

This section deals with the procedures employed in carrying out the study, sources of information i.e. both primary and secondary types of data, data collection process of the study, sampling method employed (sample frame, size and sampling procedure) and statistical techniques used in the analysis of data. Primary data (Direct observation as well as questionnaire

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administration) is predominantly used. Quantitative as well as qualitative data are used. Relevant secondary data such as information from books, journals, published and unpublished materials are also used.Prior to the proper field work, a list of common electric generators were populated with the help of the local sellers or distributors. Data on the characteristics of each generator e.g capacity specifications, noise level, fuel type, fuel consumption, durability, required frequency of servicing e.t.c were taken. These give data on the characteristics of generators when they are new, and the basis to compare the characteristics of similar generators as they age layered with the frequency and regularity of servicing.

Multistage sampling procedure was used. The city is stratified into urban blocks; a group of buildings surrounded by public land uses, commonly the road (Cohen, 2001), 10% of the 257 blocks (determined by the road network map of the city) in the city are systematically sampled, the first building in each block was randomly sampled and every other 3 rd building is sampled using a systematic sampling approach. Questionnaires administered to residents in the sampled block emphasizes the investigations on the quantity of fuel used, frequency of servicing, type of fuel used, nuisances as a result of generator use; e.g noise, health, etc, the building orientation, direction of wind and the usual place of generator placement among others.

The amount or the concentration of carbon and carbon monoxide generated from gasoline and diesel is determined by air samplers and the specific volume of the gas was determined using:

Complete Combuson

Cn H 2 n + 2+ (( 3n + 1)/2) O2 nC O2 + n +1H 2 O

C4 H 1 0 + 1 3/2 O 2 4 CO2 + 5H2 O

2C4 H 1 0 + 1 3O 2 8 CO2 + 10H2 O

Incomplete Combuson

CH4 + O2 C + 2H2 O

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2C + O2 2CO

C4 H 1 0 + 5O2 4C + 5H2 O

2C4 H 1 0 + 5O2 8C + 10H2 O

2C + O2 2CO 2mole of C 2moles of CO 8mole of C 8moles of CO

The noise dosimeter is used to calculate the noise leveldistance graph and this facilitates the estimation of minimum distance buffer from the generator to put the residents within a tolerable noise level zone. Air samplers were also used to assess the magnitude of air pollution across the sampled units. One sample ttest is used to compare the indoor and outdoor noise levels with the WHO maximum tolerable standards.Likhert scale is used to weigh the perceived effects; correlation analysis examines the relationship between the incidence of generator use and the different perceived effects. Chisquare was used to explain the differences in the incidence of generator use and its effects between and among the sampled blocks. As a control, the incidence of ‘lightouts’ is measured.. It will further explain differences in environmental livability issues comparing areas with higher level of generator usage with areas where generator is scarcely used.

Questionnaire Administration

The questionnaire has clear meaning to all respondents and is subdivided into three sections which are: socio economic data, generator usage, and thesocial, economic, health, and environmental effects of electric generator use on residents. The details of the questionnaire include: marital status, health condition of the respondents age of generator, brand of generator,

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capacity of generator, etc. the data collected here will be use in drawing inferences on the assessment of the effect of generator use in ogbomoso. The 2014 projected population of ogbomoso at a rate of 3.0% shown in table 1.1 below, shows that there are (10) political wards of Ogbomoso North Local Government area

Formula for population projection:

n P2 = P 1 (1 + r)

Where: P2 = Projected Population for 2014 (Final population)

P1 = Population for the last available census (Initial population) r = Rate of growth = 3.0%

n = Difference in Years = 11

These political wards were subdivided into residential density (high density area, Medium density area, and Low density area) shown in table 1.2 below. These areas were divided into smaller units referred to in this study as urban blocks. In this context, urban blocks are a group of buildings bounded by roads (Cohen, 2001). These urban blocks were sampled and representatively from the three residential densities. According to Ogbomoso road map, a total number of 560 blocks were identified in the study area. 10% of the total number of blocks in each residential density was sampled and 14 questionnaires each were allotted to each sampled block. Three blocks were sampled from the three residential densities, and the results show that majority of the blocks in the study area have buildings ranging from 10 to 30 and as a result of the stratified random sampling technique employed, 14 questionnaires were allotted to each block. This connotes that 50 blocks were

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sampled and 14 questionnaires to each of the sampled block. A questionnaire was administered to a total of 511residents in the study area.

Table1:S alient Areas of Ogbomoso According to Residenal Density S/N High Medium Low Total

1 IsaleOra General Oke‐owode 3

2 Ojaigbo Stadium Mary land 3

3 Taraa Masifa Yoaco 3

4 Oke‐elerin Oke ado Sabo Olukoko end 3

5 Aaje Kara 2

6 Osupa Apake 2

7 IsaleAfon Okeaanu 2

8 Fakunle OjaTuntun 2

9 Olojo Idi abebe 2

10 Agboyin Adiatu/city 2

11 Orita naira Ikuye 2

12 LakaAguodo Igbo Agboyin 2

13 Masifa Papa Alajiki 2

14 Papa Adeyemo 1

15 Papa Ajao 1

16 Gaalagbedu 1

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17 Takie 1

18 High court 1

TOTAL 13 19 4 36

% 36.11 52.78 11.11 100

No. of sampled Blocks 36.11 x 26 52.78 x 26 11.11 x 26 26

100 = 9 100 = 14 100 = 3

Number of Quesonnaire 5 x 14 = 126 8 x 14 = 196 2 x 14 = 42 364

Source: Author’s Computation, 2014.

Sample Frame The total population of the residents of Ogbomosowas found to be 84,147(NPC 1991), this constitute the sample frame. A total number of 560 blocks was identified and 50 (10%) blocks were sampled. 511 questionnaires were administered in the

Ogbomoso.

Sample Techniques

Sequel to the above classification, the study adopted the stratified random sampling procedure. This connotes that the urban blocks were first classified into three different densities and the selection of blocks within each densities was done randomly.

Five hundred and eleven (511) structured questionnaires were administered to residents of the study area. The questionnaire was evenly distributed to the sampled blocks for good representation. The popular regionalization of Ogbomoso into

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political wards basis (NPC 1991) is therefore a high degree of overlap of densities among the wards and even the localities.

To ensure correct sampling on residential density, the study adopted the locality or ‘salient area’ regionalization. The city exhibits the morphology of a typical colonial traditional Yoruba city. The high density area is almost limited to the core central area. The medium density area surrounds the core forming an intermediate zone from the city center. The low density area is much more in the outer zone or the suburban. The city is therefore classified into three recognizable residential densities that is high, medium and low residential densities.

Total number of blocks in Ogbomoso = 560

Percentage Sampled = 10%

Projected population of Ogbomoso North (2014) = 97,562

A comprehensive list of salient areas or localities of each of the high, medium and low residential densities was compiled.

The total number of the areas in the city was then computed. The percentage proportion of the number of the areas in each residential density relative to the grand total of the city area was then computed. This was to determine the proportion to be sampled from each density in the city.

The total number of blocks earlier defined in the sample frame was determined by counting from the road network map of

Ogbomoso. A total of 560 blocks were found. 10% of the total number of blocks in each residential density was sampled and

14 questionnaires allotted to each. This connotes that 26 blocks were sampled a total of 511 questionnaires were

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administered in Ogbomoso.Each name of the listed areas separated according to the respective densities of the city were written on a small piece of paper, squeezed and thrown up together taking a density at a time. Thirteen (13) areas were randomly selected for the high density, eighteen (18) for medium and four (4) for low density. The sampling procedure was therefore stratified randomly.

Treatment of Variables

Relative Incidence of Generator Use Index (GUI): this is defined as the rate at which individuals or households use generator and generate byproducts which are nuisances to the environment. This index is measured by: incidence of households with generator, average daily operation period of a generator in a household, percentage buildings with more than two generators, percentage households with generators that uses gasoline, percentage household that service generator above two months interval, percentage household that service generator only when it is faulty, percentage household that places generator less than 3m away during use, percentage house walls defaced by generator smoke, percentage houses with intolerable noise levels, percentage houses with high incidence of smoke, incidence of ‘light out’ etc.

Residents Livability Index (RLI): This is defined by the total condition that supports the residents’ meaningful living in the area. It is indicated by Residents’ socioeconomic, sociopsychological and Relative Health problems for the purpose of this study. These are regarded in the study as all situations traceable to the usage of electric generator that has the propensity to reduce or impair the completeness of residents’ wholeness against infirmities that relates to high incidence of noise, heat and smoke. This is measured by respondents’ incidence of: migraine, hearing impairment, irritation, respiratory infections, fever, asthma, nausea, dizziness, sleeplessness, fatigue, coma, meningitis, fire outbreak, etcIt is relative because all health parameters are assumed not to have been covered 121

Data Analyses

This study employed both quantitative and qualitative analyses. Both descriptive and inferential statistics is used to analyze the quantitative data. Tabulations, crosstabulation percentages etc, constitute the descriptive statistics that presents the findings and summarize the data. Likhert scaling shall be used to scale ordinal data, making them amenable to parametric testing. One sample ttest shall be used to explain the difference in the standard air quality and the mean/average air quality in the different areas sampled. Factor analysis is used to reduce the data using the principal component analysis procedure. This enables the generation of the indices treated above. Multiple regression analysis is used to calibrate a model that explains the relationship between the Index of generator use (GUI) which is the independent index and the possible ecological, economical, health and other indices of environmental livability (RLI) which is the dependent index.

Multiple Regression Model

The resulting linear composites of both the generator usage and residents livability derivable from the result of the principal component analysis shall be used. The criterion composite {residents livability} are regressed on the various {depending on the number of factors} composites of generator usage, taking a criterion composite one after the other, the model is therefore given in the form of:

Y = a +b1 X 1 + b 2X 2 + ………..+ bn X n ………………………………. (1) Where: Y = all linear composites of residents livability from it h to nt h term; a = y intercept;

X1 X n = factor of generator usage, the number of which depends on the number factors resulting from the factor analysis considered non residual.

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B1 B n = Partial regression coefficients. The value of these coefficients shows which of the linear composite of generator usage influences residents’ livability over one another. N = number of cases Calibrating the model therefore:

ΣY= an +b 1Σ X1 +b 2Σ X2 ……………..………………………(2); multiplying this by X1 and X2 respectively, we have: 2 ΣX1 Y = aΣX1 + b 1Σ X1 + b 2Σ X1 X 2…………………………………..(3) 2 ΣX2 Y = aΣX2 + b 1Σ X1 X 2 + b 2Σ X2 ……………………….(4) The degree of association betweenresidents livability and N factor(s) of generator usage are determined by the multiple correlation coefficient I. The proportion of the total variance of residents livability accounted for by the factors ofgenerator 2 usage(x 1x 2 ) are also determined by the coefficient of determination (R ) i. e R = SSYSSE SSY R2 = SSYSSE SSY Where: SSY = thesum of squares of deviations about the mean of residents livability, ( Σ(YY) 2) SSE = the residual sum of squares i.e the amount of variations of residents livability left unexplained after the variable of generator usage have been used in the regression equation are used to predict urban residents livability (Σ (YYc)2 ).

Concepts, Theories and Issues.

Several concepts and theories are considered pertinent to this study. Of particular interest are: Global warming, Globalization, healthy city, the green and brown agendas, environmental sustainability, and the theory of ecological footprints. However, one of the theories and issue are briefly discussed below.

Theory of Ecological Footprint

The Ecological Footprint is the closest empirical measure now available to estimate maximum sustainable scale. It captures the bioproductive capacity that is required to support a given level of material throughput, with current practices and

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systems of organization. Maximum sustainable scale relates the physical amount of material throughput in economic activities relative to the biophysical limits of the ecosystems which are involved as sources or sinks. Ecological Footprint differs only in that it involves the throughput involved in all human activities. Most, but not all, of these activities are economic ones.

Ecological footprint analysis compares human demand on nature with the biosphere’s ability to regenerate resources and provide services. It does this by assessing the biologically productive land and marine area required to produce the resources a population consumes and absorb the corresponding waste, using prevailing technology. Footprint values at the end of a survey are categorized for Carbon, Food, Housing, and Goods and Services as well as the total footprint number of

Earths needed to sustain the world’s population at that level of consumption. This approach can also be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. The Ecological Footprint is connected to many of the other approaches to thinking about and measuring scale:

● Footprint and biocapacity is a way to measure historical human carrying capacity. Most Carrying Capacity studies

try to answer a hypothetical question: how many people could live on the planet. The Footprint indicates how much

of the planet was occupied by people. This is an historical question that can be empirically determined rather than

conjecturing on future possibilities.

● Footprint analysis provides a means of assessing the impact of population, affluence (consumption) and technology. ● Footprint can be used to give a summary report of human demand on nature.

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● Footprint translates material flows in areas necessary to support these flows. ● Footprint translates some of the principles of The Natural Step into a resource account. ● Footprint is an ecological economics tool.

Ecological Footprint could also be useful in making sociopolitical decisions regarding optimal scale. Optimal scale is an ecological and sociopolitical target for sustainability. In this study however, it is opined that a strong inclusion of air and vegetative resource into the theory be done. The biosphere’s support partly and heavily depends on these resources too. An empirical measurement of the quantity of air required to sustain the biosphere is equally important.

Effects of Generator Use

Particulate Matter and Gaseous Emissions from Generator

Particulate matter and gaseous emissions from generator includes: Sulphur oxide, benzene, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide etc. The effect of particulate matter and other gaseous emissions from the silencer of generator set cannot be over emphasized.

Table 2: Selected Pollutants Caused by Generator and Their Effects on Health Pollutant Health effect Potentiating Vulnerable Factors/Agent Population

Particulate Matter Upper respiratory tract Sulfur dioxide Elderly people with (Biomass and irritation and infection; (sulfuric acid: respiratory and Fossil fuel exacerbation and cold heat.) cardiovascular combustion in increased mortality diseases children home, industry and from cardio respiratory with asthma motor vehicle engines, smoke)

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Sulfur Dioxide and Throat irritation; cardio Respiratory tract People with Acid Aerosols respiratory disease, infection respiratory diseases including asthma (e. g children with asthma) elderly people with respiratory diseases

Oxides of Nitrogen Eye irritation: upper Respiratory tract People with (fuel combustion at respiratory tract infection, asthma respiratory diseases high temperature)e. infection (especially in (e. g children with g from vehicle children); exacerbation asthma) engines. of asthma; irritation of bronchi

Ozone (reaction Eye and throat Respiratory tract People with product of sunlit irritation: reduced infection, asthma respiratory diseases and vehicle exercise capacity: (e. g children with pollutants; exacerbation of asthma) hydrocarbons and respiratory disease oxides of nitrogen )

Carbon monoxide Headache, nausea, Coronary artery People with ischemic (biomass and fossil dizziness, fatigue, disease heart disease fuel combustion: visual disturbance, generator and confusion: angina, vehicle exhaust) coma, death: low birth rate

Lead In children: Other sources of Children, pregnant (smelting: leaded neuropsychological and lead: iron women petrol) cognitive effects. In deficiency adults: hypertension, classic lead poisoning

Source: Adapted from World Health Organization air quality guidelines 1999 126

The effects of air pollution from generator on human health are usually aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, aggression, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia while longterm effects include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, damage to the brain, nerves, liver, etc. (Jaime DeLaRee Lopez, 2007).

Concept of Distance Decay and First Law of Geography

This first law of geography and distance is worded by Waldor Tobler as "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." Not all space is equal, so distance decay is not equal (Waldor, 2009). Roads, mountains, water ways, and many more natural and manmade obstacles slow and speed up distance decay. Other things can compete for space against the decaying phenomena and become stuck or even reversed.Distance decay is a geographical term which describes the effect of distance on cultural or spatial interactions. The distance decay effect states that the interaction between two locales declines as the distance between them increases. Once the distance is outside of the two locales' activity space, their interactions begin to decrease. This concept is applicable to the research topic because of the strong correlation between distance and noise produced by the generator. When a generator is given adequate setback, the sound intensity it will emit will be tolerable to human ear and will have no adverse effect on the ear. Reverse is the case if the generator is not given adequate setback and the intensity of sound will have a lot of harmful health effect on people around due to frequent exposure to such noise. According to the American Speech Language hearing association, these effects include elevated blood pressure, negative cardiovascular effects, increased breathing rates, indigestion, and stomach disturbances; ulcers, negative effects on developing fetus, difficulty in sleeping even after the noise stops, and increase fatigue.

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In addition, according to the distance decay law by Waldor Tobler, natural and manmade obstacles also slow and speed up distance decay. What this implies to the study is that presence of obstacles in form of wall (manmade), vegetation (natural) can reduce the intensity of noise on human health and even reduce the environment effect of generator in the study area. The manmade wall will serve as an obstacle and reduce the intensity of noise. According to ( Encyclopaedia Britannica 2009 Student and Home Edition), importance of plants in sustainability of environment cannot be overestimated because, the carbon pollutants evolved by generator are been absorbed by process of photosynthesis in plants.

Plate 1: Eﬀect of Polluon fromGenerator on HumanHealth

Noise health effects are the health consequences of elevated sound levels.(PasschierVermeer andPasschier, 2000). Noise can cause hearing impairment, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, annoyance and sleep disturbance (PasschierVermeer andPasschier, 2000).Noise exposure has also been known to induce tinnitus, hypertension, vasoconstriction and other cardiovascular impacts. Beyond these effects, elevated noise levels can create stress, increase workplace accident rates, and stimulate aggression and other antisocial behaviors. The most significant causes are from generator, vehicle and aircraft noise, prolonged exposure to loud music, and industrial noise.

Hearing Loss 128

Noiseinduced hearing loss usually happens slowly, with no pain. Right after exposure to noise, you may notice some “ringing” in your ears. You might have trouble hearing people talk. After several hours or even a few days, these symptoms may go away (Bronzaft and Dobrow,1988).

However, when you are exposed to loud noise over and over, you could have hearing loss that lasts forever. Loud sounds can hurt or destroy the inner ear’s sensory hair cells. Once hurt, the hair cells do not grow back. The mechanism of hearing loss arises from trauma to stereocilia of the cochlea, the principal fluid filled structure of the inner ear . The pinna combined with the middle ear amplifies sound pressure levels by a factor of twenty, so that extremely high sound pressure levels arrive in the cochlea, even from moderate atmospheric sound stimuli. Underlying pathology to the cochlea are reactive oxygen species , which play a significant role in noiseinduced necrosis and apoptosis of the stereocilia. Exposure to high levels of noise have differing effects within a given population, and the involvement of reactive oxygen species suggests possible avenues to treat or prevent damage to hearing and related cellular structures(Kryter,1994)

The elevated sound levels from generator causes trauma to cochlea structure in the inner ear , which gives rise to irreversible hearing loss. A very loud sound in a particular frequency range can damage the cochlea's hair cells that respond to that range thereby reducing the ear's ability to hear those frequencies in the future. The outer ear (visible portion of the human ear) combined with the middle ear amplifies sound levels by a factor of 20 when sound reaches the inner ear (Kryter,1994)

Cardiovascular Effects High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high levels during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an increase in stress and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease. According to the World Health Organization 1999 longterm noise exposure above 6770 dB(A) leads to hypertension. Noise levels of 50 dB(A) at night may also increase the risk of myocardial infarction by chronically elevating cortisol production. Fairly typical 129

noise from generator is sufficient to constrict arterial blood flow and lead to elevated blood pressure. This may result because annoyance from the sound causes elevated adrenaline levels trigger a narrowing of the blood vessels ( vasoconstriction ), or independently through medical stress reactions. Other effects of high noise levels are increased frequency of headaches , fatigue, stomach ulcers and vertigo (Kryter,1994)

Annoyance

Neighborhood noise (consisting of noise from neighboring apartments, generator, as well as noise within one's own apartment or home) can cause significant irritation and noise stress within people, due to the great deal of time people spend within their residences. This can result in an increased risk of depression and psychological disorders, migraines, and even emotional stress(Kryter, 1994)

Sleep Disturbance

To some degree, the immediate effects of sleep disturbance in adults are quantified through: the number and duration of nocturnal awakenings; the number of changes in sleep stage; the number of electroencephalographic arousals; global changes in total amount of sleep stages or in their time organization (sleep architecture) (Kryter, 1994)

Loss of Productivity in Adults

Noise from generator has negative impacts on cognitive performance. A reduction of the day and night noise level by 5 dB within the range of 65–80 dB can improve work performance by almost 10%. For attention and memory, a 5 dB reduction in average noise level results in approximately 2–3% improvement of performance. These adverse impacts of noise on

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cognitive performance can lead to a reduction in the productivity at work and the learning performance at school (Kryter, 1994).

Discussion of Findings This section discusses the data gathered, analyzed and interpreted. It essentially discusses the incidence of generator use, residents’ livability and the relationships between the two. During the discussion, the town planning implications were highlighted. The interpretation is tailored to how much risks are undertaken by residents through the use of electric generator and how residents may cope or be resilient with the continued use of electric generator since they may still have to continue to use the generator in the meantime. The section begins with the assessment of generator use. This is followed by the measurement of residents livability against the background of the usage of electric generator. Here, acute and imminent effects of generator use are factored into the interpretation. This suggests to us what the usage of electric generator can do to our individual lives, city and the globe. Incidence of Generator Use Understanding the incidence of generator use is not very simple. Number of persons having a generator alone would not give the best picture if the incidence of power outage is not investigated. Incidence of power outage alone would not tell in precise terms the number of hours that each individual or individual household put their electric generators on. The number of the working hour of the sampled generator may not also tell us the amount of fuel burnt per day and so the actual estimation of the pollutants produced by the generator. This is because, the age of generator, frequency of servicing the generators, type of generator in terms of capacity and the type of fuel it uses need to be factored into the conclusion. Table 3: Incidence of Generator Use. Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 X 2

Power 48 37 38 38 40 39 33 45 45 44 43 44 45 41 40 45 45 43 46 44 .12 Outage 4

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Gen 78 62 71 74 84 72 71 96 81 81 92 77 64 72 83 81 86 87 71 89 .30 Possession 5

Use 51 54 48 45 52 57 54 49 48 45 44 52 51 56 55 49 48 52 53 50 .06 Regularity 1

Work 9 10 6 6 7 10 9 9 8 9 8 5 6 7 9 9 8 8 7 10 .05 Hour/day 2

Fuel 5 3 2 7 4 5 6 5 5 4 10 5 5 4 8 6 7 9 5 6 .05 used/day 1

No in 1. 1.4 1. 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.2 1. 1.2 1.6 1, 1,4 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.4 1.1 .04 Building 7 8 6 3 5

No of Gen 3 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 2 3 3 5 5 3 3 4 4 3 .06 Used 8

Age 32 39 38 41 40 35 34 35 27 33 31 37 33 34 36 34 37 33 34 36 .00 (Month) 2

Service 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 5 2 3 4 3 2 2 2 4 3 2 2 5 .05 Regularity 1

Fuel type 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 .44 3

Distance to 0. 0.5 0. 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.7 2.5 0.9 0.6 0. 0.7 0.8 0. 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.7 .45 Building 8 8 5 6 3

Domestic 61 68 66 69 67 79 77 92 81 73 71 69 65 69 69 76 78 67 68 89 .13 use 3

Other use 39 32 34 31 33 21 23 8 19 27 29 31 35 31 31 24 22 33 32 11 .11 2

Mean 26 24.1 24 24.8 25.9 25.3 24.2 27.2 24.9 25.1 26 25.4 24.1 25 26.3 25.8 26.2 26.3 25.1 26.8 .11 4

Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2015 Akata‐1, Alaﬁa oluwa‐2, Arowomole‐3, Caretaker‐4, Idioro‐5, Ijeru‐6, Ijeru2‐7, Low cost‐8, Odokoto‐9, Oke alapata‐10. Adenike‐11, Aaje‐12, isale afon‐13, agboyin‐14, adiatu‐15, high court‐16, okelerin‐17, sabo‐18, isaleora‐19, papa alajiki‐20

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The incidence of power outage was summarized from the number of hours during which the residents could not enjoy electricity from the government, per day, the number of day in a week and the rate at which it trips off. For instance,it answers the question; if there was electricity, how long does it stay on before it goes out? The rate at which electricity trips off was obtained in ordinal form, while the rest were taken at interval scale. Likert scaling was used to convert the ordinal data to interval. The addition of the three was divided by three (the number of variables involved) and the result is presented on table 3. Generator possession was measured in ratio scale that is; the percentage of respondent that has a generator. Regularity of generator usage was measured in ordinal scale rating from daily, 5 days a week, twice a week to quarterly a year. The number of generator work hour, average volume of fuel used per day, number of generators in the building, age of generator, distance to building, number of generator used for domestic or other uses were measured in interval scale. It must be stated here that for the purpose of analysis, the scaling used for all the ordinal data here allotted more weight to the negative values of generator use. For instance, the respondents rating of the incidence of power outage starts from ‘very much significant’, ‘very significant’, ‘just significant’, and ‘not significant ’to‘ not at all significant. The weights allotted to these respectively are 0,1,2,3 and 4. So that when power outage is not significant at all, it will score a higher point. This will align the scaling with the purpose of analysis and computation combination with other variables may be meaningful.

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The incidence of power outage is very high and it spares no area of the town. The rate of power outage is only relatively different if areas are compared. The rate is not different significantly when compared statistically (the probability value of the X2 is .124). Areas that fall within Ogbomoso North seem to rate their power outage lower compared to their counterparts from the south. This probably is connected to the presence of high end users in the northern local government who probably receive more attention from the service providers because of their ability to pay. For this reason, Almost everyone (78.6%) has one electric generator at least! Very many residents have more than one generator especially in the high density area.

There are more electric generators in the high density area where there are more independent households in a building who would need electricity but can only afford a small one capable of satisfying only their family units. Many residents in the area are artisans and would need at least a small sized electric generator to do their petty business. This explains why the incidence of generator use increases with increase in land use mix; each land use activity would require the use of an electric generator which is independent of the ones used domestically by households.

On the average, most of the residents have used three generators in their houses. This suggests that electric generator usage is an age long practice in homes. It also suggests that electricity is not a luxury; its need is super basic to livability. The failure of the government to fix the basic needs of the city in terms of public utilities and services, have forced residents to the use of electric generator. The resource drain and environmental pollution has been promoted by the absence of sustainable electric power generation in the country. The age of generator currently in use was obtained in months. When

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this is added to the number of electric generated ever used the damage done to houses, individuals, households as well as the local and global environment is only better imagined.

Electric generator usage was found to be regular as most of the areas scored low points in the rating. This must be due to the regularity of power outage. On the average, residents use their electric generators for 8 hours daily and regularly. These generators mostly use gasoline; that is why they score very low on fuel type. Residents in high density area used the small

‘Tiger’ brand of electric generator ( I better pass my neighbor) in which the engine oil is mixed with gasoline for all the working time. This, combined with the age of the generators as well as the general poor attitude toward its maintenance would produce incomplete combustion that produces even more dangerous pollutants in the environment.

Because of the size of the generators, ignorance of the carbon monoxide poisoning and the unwillingness of the users to spend more for wiring, generators were observed to be located at proximal distance to the buildings. The average distance between generators and buildings for most areas sampled is less than a meter except for low cost area and papa Alajiki.

While some create some distance very many do not. When these are sum together, the mean average put the average distance between generator and buildings at a figure less than a meter. Very many residents especially in the high density area would plug the wire coming from their small generators directly into an electrical socket in the building. Many of these residents are tenants who do not want to install anything permanent in their rented apartments. This gives no room for the generator to be housed securely at a reasonable distance and to forestall the direct inhalation of poisonous fumes. It also

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brings the loud noise closer to residents, exposing them to all the risks associated with the use of electric generator. There are so many implications on the use of electric generators. The environmental implications would be better appreciated if parameters mentioned above are all factored into the incidence of usage of these electric generators. The general discomfort leading to health issues combined with social cum economic problems can never be overemphasized.

Effects of Electric Power Generator Use

There was observed a relative difference in the incidence of electric generator usage across the areas sampled. The pattern of findings reflects the environmental characteristics of the area. Nevertheless, for most part, the difference in usage of generator among the areas is not statistically significant. This connotes that all the areas use electric power generators only that there are slight variations in the type, maintenance, distance of the generator to the building during use, volume of fuel burnt per day and so on. The pattern observed suggests that low density areas such as the low cost, papa, odokoto area which has more green plants and have fewer building developments have lower incidence of environmental effects

Table 4: Scaled Eﬀects of Electric Generator Usage Variables Area%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Socio‐economic eﬀects

Expenditure 24 26 24 23 26 25 23 28 26 22 24 26 24 23 26 25 23 28 26 22 on fuel .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5

11 27 20 27 20 13 23 24 22 22 11 27 20 27 20 13 23 24 22 22 Maintena .2 .4 .4 .5 .5 .4 .8 .9 .9 .5 .2 .4 .4 .5 .5 .4 .8 .9 .9 .5 nce

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Electrical 17 21 23 20 17 20 18 21 13 18 17 21 23 20 17 20 18 21 13 18 appliance .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 damaged

The 21 25 19 20 24 18 19 25 20 20 21 25 19 20 24 18 19 25 20 20 .8 .4 .6 .7 .9 .9 .8 .4 .6 .7 .9 .9

% Income 24 23 25 25 23 27 25 26 19 19 24 23 25 25 23 27 25 26 19 19 spent on Generator

Social 14 14 10 11 10 11 11 14 8. 10 14 14 10 11 10 11 11 14 8. 10 eﬀects .5 5 .5 5

Economic 17 26 18 16 26 16 17 10 16 17 17 26 18 16 26 16 17 10 16 17 eﬀect .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5

Environmental eﬀects

Noise 35 35 26 30 0 29 36 0 27 31 35 35 26 30 0 29 36 0 27 31 .6 .5 .4 .3 .9 .4 .9 .2 .6 .5 .4 .3 .9 .4 .9 .2

Smoke 29 31 27 0 24 24 30 0 26 28 29 31 27 0 24 24 30 0 26 28 .1 .1 .5 .1 .7 .6 .8 .4 .1 .1 .5 .1 .7 .6 .8 .4

Wall 26 59 26 0 42 14 11 0 15 17 26 59 26 0 42 14 11 0 15 17 defacing .8 .3 .8 .3 .2 .4 .8 .3 .8 .3 .2 .4

Env 19 18 20 20 15 19 19 22 20 20 19 18 20 20 15 19 19 22 20 20 eﬀects .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5

Health eﬀects electric 20 35 8. 4. 10 2. 8. 27 16 4. 20 35 8. 4. 10 2. 8. 27 16 4. shock .8 .5 4 2 .5 1 4 .1 .6 2 .8 .5 4 2 .5 1 4 .1 .6 2

Nervous 15 14 15 18 16 8. 3. 17 9. 12 15 14 15 18 16 8. 3. 17 9. 12 diseases .5 .5 .5 .5 5 5 5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 5 5 5 .5

Smoke 3. 26 9. 18 19 6. 2 25 5. 23 3. 26 9. 18 19 6. 2 25 5. 23 8 .7 6 .2 .2 8 8 .1 8 .7 6 .2 .2 8 8 .1

Hearing 0 41 0 8. 16 4. 0 20 0 0 0 41 0 8. 16 4. 0 20 0 0 Impairmen .7 4 .7 2 .9 .7 4 .7 2 .9 t

Eye 25 20 16 24 20 16 16 18 20 19 25 20 16 24 20 16 16 18 20 19 Irritaon .9 .8 .8 .6 .2 .8 .7 .4 .9 .8 .8 .6 .2 .8 .7 .4

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Respirato 22 16 22 19 16 19 22 17 16 20 22 16 22 19 16 19 22 17 16 20 ry Tract .6 .7 .1 .6 .1 .4 .2 .8 .6 .7 .1 .6 .1 .4 .2 .8 Infecon

Throat 4. 33 30 30 27 26 18 0 0 21 4. 33 30 30 27 26 18 0 0 21 Irritaon 4 .7 .4 .4 .1 .5 .8 4 .7 .4 .4 .1 .5 .8

Asthma 27 22 23 0 24 23 25 38 4. 27 27 22 23 0 24 23 25 38 4. 27 .4 .1 .4 .7 .8 .7 2 .4 .4 .1 .4 .7 .8 .7 2 .4

Migraine 4 44 57 0 56 18 16 0 16 20 4 44 57 0 56 18 16 0 16 20

Nausea 31 19 24 0 22 21 29 0 29 27 31 19 24 0 22 21 29 0 29 27 .2 .2 .7 .5 .1 .3 .1 .2 .2 .7 .5 .1 .3 .1

Dizziness 15 39 30 0 24 13 22 0 13 28 15 39 30 0 24 13 22 0 13 28 .8 .2 .6 .3 .6 .3 .5 .8 .2 .6 .3 .6 .3 .5

Fague 19 32 38 0 25 9. 6. 10 0 35 19 32 38 0 25 9. 6. 10 0 35 .4 .2 .7 .8 6 4 .2 .5 .4 .2 .7 .8 6 4 .2 .5

Coma/de 37 25 18 0 21 14 33 0 25 25 37 25 18 0 21 14 33 0 25 25 ath .2 .8 .2 .9 .4 .4 .8 .8 .2 .8 .2 .9 .4 .4 .8 .8

Lead 0 60 33 0 33 16 6. 0 0 0 0 60 33 0 33 16 6. 0 0 0 Poisoning .3 .4 .7 6 .3 .4 .7 6

Eye 8. 71 50 0 62 0 0 0 0 0 8. 71 50 0 62 0 0 0 0 0 Impairmen 4 .5 4 .5 t

Insomnia 39 22 29 0 19 35 39 0 35 38 39 22 29 0 19 35 39 0 35 38 .9 .4 .4 .6 .9 .7 .5 .9 .4 .4 .6 .9 .7 .5

Eﬄuence 27 35 43 28 13 14 18 21 0 0 27 35 43 28 13 14 18 21 0 0 .1 .2 .8 .5 .4 .6 .1 .2 .8 .5 .4 .6

Health 31 25 23 31 20 27 28 26 20 21 31 25 23 31 20 27 28 26 20 21 eﬀect .8 .6 .9 .8 .9 .1 .1 .4 .2 .4 .8 .6 .9 .8 .9 .1 .1 .4 .2 .4

Electricity Regularity 9 6. 18 6 4 12 9. 21 5 9 9 6. 18 6 4 12 9. 21 5 9 5 .5 .5 5 5 .5 .5 5

Frequency of 23 25 25 20 26 26 24 20 23 20 23 25 25 20 26 26 24 20 23 20 Use .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5

Sources: Author’s ﬁeld work, 2015. Akata‐1, Alaﬁa oluwa‐2, Arowomole‐3, Caretaker‐4, Idioro‐5, Ijeru‐6, Ijeru2‐7, Low cost‐8, Odokoto‐9, Oke alapata‐10. Adenike‐11, Aaje‐12, isale afon‐13, agboyin‐14, adiatu‐15, high court‐16, okelerin‐17, sabo‐18, isaleora‐19, papa alajiki‐20 138

Social and Economic Effects

Although some of the data collected were in interval and ratio form, data on the social and economic effects of electric generators for most part were obtained in the ordinal form; where residents were required to rate their perception. A method reminiscent of the Likert’s scale was used to explain the incidence of social and economic effect level of generator use in the area. the scale was graduated into four:‘very significant’, ‘significant’, ‘not significant’, and ‘not significant at all’; which attracted weight values of ‘3’, ‘2’, ‘1’ and ‘0’ respectively. The summation of weight value was calculated through the addition of the product of the numbers of response to each of the variables and the weight values attached to each rating. In essence, ‘4’ was allotted to very much satisfied as the rank of highest value, and in that order, 3, 2, 1 and 0 were allotted to the rest four ranks. The choice of 40 in this scaling is based on the assumption that ‘not at all satisfied’ rank should not be presented as contributing to the positive assessment of the effects of generator use. It follows that, for each ward, the number of respondents multiplied by 4 is the maximum point achievable from each variable. This was used to standardize the weighing of the responses from the residents. The total score for each variable, divided by the maximum point achievable multiplied by 100 becomes the standardized score for each variable. Since the answers will be different because of the difference in the individual mean of the variables, a mean average was computed for use as general mean for all the variables on the table. Thus, each composite figure is given by:

N1 N2 N3 ∑ d1+ ∑e1 + ∑m1 i=1i=1i=1 { }x 100%

N1 N2 N3 ∑ D1+ ∑E1 + ∑M1 i=1i=1i=1

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Where: N1, N2 and N3are the variables selected for scaling, d, e and m are the actual score of the variables and D E M are the maximum point that may be scored by the variables.

Economic Cost of Generator Usage

On the surface, the expenses that residents incur to generate electricity in their homes would seem minimal until some detailed analysis are done. There are both intrinsic and extrinsic expenditure on the usage of electric generator. It would start from the purchase of the generator itself, the regular buying of fuel, the maintenance and the silent costs of taking care of the adverse socioeconomic and health problems that emanated in the course of generator use. The cumulative global cost is not easily commuted into financial value, otherwise the cost of using electric generators can be very high.

A new generator working everyday according to the survey, would burn an average of 5 liters of gasoline which cost about five hundred naira. In 30 days a single generator must have burnt fuel worth fifteen thousand naira if it works for only 3 hours a day. In addition to this, at least, a thousand naira worth of engine oil must have accompanied it. If the user decides to service the generator once in two months on a cost of 2,000 naira, then it is assumed that he spent a thousand every month for the maintenance of the generator.

When these are combined together, at least 17,000 naira is spent on electric generator use every month. The average monthly household income (husband and wife) was found to be 58 thousand naira. It connotes that on the average, residents spend 29.3% of their income just to generate electricity for a brief period in a day and to create other problems that may drain their purse. Usage of electric generator is a strong contributor to high poverty level in our cities.

Noise Level Noise dosimeter was the principal instrument used to measure the ambient noise level or intensity in the study. It was precautionary to take most measurement at night when there can be minimal noise coming from other sources save the electric generator. Therefore for

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most part, the noise data was taken from residential units. Distances were graduated away from the generators sampled before the measurement was taken. This was to protect the electric condenser as noise level may reach or go beyond the maximum capacity (of between 30130db, with two equivalent weighted sound pressure levels A and C.) of the decitometer, distort the reading or damage the instrument. A: is the weighting for general sound level measurement and C: is the weighting for checking the low frequency content of noise. Readings were therefore taken for generators graduating the distance from 3 to 30 meters.

The ambient noise generated from electric generators depended on some factors: the physical conditions of the generator (the age of generator, the regularity of servicing the work done by the generator as at the time of reading and or the condition of the generator generally); the environmental situation (the direction and the speed of wind, casing of the generator green and distance screening and numbers of generators working at the same time); noises from other generators (other sources) remote to the particular building sampled. Nevertheless, there was observed a high correlation between noise level and distance from noise source (electric generator).

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Table 5:Ambient Noise Level from Generators at Distances (Decibel)

Distanc 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 1 2 Mea e 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 0 n

3m 8 83 82. 8 8 8 8 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 86. 7 7 84.6 2 8 6 5 4 4 2 4 3 4 4 1 1 0 4 5 7 8 8

6m 7 78. 80 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 79 7 7 78.7 9 9 9 8 9 8 7 8 8 9 8 8 8 9 8 9 8 6

9m 7 71 71. 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 71. 7 7 71.3 2 3 2 2 1 2 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 0

12m 6 65 65 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 65 6 6 65.5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

15m 6 60. 59. 6 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 5 5 6 5 6 59. 6 5 59.7 0 4 8 0 0 9 0 9 0 0 0 0 9 9 0 9 0 7 0 9

18m 5 54. 54. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 54. 5 5 54.2 5 4 4 4 5 4 5 2 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 2

21m 4 49. 49. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 49. 5 4 49.1 9 2 3 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 0 9 9 0 9 9 9 1 0 8

24m 4 44. 44. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 45 4 4 44.6 5 2 6 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 4

27m 3 39 39 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 39 3 3 38.7 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

30m 3 35 35 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 35 3 3 34.8 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4

Mean 5 58 58 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 58 5 5 58.2 8 8 8 8 8 5 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 6

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One sample ttest was used to compare the WHO stipulated standard for the tolerable outdoor noise level and the mean averages of the ambient noise levels obtainable from the areas sampled. It was observed that there is a significant difference at 95% confidence level (the probability value is .000). Only two of the twenty areas sampled (10%) has ambient noise level that stays within the healthy range. The rest has some 3 decibels more on the average. The mean average of ambient noise intensity for the study is 58.2db. This is above the WHO standard for outdoor tolerable noise level. There can be a lot of social and health implication for this persistent high noise intensity. It increases the rate at which residents develop nervous health problems. The age bracket of victims of hypertension is ranging downward from 60 years to 40years and even less

(Afolayan et al, 2014). More people present with migraine and insomnia among others which are related to environmental stress among which usage of electric generator is a strong contributor.

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Source: Authors computaon, 2015. Noise was found to be a function of distance. It varies inversely with distance with a negative correlation of 0.851. The coefficient of determination (R 2 = 0.996) posits that there is a high degree of overlap between the two. In essence, putting the electric generator far away from where humans stay or sleep during its use would solve the problems causable by noise.

Abatement method to alleviate the effects of generator use may look simple until we are confronted with the standard plot sizes and multiple plot arrangement. The maximum outdoor noise level that is safe according to WHO (1986) is 55db. The average distance that would buffer the noise from most electric generators is 17.7m (Point P on fig 1) which is almost midway within a standard high density plot and cannot be accommodated within the setback stipulated for any residential unit. In other words, an average high density standard plot would be too small to buffer a single electric generator effectively, if only distance is factored into the buffering. The situation becomes worse with multiple generators within a plot of such size. Again all the adjoining plots that houses residential units may have similar situation. This ultimately increases the density of .electric generators within a relatively small area.

The implication of this can be much. Individual efforts alone may not be sufficient to buffer away both the noise and fumes originating from multiple electric generators coming from all directions within the neighborhood. Understanding of the wind movement and cohesive collaboration of the neighborhood residents in partnership with governmental solution can go a longer way to mitigate the problems of noise and fumes. It is suggested here that residents are encouraged to house their generator and buffer its location with green plants (such as the Jathropaspecies) that are capable of producing higher amount

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of oxygen during the dark reaction of photosynthesis. This would assist in the local carbon capture. This effort can be complemented by the government through both the legislation and enforcement of standards as well as city greening in terms of tree planting, adequate road standard, creation of open spaces, parks and gardens which may increase the carrying capacity of the environment and deliver a better livable environment.

Effects of incomplete combustion on health

There is a component in the blood called haemoglobin which has affinity for oxygen. When oxygen combines with haemoglobin, it becomes oxyhaemoglobin which transports rounds the body system for people to survive. Because haemoglobin has a binding capacity, it can combine with the carbonmonoxide generated from the exhaust of a generator to form carbon monooxyhaemoglobin instead of oxyhaemoglobin. When this enters the system, it chocks the respiratory system and reduces the oxygen content in the body leading to death.

Table6 : Summary of Correlaon S/N Relaonship btw Pearson product Probability Remarks coeﬃcient value

1 Incidence of generator use and the 5.509 0.133 weak correlaon

2 Generator use and economic eﬀect 7.052 0.056 High correlaon

4 Generator useand money spent to maintain generator 6.023 0.050 High correlaon

5 Generator useand Damage to electrical appliances 0.443 0.199 No correlaon

6 Generator useand environmental eﬀects 8.122 0.008 High correlaon

7 Generator useand noise 7.200 0.000 High correlaon

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9 Generator useand wall defacing 0.149 0.682 No correlaon

10 Generator use and health eﬀect 8.643 0.045 High correlaon

11 Generator useand eye irritaon 5.96 0.067 Weak correlaon

12 Generator useand electric shock 6.678 0.031 High correlaon

13 Generator useand nervous disease 5.67 0.067 weak correlaon

14 Generator use and hearing disability 0.569 0.086 High correlaon

Sources: Author’s computaon, 2015.

The summary of the bivariate correlation analyses (table 6) shows a high correlation between the high incidence of electric power generator use and economic loss (7.1), through expenditure on generator maintenance (6.02). There was observed a high correlation between the usage of electric generator and residents’ health (8.64) through electric shock (6.7), eye irritation (5.95) and nervous diseases (5.67). The usage also correlates highly with environmental effects (8.1). However, the usage is weakly related to theft and robbery (5.5) and eye irritation (5.96). overall, usage of electric power generator can be said to relate highly with the environment, residents’ health, residents’ economy and social development. To this end, it is not untrue to conclude that the use of generator use is highly related to residents’ livability in Ogbomoso, Nigeria.

Table 7: Chi – Square Test Summary of Social, Economic, Environmental and Health Eﬀect of Generator Use S/N Variables X2 P.Value Remark

1 Incidence of social effect 25.147 0.566 Not signiicant

2 Incident of theft 95.945 0.000 Signiicant

3 Incidence of economic effect 42.920 0.001 Signiicant

4 Incidence of money spent on fuel 17.923 0.036 Signiicant

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5 Spend money to maintain 20.697 0.014 Signiicant generator

6 Incidence of electrical appliances 66.481 0.000 Signiicant damaged

7 Incidence of environmental effects 22.846 0.693 Not Signiicant of generator

8 Incidence of noise 28.148 0.000 Signiicant

9 Incidence of smoke 51.524 0.000 Signiicant

10 Incidence of wall defacing 35.422 0.001 Signiicant

11 Incidence of health effect as a 53.420 0.002 Signiicant result of generator use

12 Incidence of hearing disability 15.550 o.113 Signiicant

13 Incidence of continuous headache 18.217 0.197 Signiicant

14 Incidence of dizziness experience 30.414 0.007 Signiicant

15 Incidence of inability to read 15.421 0.219 Not Signiicant

16 Incidence of inability to sleep 94.374 0.000 Signiicant

17 Incidence of lead poisoning 6.858 0.552 Not signiicant

. Sources: Author’s ﬁeld work, 2015.

The chi test summary (table 7) of the difference in the social, economic, environmental and health effect of generator use of the respondents among the sampled wards in the study area is presented. It was observed that only a few of the variable showed similarity

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in the occurrence of the effects and their probability values implying that the wards may be put in the same category. For most other tests conducted, it was realized that some wards are harder hit with the problems of electric generator use than others. Incidence of lead poisoning, inability to read, environmental effects, social effect were observed to be common to everyone regardless of the ward or area.

On the other hand, incidence of:inability to sleep, dizziness, hearing impairment/disability, headache, crime of theft and economic lossamong others are more significant in some places compared to others.

This is a pointer to imbalances in the urban regions. This depicts that some places relatively have better and regular access to hydroelectric power borne electric power compared to others. Again, some areas have been arranged and managed in a manner that supports environmental livability than others. The plot sizes, the incidence of landscape, financial ability to procure relatively good generators that produces less fumes and noise among other factors might have contributed to the regional difference in the effects of generator usage in the areas. While the principle of equitable city is of vital consideration here, managers of the urban environment should think globally and act locally. They should understand that the effects of the pollutant heavily generated at some places would diffuse and spread to places they are protecting in space and time until it has global effects

Electric Generator Usage and Residents Livability Milieu

This section of the paper discusses the intrinsic as well as extrinsic effects of generator use. The incidence of environmental contamination that arises from the use of electric generator, the general comfort and discomfort ratio, the morbidity and mortality implications, the global and local environmental implications as well as the sociopsychological impacts of the usage of electric generators are discussed.

Air Quality Implications of Generator Usage 148

Tripleplus + multigas detector was used to measure SO2 , NO2 , VO and NH3 ; while the tetra multigas monitor was used to measure

CH4 , CO, H2 S and Oxygen. It was calibrated to 70ISO9000 standard of reliability. The autozero startup calibration was used. The instrument was positioned at the pollution source for 30mins and the highest reading obtained. The instrument was placed at the pollutant source for the required term weighted average (TWA) and the readings were displayed on the screen in part per million

(ppm). This was converted to mg/m3 for uniformity and comparison with the literature facts

It is appalling to know that the use of electric generator produces more dangerous fumes than we thought. Coping with regular use of electric generator is tantamount to taking a regular high dosage of slow poison. The healthrelated dangers of carbon monoxide poisoning as a result of operating electrical generators indoors were poorly appreciated, even by health workers. There is a need for wider public education on the subject in Nigeria, and especially in the mass media and at schools and hospitals (Afolayane t al, 2014).

Complete or incomplete combustion of gasoline may produce: carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), hydrogen sulphide

(H2 S) , hydrogen fluoride (H2 F ), Nitric oxide (NO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) . Nevertheless, in this study, due to the limitation of instrument and fund, only carbon monoxide, nitric oxide and Sulphur dioxide were tested for. At each time, sequential multiple sampler or automatic impingers was used to take samples for two hours. The sampling cycle is activated by a clock mechanism. Air is drawn through the device by a motor driven pump equipped with a filter to remove particulate matter. Following the collection, samples were sent to the laboratory for analysis.

Table 8: Tolerable Standard and Observed Average Air Pollutant Concentration S 3 3 3 CO (mg/m ) SO2 ( mg/m ) NO2 ( mg/m ) N

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Medium Max Observe Max Observe Max Observe Exposur Source d d d e

1 Outdoor 0.57 27.32 8.98 0.008 4.85 Average 3 5

2 Ambien 3.44 8hr US/EPA t

3 Outdoor 7 0.004 24hr/y WHO r

4 Outdoor 10 8hr WHO/E C

5 Outdoor 30 350ug/m 1hr WHO 3

Source: Adapted from Donney, (2011); ETC/ACM (2011)

3 3 3 The maximum tolerable level for NO2 is 0.0085mg/m . The average concentration observed was 4.85mg/m . CO averaged 27.32mg/m .

The average maximum tolerable level is 7mg/m3

3 3 The maximum tolerable level for SO2 is 0.0035mg/m the mean average in the study was 8.98mg/m . Volatile organic compound was also high. The maximum tolerable level is 1.9ppm, a high mean average of 134ppm was recorded. Some ambiguity surrounds the measurement of hydrogen sulfide in that it is also a byproduct of biological decay such as from solid wastes. The mean average for the study is 1.98mg/m3 . Students ttest was used to explain the margin between the maximum tolerable standard and the observed level of gas pollutants emitted from electric generators during their use. The test revealed a diﬀerence that is stascally wide enough to be

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signiﬁcant at alpha of .05. this implies that the ambient air polluon caused by the usage of electricity is far above what humans should regularly be exposed to.

Table 9: Eﬄuence from Electric Generator(mg/m3 ) Are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 a

SO2 8. 9. 8. 9. 9. 9. 9. 8. 9. 9. 8. 9. 9. 9. 8. 8. 9. 9. 8. 8. 9 2 9 8 1 1 8 9 0 2 9 3 2 8 9 9 8 8 9 2

NO2 4. 5. 4. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 4. 5. 5. 5. 5. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 9 2 9 8 1 1 8 9 0 2 9 3 2 8 9 9 8 8 9 2

CO 29 28 28 27 27 29 28 25 27 28 29 27 27 28 27 29 27 27 28 24

H2 S 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 1. 2. 2. 2. 2. 1. 1. 2. 2. 1. 1. 2. 1. 2 3 8 7 4 2 3 7 1 1 2 3 9 9 1 1 9 9 1 8

VOC 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 11 13 14 13 13 13 13 13 14 13 13 13 11 1 8 4 5 4 9 4 5 3 1 4 8 6 7 2 1 6 9 8 8

Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2014 Akata‐1, Alaﬁa oluwa‐2, Arowomole‐3, Caretaker‐4, Idioro‐5, Ijeru‐6, Ijeru2‐7, Low cost‐8, Odokoto‐9, Oke alapata‐10. Adenike‐11, Aaje‐12, isale afon‐13, agboyin‐14, adiatu‐15, high court‐16, okelerin‐17, sabo‐18, isaleora‐19, papa alajiki‐20

Causeeffect relationships that are well known includes the darkening of paint by hydrogen sulfide;the damaging of vegetation by sulfur dioxide, oxidants, fluorides, and ethylene; and the effect of carbon monoxide on the oxygencarrying capacity of the blood (Katz,

1969). Sulfur dioxide is one of the principal contaminants that may cause eye irritation and respiratory tract infection. Visibility impairment is most likely to be caused by high concentration of soot or smoke particles, dust or photochemical aerosols in the atmosphere.

Power plants burning fossil fuels are likely to emit sulfur oxides and oxides of nitrogen, unburned and reformed hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, minute amount of polynuclear hydrocarbons, and residue of fuel additives e.g tetraethyllead. Methods

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to determine oxides of nitrogen based on Saltzman reagent may be useful. Carbon monoxide is the principal constituent of the exhaust from electric power generator. Method to determining it includes the use of palladium indicator tubes, infrared absorption technique and measurement of the heat combustion during catalytic oxidation.

Distance Decay of Pollutants and the Environmental Carrying Capacity.

Ambient air quality was taken at different points of varying distance from pollution source. It was observed that the concentration of the pollutant decreased with increase in distance away from the gaseous pollutant source. This may be because of diffusion. It follows that ample spaces within a plot would improve its carrying capacity. In essence, the bigger the plot the possibility of reducing the local carbon load as far as the usage of electric power generators is concerned.

Figure 2: Carbon Monoxide‐ Distance Decay

Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2015.

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It may be observed that keeping all other situations surrounding the incidence of fumes from generators constant; with each meter moved away from the pollution source, there is a 2.342mg/m 3 (8.3%) reduction in the CO concentration on the average. It follows that the desired domestic level of CO reduces in the study area by a constant of 2.342mg/m 3, which may be used to calculate the distance required at each instance for the placement of electric power generators in our homes

Incidence of Greens and Air Quality

Distance alone would not improve the local and global air quality. The presence of biological factors such as green plants which are believed to be contributing to environmental oxygen through photosynthetic activities can contribute immensely to the air quality. Ambient air quality in this study may be described as the degree of the absence of pollutants in the air.

This was found to increase with increase in the incidence of green soft landscape material in the area. Quadrant method was used to sample areas to measure the incidence of green plants in the area. Trees and shrubs were directly enumerated too. A weight of 4 was given to a quadrant (a quarter of quadrant scores 1); 5 was attached to shrubs while 7 was attached to a tree.

The number of tree, shrubs and the incidence of green plant cover measured by the quadrant was commuted and the summation was in interval scale. Air sampler was used to measure the ambient concentration of carbon monoxide across the sampled blocks the standard scores of these pollutants were plotted against the incidence of greenery.

Figure 3: Greenery and Ambient Air Quality

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Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2015.

It may be deduced from this study that incidence of greens is an efficient means to local carbon capture and sequestration.

The higher the incidence of green landscape in the area, the better was the air quality observed and vice versa. From this study, a unit increase in the incidence of green landscape produces 1.916 corresponding increase in the ambient quality of the air.

Extraction of Linear Composites

The principal component variant of factor analysis was used to summarize the variables both of the incidence of the usage of electric power generator and residents’ livability. Five factors were generated but three of them were considered residual as they seem to duplicate one or both factors chosen but loading with a much lower eigen values. The two linear composites used in this study are presented on table 10. The first is a surrogate for the relative incidence of electric power generator use while the other is for residents’ livability.

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155

Table 10: Extracted Factors

Variables Factors

1 2

Power Outage .992(2)

Gen Possession .957(8)

Use Regularity .991(3)

Work Hour/day .983(6)

Fuel used/day .986(5)

No in Building .992(2)

Age (Month) .951(9)

Service Regularity .982(7)

Fuel type .995(1)

Distance to Building .990(4)

Domestic use .992(2)

.758(10 Other use )

Expenditure on fuel .987(3)

Maintenance .988(2)

Electrical appliance damaged .995(1)

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Theft .764(25)

% Income spent on .960(9) Generator

Social effects .995(1)

economic effect .981(7)

Noise .972(8)

Smoke .983(6)

Wall defacing .943(11)

electric shock .878(15)

Nervous diseases .899(14)

Hearing Impairment .801(23)

.813 Eye Irritation (18)

Respiratory Tract Infection .811(19)

Throat Irritation .942(12)

Asthma .984(5)

Migraine .956(10)

Nausea .986(4)

Dizziness .926(13)

Fatigue .814(17)

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Coma/death .822(16)

Lead Poisoning .798(24)

Eye Impairment .803(22)

Insomnia .988(2)

Effluence .806(21)

Health effect .808(20)

Source: Author’s Computation, 2015

In all, 41 scaled variables were subjected to factor analysis. There were five linear composites generated out of which three were considered residual as they account for similar variables but with lower communalities. Generator Use Index (GUI) extracts 39.17% of the total variance of the data set. The variables that load highly under it are: fuel type (.995), incidence of power outage (.995), number of generator in a building (.992), Domestic use (.992), Regularity of electric generator use (.991),

Distance of generator to building (.990), etc. Residents LivabilityIndex (RLI) extracts 31.42% of the total variance of the data set. The variables involved are: electrical appliances damaged (.986), social effects (.984), incidence of asthma (.956), dizziness (.942), fatigue (.926) etc. The study therefore used the two indices above to study the relationship between the usage of electric generators and residents livability.

Relationship between Generator Usage and Residents Livability

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In understanding the relationship that exists between frequency of generator use (GUI) and its effects on resident’s livability

(RLI) in the study area, regression analysis was employed. For this analysis, the dependent variable is frequency of generator use and the social, economic, environmental and health effect of generator use were made independent variable.The linear composite of resident livability index (the dependent variable) was regressed upon by the linear composite of the relative incidence of electric generator use (GUI) (the independent variable). The result is presented onTable 11.

Table 11: Summary of Regression Analysis S Dependent Independent R R2 F P.Value B PValu N e

1 RLI GUI .‐811 .658 19.011 .000 Constant 4.300 .153

GUI .535 .000

. Sources: Author’s computaon, 2014.

Y= a + bx+ e ………… Regression Equation

Where Y = Dependent Variable (Residents Livability Index) a = Constant (4.300) b = .535 Regression coefficient of the relative incidence of generator use index (GUI) The regression model produced the correlation coefficient (R), the coefficient ofdetermination (R2 ) , the F value, the P value and the coefficient of the partial regression of the independent linear composite of legibility. Table 10 shows a very high correlation (R =.829) the

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relationship is also significant at 100%alpha(α) level (The probability value is .000) between Residents Livability Index (RLI) and

Generator Usage Index (GUI)

The regression coefficients for GUI when regressed with Residents Livability Index (RLI) was .811. This reveals that GUI is important to the explanation of residents environmental Livability. In other words, there is a significant relationship between a livable environment and the relative incidence of electric generator use. This implies that, when it is desired that the environment be livable, one of the factors to be considered is adequacy of basic utilities such as electric power, which may be negatively skewed towards the high incidence of electric generator use. Fuel burnt, Power outage, regularity of domestic generator use, multiple use of generators in a building, closeness of a working generator to where people are, daily use of electric generator for a long number of hours and the use of old, poorly maintained generators among others in the order of listing has been observed to relate negatively to residents livability in the study.

Economic cost in terms of collateral damage of especially domestic electrical appliances, fuel expenditure, the purchase and maintenance of electric generators are on top of the list of electric generator induced livability problem. This is closely followed by the health problems associated with the inhalation of fumes produced by these generators: insomnia, nausea, asthma, migraine, throat irritation, and dizziness among others ( see the ranking on table 9) in the order of listing are the livability variables that the usage of generator has direct effects on.

The ability to improve environmental livability is relatively dependent on sustainable utility provision. This is relative because other factors jointly contribute to environmental livability. As may be observed in the study, the coefficient of correlation between the

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linear composites of environmental livability and relative incidence of electric generator use is .811. The probability value is also .000 which means that it is significant at 95% confidence level. Invariably, the members of the linear composite of the relative incidence of the use of electric generator in the order that they have been listed are relatively important to the explanation of Environmental livability. The inference for this study is that when areas are well supplied with basic utility or services such as electricity in a sustainable way, they greatly enhance the economy, health and the social lives of the residents, thus; they have the chance of alleviating environmental nuisances and environmental related diseases.To understand the degree to which each of the linear composites of

Relative incidence of electric generator use (GUI) independently influence the linear composites of Residents Livability (RLI. The regression model is calibrated. The equation is given by:

Y=a+bx...... (1)

Y= R esidents Livability Index a= Constant of the regression model b= Coefficient of partial regression of the relative incidence of electric generator use x= Relative incidence of electric generator use.

The coefficient for the model calibration is on table 10.Substituting for the equation therefore:

RLI = 4.3 +0.535(GUI)

This equation implies that; holding other things constant, a unit increase in the index of the relative incidence of electric generator use (GUI) will produce 0.535 decrease inresidents livability (RLI).But, residents livability in this study was basically measured by economic efficiency of basic utility provision and its access by residents, absence of environmental contaminants as a result of electricity provision, state of health of residents with a particular concern for ailment which may arise from fuel combustion and

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pollutants produced by electric generator during its use and the incidence of social problems such as crime, crowding and other extrinsic effects of electric generator use. It thus follow that; decrease in the use of electric generators would positively affect residents economic efficiency, improve their health, alleviate environmental pollutants to reduce global environmental risks such as climate change, carbon footprint and environmental morbidity and improve soci0psychologibal balance in our cities.

Conclusion and Major Findings

Electric generator usage is one of the most terrible humaninduced threats to livability in the contemporary cities of the developing world especially Nigeria. It rightly commands widespread policy and public attention. Along with other rapid changes associated with global population and economic growth, climate change strains existing weak points in health protection systems and calls for reconsideration of public health priorities. The most effective responses are likely to be strengthening of the key functions of environmental management, surveillance and response to safeguard health from natural disasters and changes in infectious disease patterns, and a more proactive approach to ensure that development decisions serve the ultimate goal of improving human health. For the most part, these are not new interventions but existing tools underutilized due to the “true killers”: lack of political commitment and of financial resources. Climate change therefore demands that we intensify our efforts in preventive public health and place that crucial task at the core of sustainable development.

The area sampled consists mainly of residential and commercial land uses (35.1% 27.3% respectively) industrial land use sampled was 2.6%. There is generally a high incidence of electric power outage (82.5%). This forces the residents to spend

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substantial amount of their income to generate electrical power through the use of generator. Almost all residents (85.5%) uses gasoline fuel. This is on the ground that diesel engine are less affordable. There are numerous brands of electric generator: yamaha, tigmax, honda, parsun, king, goldford, tec, Suzuki among others. Nevertheless, tiger and elepaq are commonest 48.8%. Noise level/intensity is higher than the tolerable level in almost all the areas sampled. Very many residents (67.4%) do not have a permanent position for generator during use, the set back of generator to building was grossly adequate with most residents having less than 3m; this accounts for why indoor as well as outdoor ambient pollution was high with high concentration of pollutants. This exposes very many residents to health various health problems arising from the inhalation of the pollutants produced as electric generator combusts fuel.

Recommendation

The need to adopt proper steps to manage the environment has become very imperative so as to reduce the deterioration and degradation of the environment and reduce the hazard pose on human health. A singular recommendation would neither satisfy the curbing of electric power generator usage nor produce alternative energy source that are considered sustainable for residents liveability. A combination of recommendations that are implicated in technological, legal, social, economic and administrative interventions is proffered in this study.

Exploration of alternative electric power source: electricity can be produced from several alternative sources. Different parts of the world have produced electricity using resources that is most accessible to them. Wind is the source of electricity in Pakistan and many part of Asia. Solar electric power generation is popular in other tropics. Hydrocarbon gases have

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produced electricity in other places Hydroelectric power is the major electric power source in Nigeria. There are different areas in Nigeria with different attribute and peculiarities. The Government at different levels should embark on electrification project that resource in their area supports. There can be subvention from federal to state and to local governments. The local government can as well fund or sub vent for communities within their jurisdiction to provide sustainable electricity from ubiquitous environmental resources. When electric power is generated from all sources possible, there won’t be overreliance on the hydroelectric power generation in the country.

Legal and Administrative Intervention: curbing or reducing the effect of the production of atmospheric pollutants through the use of electric power generator would require the preparation, administration and enforcement of legal proclamations that is concerned with environmental management. Institutions responsible for the environment should be empoweredby enhancing their capacity to prescribe and enforce environment friendly practices and rules. There should be a regular and careful monitoring of environmental quality including the air quality. Again, residents as well as city administrators should be encouraged both by legislation and subvention to plant trees and other green plants for the purpose of local carbon capture and sequestration. The volume of development on a plot of land should be controlled to create ample space where trees can be planted, where pollutants can be effectively distanced away either from the occupants of the plot or the adjacent developments.

Harmonizing Federal and State responsibilities for environmental management

1. Federal Responsibilities and functions should include :

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● establishing environmental quality standards and regulatory guidelines and procedures for implementing, enforcing

and evaluating them; establishing guidelines and procedures for project and policy environmental assessment

screening and environmental impact assessment as well as the necessary capacity to initiate and review them;

● establishing a Federal Environmental Action Plan for execution by Federal Institutions;

● establishing consistent guidelines for state environmental management plans and action programmes and the

coordination of national and interstate programmes, projects and exchanges of information on environment;

● review of Federal policies which might have significant adverse impacts on the environment or natural resource base;

● allocate and evaluate the use of Federal funds for special projects and programmes;

● develop special training programmes for upgrading knowledge and skills in the various disciplines required for

environmental management.

● intensify public enlightenment campaign on the benefit of adequate maintenance, retrofitting, adapting effective

technology, ensuring efficient energy use and increased costbenefit;

● maintain an effective database on industries and compliance status;

● eliminate Ozone Depleting Substances consuming processes;

● enforce laws relating to sitting of new industries and install a minimum of primary treatment on all new industries;

● build secondary central treatment facilities in all major industrial estates in cities such as Lagos, Kano, Kaduna, Port

Harcourt, Warri, Ibadan and Enugu by 2005;

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● implement the “polluter pays” principle immediately;

● enforce maximum waste segregation, recycling and reuse;

● promote research in Best Available Technology Effective for Local Adoption (BATELA);

● make Ecolabelling of industrial products compulsory;

● promote commercialization of landfills, incineration and bioremediation as appropriate;

● encourage citizen involvement in pollution control;

● introduce green technologies and promote Environmental Management System (EMS) in all industrial facilities;

● create an Environmental Fund to provide soft loans, economic incentives for environment related activities in

industries;

● promote tax rebates for industries installing and maintaining effective pollution abatement facilities.

Contribution to Knowledge Research on electric generator use is almost novel as there is dearth of literature on the subject. There are few elusive statements on the usage import and economic importance of electric generator, however, most researchers in the field of urban and regional planning have not delve into findings on the effect of the use of one inimical technology that has become a part of every home and workplaces.

Findings on greenhouse gases global warming and climatic changes are replete in the literature. However, there is a urgent need to look inward to parameters closer to areas requisite for human habitation and investigate the domestic incidence and effects of these gases on residents. It is equally important to investigate the appropriate method to cope with inevitable emissions in a way that

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promotes sustainable healthy living and livable environment worthy of being bequeathed to newer generations. This is the thrust of this study.

The utmost desired result of any research is aimed at improving the condition and general wellbeing of people. Therefore, any finding pertaining to living condition of the people is definitely an enhancement to such development activities. In general, the study points to the social, economic, environmental and health effect of the use of generator, set back of a generator during usage, sound intensity of a generator and how it can be controlled, hence improving the quality of health and environment in the study area. This study as both a process and a product; seek knowledge from pure as well as social sciences to tackle social, economic and environmental issues with the sole aim of improving the residents livability and is applicable to all kinds of societies faced with similar challenges.

Most researches have focused on the wider macro environmental level of climate change and incidence of greenhouse gases, but this research should be a breakthrough, breaking the giant issue into pieces and in form that may be tackled by every member of the society including the nonprofessionals and even uneducated. This research does not only do this but proffer physical planning strategies to enable residents cope with local carbon capture and sequestration. This found expressions in distance buffers and integrated space standard proposed for inclusion in residential area designs. Again, utility and infrastructural planning seems not to have a notable significance to climate change studies. This study is among the first to hinge utility planning into both micro and macro scale of understanding and mitigating greenhouse effects as emanating from poor utility planning and infrastructural development.

This study therefore opens up a collaborative research area that has been grey and which can be peculiar to developing countries especially Nigeria, where the problem of electricity is strangling lives and livelihoods, hampering local businesses and general economy, but hurling a great havoc on the global efficiency by its immense local contribution to the greenhouse gases but a global

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consequences that does not leave behind even the developing world. A single deal that eradicated the use of generators as a major source of electricity is a giant step towards a low carbon society, a green environment, livable for promoting health, economy and beauty, which forms the whole essence of urban and regional planning.

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An Estimation of the Environmental Impacts of Generator Use in Ogbomoso Nigeria. An analysis of generator use and residents livability in Ogbomoso, Nigeria.

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Project Reference Number: LAU/SRG/13/028

Project Title: Alkali Activation of Nigeria Clays for Refining of Vegetable Oils (A case study of Nigeria Shea Butter)

Name of Principal Investigator: Dr. Salawudeen T.O. Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomos, Oyo State.

Name of Research Team members:Dr. Akinwande, B.A. and Engr. Arinkoola A.O. Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomos, Oyo State.

Executive Summary:

Introduction

Clays and clay minerals are found in commercial quantity in Nigeria and yet the applications into different fields where they are found useful have not been properly explored. Clay minerals have found applications in many economic branches, engineering and environmental studies. This is largely due to their high resistance to harsh environment and availability at low cost. Utilization of clay in Nigeria is very meager compared to its availability. It is very abundant in the South Western and Northern part of the country and yet little attention is given to these available minerals. The popular areas of application are in the making of local pots, toys and some house hold utensils. Modification of Nigeria clay for various industrial applications deserves research attention most especially utilization of clay in the refining process of vegetable oils. The modified clays that are currently used in this area of refining are either imported from Asia, Europe or America despite its abundance on our land. Those imported clays are usually acid activated clay which after being used left the refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) oil with residual acid, which reduces the quality of the oil. Production of acid activated clay and its application in vegetable oil refining has reached its limit of optimization. Most acid activated clay often increases the acid value of refined bleached and deodorized (RBD) oil and hence requires further treatment to get the desired quality. In

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addition, the waste effluent from the treated clay is hazardous to the environment due to the acid contents. This research study therefore investigated the potential application of alkali activated clay for vegetable oil bleaching using Shea oil as case study.

Problem Statement and Specific Objectives

The following problems are observed in the use of the conventional acid activated clay in vegetable oil refining process: environmental effect, residual acid effect and higher processing cost

Environmental Effect: There is residual acid on the clay after activation (for enhanced adsorptive power). In order to remove the residual acid,there is routine washing of the clay. This practice is considered inefficient given the time and additional costs involved. Also, the waste water is considered harmful to the environment.

Residual Acid Effect:Residual acid on the activated clay gets transferred to the oil during bleaching process, and thus increases the acid value of the refined oil. High acid value reduces the quality of vegetable oils (Hulya et al., 2007).

Objectives of the Research Studies

The objective of this research is to develop alkali activated clay for use in vegetable oil refining and to establish the optimum process conditions. Specific Objectives:

i. To carry out Comparative assessment of NaOH and KOH activated clay at varying concentration and heating time in refining of crude Shea butter on free fatty acid and color reduction. ii. Outcome of (i) above will be used for optimization process, in terms of activated clay dosage, bleaching time and bleaching temperature.

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iii. Determination of physical and chemical properties of crude Shea butter and the refined oil to know the effectiveness of the activated clay produced.

Research Methodology

Clay samples were obtained (i) at Awo latitude 7°45´ N and 7º47´ N of the equator and longitude 4 º 24´ E and 4 º 25´ E of Greenwich meridian in Egbedore local government area of Osun state (ii) at Alasa area latitude 23 o1´ and 14º27´ N of the equator and longitude 2 º 21´ E and 7 º 15´ E of Greenwich meridian. These clay samples were activated and the process of activation was optimized using sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solutions at varying concentrations as activating agents. Clay mineralogy before and after activation was determined by using XRD and XRF while the effectiveness of those clays was measured by determining the percentage color reduction and the final free fatty acid of the bleached Shea oil.

Results Presentation and Discussion

The effectiveness of the alkali activated clay producedwas measured in terms percentage color reduction and free fatty acid. The adsorption of colored impurities from the Shea oil was favored by low concentration (0.5m/dm 3) for sodium hydroxide activated clays and higher concentration (5m/dm3 ) for potassium hydroxide activated clays. The percentage free fatty acid of the Shea oil was reduced from 6.83 to 2.74 and 3.2 for potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide activated clays respectively. The XRD patterns of the activated clays revealed that the clay sample consists of mixed layered minerals whose morphology has been changed as a result of the modification. The major minerals are kaolinite muscovite and rutile with highest percentage recorded in muscovite as indicated by the peak. XRF showed that the major oxides are oxides of silica and alumina. Other oxides presents includes MgO, TiO2 , CaO and Fe2 O 3.

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The results of this work has shown that Nigerian clays has the potential of been used as an adsorbent industrially in the vegetable oil refining. Also alkaline activation of these local resources have addressed the common shortcomings associated with acid activated clay and hence make alkali activated clay a good candidate for bleaching vegetable oil in place of the conventional acid activated clay. Conclusion and Major Findings of the Study Alkali activated clay was produced using both NaOH and KOH respectively as activating agents. It can be concluded from the results that NaOH activated clay is a better candidate for adsorption bleaching of vegetable oil because lesser concentration (0.5 m/dm 3) of these alkali is required when compared with KOH which required up to 5 m/dm 3. The morphological change in the mineral composition of the activated clay is a major factor for their effective bleaching. major finding in this research is that problem of residual acid on the final refined bleached and deodorized oil has been addressed with a reasonable reduction in free fatty acid. Recommendations The results of this research should be adopted as a basis for the production of alkali activated clay. Further research should be carried out on other alkalis.

Contributions to Knowledge: The following contributions have made to the existing work on the clay refining process and application of Nigeria clay in the vegetable oil refining.

i. Clay refining process usually involves neutralization stage which requires dosing the degummed oil with an alkali prior bleaching process. This is done to reduce the free fatty acid of the oil. This research work has been able to reduce the refining steps (neutralization step) by using an adsorbent that is capable of bleaching and neutralization.

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ii. Optimization of process parameters carried out in this research has been able to fix the optimum conditions for activation of clay require for effective bleaching.

Number of Published Articles:

1. Akinwande B. Aisha, Salawudeen T. Olalekan, A.O. Arinkoola and Jimoh M. Omolola (2015) Effect of Activation on Clays and Carbonaceous Materials in Vegetable Oil Bleaching: State of Art Review. British Journal of Applied Science and Technology 5(2): pp 130141. Published by Science Domain International (www.sciencedomain.org ).

2. Akinwande B.A., Salawudeen T.O., Arinkoola A.O., and Jimoh M.O. (March 2014) A Suitability Assessment of Alkali Activated Clay for Application in Vegetable Oil Refining. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology Studies, Pages 1 2. Published By European Centre for Research Training and Development UK ( www.esjournals.org).

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Grant: Reference Number: LAU/SRG/13/032

PROJECT TITLE:ANALYSIS OF INTRAURBAN VARIATIONS IN POLLUTANTS CONCENTRATION AND RESIDENTS’ VULNERABILITY TO INDOOR AIR POLLUTION IN OGBOMOSO, NIGERIA

Name of Principal Investigator: Dr (Mrs) Abolade, Olajoke Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomos, Oyo State.

Name of Research Team member: Mrs. Odunjo, Oluronke Omolola Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomos, Oyo State.

Executive Summary:

Indoor air pollution (IAQ) is a phenomenon recognized to be a major health problem worldwide. The major source of Indoor air pollution is use of solid fuel within indoor environment for purposes including cooking and heating among others. This often produces noxious fumes which are injurious to human health and unknown to many, exposure to and inhalation of these fumes and dangerous gases from workplaces, homes and other indoor environments have been responsible for severe health cases. Within this context, the research focused on the measurement of intracity concentration in pollutants and assessment of residents’ vulnerability in Ogbomoso, (a medium sized precolonial city) Southwest Nigeria. It investigates residents’ usage of household and building materials that generate air pollution and measures their vulnerability owing to exposure on the one hand while it analyses the incidences of indoor air related diseases (IARDs) in Ogbomoso making most of hospital records of patients ever admitted and treated of any IARDs from four selected hospitals within 20082013 review period. Furthermore, air quality sampling was undertaken to capture gaseous pollutants such as methane (CH 4), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulphide (H2 S), carbondioxide (CO2 ) and ozone (O 3). Ambient air was also analyzed for particulates with aerodynamic diameter less than 1 microns (PM1 .0), 2.5 microns (PM2 .5), 1 micron (PM1 ), 7 microns (PM 7.0), and 10 microns (PM1 0) at strategic locations in the city during which climate and meteorological parameters

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as wind speed and direction, ambient air temperature and relative humidity were also collected. Relative Humidity and Temperature wasmeasured using the Vaisala HUMICAP ® HandHeld Lightweight, pocketsized Humidity and Temperature Meter HM34. Weather Tracker Kestrel 4500 was used for the measurements of meteorological parameters. This was used to monitor the wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity, pressure and temperature during the study period.Particulate matter (PM) was measured with Aerocet 821 Particle Counter/Dust Monitor, while. Hydrogen Sulphide

(H 2S), Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ), and Methane (CH4 ) were measured using Crowscon Tetra 3 multigas sampler. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Measurements was taken using an in situ nonintegrated single gas carbon monoxide monitor (ToxiRAE Model PGM1150).

Multistage method of sampling i.e. stratified and systematic random sampling technique was employed to administer 373 questionnaire to households in 48 localities across residential densities in Ogbomoso, information on building characteristics, residents’ awareness of sources and impacts of indoor air pollutants, level of usage of household and building materials that generate indoor air pollution were collected for the purpose of analysis. Likhert scale ratings were employed to generate residents’ awareness index (IIEA) of associated impacts on indoor environment; residents’ usage of household materials index (RUI); and residents agreement index (RAg I) of exposure to indoor air pollution on which descriptive analyses were based. Having collected hospital records on incidence of indoor air related diseases (IARDs), chi square was used to examine the relationship between patients’ socioeconomic characteristics and incidence of indoor air related diseases in the city.

Radio (3.09), electric iron (3.00), television (2.97), asbestos (2.71), fans (2.71), furniture and fittings (2.71), germicides (2.61), refrigerator (2.57), kerosene (2.57), paints and wood sprays (2.49), lanterns (2.38), perfumes and air fresheners (2.30), insecticides (2.29), mosquito coils (2.23), charcoals (2.20), generators (2.15), rodenticides (2.14) and were some of household and building materials used that have highest index values and capacities for generating indoor air pollution in their

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categories. Female children (2.72), parents (2.28), and mothers (2.97) were more exposed to indoor air pollution compared to their counterparts given residents’ agreement index on exposure. The effects of usage of household materials and exposure to indoor air pollution with highest indices include eye irritation from odour expellers (1.66), sneezing (1.62), foul smell (1.57), and dizziness (1.33).

The average mean Indoor/Outdoor ratio varied largely due to population distribution, building design and the different activities. They range from 0.44 – 66.30; 0.13 – 60.94; 0.54 – 26.83; and 0.12 – 12.64 for PM1 , PM2 .5, PM4 .0 and PM 10, respectively in the high density; to 0.55 – 23.86; 0.53 – 5.82; 0.55 – 2.67; and 0.36 – 2.00 in the medium density locations whereas the ratios were smaller for the low density areas where biomass are less used as a source of cooking, and building ventilation were better. The average ratios for particulate matters on roadside environment were almost 1 for the investigated particle sizes.

Furthermore, the 1hour measured concentrations of the gaseous pollutants in the indoor environment of the sampling locations showed that Ozone (O 3) was detected in 12 locations, carbon monoxide in 30 locations, Carbon dioxide

(CO2 ) in 46 locations, Hydrogen Sulphide (H2 S) in 42 locations. Methane was not detected in any of the sampling locations in Ogbomoso. One hour measured concentration ranged from 0.00 – 0.07 ppm; 0.00 – 50.00 ppm; 0.00 – 0.36 ppm; and 0.00 –

2.00 ppm, respectively for O 3, CO, CO2 and H2 S which became 0.00 – 0.04 ppm; 0/00 – 27.93 ppm ; 0.00 0.20 and 0.00 – 1.12 ppm for 8 hour averaging period and for the 24 – hour averaging period, the concentrations were 0.00 – 0.03 ppm, 0.00 –

20.54 ppm, 0.00 – 0.15 ppm and 0.00 – 0.82 ppm, respectively for O 3, CO, CO2 and H2 S respectively.

From the foregoing, enteritis (78.5%), asthma (5.6%), cough/sneezing (4.7%) and bronchitis (3.8%) were major indoor air related diseases (IARDs) for which most patients have been treated in the selected hospitals across the city. However, patronage for IARDs treatment in the selected hospitals was highest in 2012 when largest proportion of patients (31.8%) were treated, more females (53.5%), more active/working population aged 2060 years (60.1%), and more residents (71.9%)

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from undisclosed residential density had been treated for any IARDs within the 20082013 review period. Conclusively, the research found that there exist a connection between the use of buildings and the appearance hence, the discomfort and symptoms of ailments attributable to air pollution in the indoor environment. Though air pollution in the outdoor may be massive yet, the concentration of the same, time spent by residents, the use of household and building materials in the indoor environment had made issues of air pollution more endemic therewith.

This study therefore recommends that use of modern and efficient household and building materials, design reorientation to allow for more window openings and cross ventilation in most service areas of buildings, sensitization campaign to raise awareness on health implications of the use of some household and building materials, behavioural adjustment for women and children to reduce time spent in dust and smokeladen service areas of buildings, encouraged patronage of medical care/health facilities and publicprivate partnership in provision and maintenance of health care facilities.

Introduction

The connection between the use of a building either as a workplace or as a dwelling place and the appearance, in certain cases, of discomfort and symptoms of illness is a fact attributable to indoor air pollution (WHO, 200, EPA, 1987). Indoor air pollution (IAQ) is a phenomenon recognized to be a major health problem worldwide because more than 3 billion people around the globe depend on solid fuel (WHO, 2007). The use of solid fuel within indoor environment for purposes including cooking and heating among others has been known to produce noxious fumes which are injurious to human health (Bruce 2005; Ettati, 2005; WHO, 2007; WEC, 1999; EPA, 1987). This contamination largely affects a considerable number of dwellers mostly women and children, since it has been established that they spend between 58 and 78% of their time in an indoor environment (Hoffman, 2003). These problems have increased with the construction of buildings that are poorly ventilated and badly aerated such that the circulation of fresh air is marred. This has promoted the

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awareness that buildings with inadequate natural ventilation present risks of exposure to severe airborne diseases and infection.

Indoor air pollution however, is not limited to use of biomass fuels. Other sources include particles from household materials (synthetic carpets and furniture, paints, asbestos), pesticides, insecticides, air fresheners (naphthalene ball) domestics appliances, and cosmetics products (body spray, perfumes anti aspirant) among others (Adigun et al 2011). Unknown to many, their exposure to and inhalation of these fumes and dangerous gases from workplaces, homes and other indoor environments have been responsible for severe health cases such as respiratory infections (WHO, 1997), chronic lung diseases such as asthma and bronchitis, lung cancer, nose and throat irritation, and stillbirth (Ayars, 1997), eye disorder, conjunctivitis, blindness and low birth weight (Traynors et. al., 1985), low ventilation rates (Menzies et al., 1993) and physiological discomfort among others (Tawari and Abowei, 2012).

Though outdoor air pollution poses severe health risks most of which are linked with the urban environment, yet, some of the highest concentrations of risks have occurred in indoor environment especially in most SubSaharan African countries like Nigeria (Oguntoke et. al., 2010; Theuri, 2009 and EPA, 2003). Smith and Mac in 2009 opined that the devastating effects of air pollution in the indoor environment are more flagrant than the outdoor environment owing to the length of stay in the former.

The health implications and problems emanating from varying human activities have both direct and indirect consequences of maladjustment to advanced technology (Hosier and Kipondya, 1993), socioeconomic livelihood that is largely tied to land (Rosenzweig and Foster, 2003), poverty in the society and inadequacies of infrastructure, which has led most people to adopting crude methods of energy use (Adeboyejo et. al., 2011). The accumulation therefrom, of air pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxide, polycyclic organic matter and formaldehyde from household materials like furniture, ward robes and kitchen cabinets, from wall paints and floor finishes, from asbestos and ceilings and those

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from fragrance and pesticides, have all contributed to make worse the indoor air quality, thereby adding to the falling health conditions of humans and other living organisms especially in rural areas and among the poor in the cities where resilience and adaptive capacities are poor (EPA, 2011; World Bank, 1992).

The World Resource Institute (WRI) in 1998 established that threats to human wellbeing are constantly being generated from two categories of humanenvironment interactions. Firstly, lack of development; owing to man’s inability to maximise natural and environmental resources sustainably. Secondly, through threats produced when the byeproducts of resource exploration and transformation are not manageably rid of in a manner that will forestall its negativities.

The grave consequence of heavy reliance on solid fuels around the world is felt as it ranked as one of the ten most rampart threats to public health (WHO, 2007). While indoor air pollution accounted for more than 1.5 million deaths and 2.7% of the world wide burden of disease in the year 2000, it accounted for 3.7% of the incidence of disease in highmortality developing countries, making it as most important risk factor after malnutrition, the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and lack of safe water and adequate sanitation. Indoor air pollution disproportionately affects older people, women and children who spend the most time near the domestic hearth based on their body constitution, lifestyle, nutritional status and age (WHO, 1997, Jones, 1999).

The problems of indoor air pollution becomes of great concern in this study because those affected are less aware, illequipped and ill prepared for the menace and there are little or no provisions (facilitywise) in their communities to help cope with the impact. Consequently, the level of vulnerability and susceptibility to the scourges are pronounced (Akande and Owoyemi, 2008; Hoffman, 2003). An observable level of variations in what is experienced across geographical space as cited in existing literature have some cultural, demographic and environmental undertone among other things (ISOCAP, 2008). The need to investigate empirically, the varying levels of concentration of indoor air pollutant and the vulnerability of

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urban residents in a medium sized city is of both scientific and practical importance and therefore the major purview of this study.

Statement of Problem

Past efforts and concern by Government have revolved around enactment of laws, organisation of Summits, Conferences, Workshops and other educative programmes at both international and local levels on the subject of air pollution control and management (U NHabitat 2010, World Bank, 2006). This has been promoted by climate change researches (Carmin et al 2009, Campbell et al 2007). Voluminous literature have existed, most of which focus on the control of ambient air pollution in the outdoor environment with little or no consideration for the indoor environment where women and children spend most of their lives (Adigun, et. al., 2011).

The number and quality of available researches associated with exposure to indoor pollution are limited but increasing steadily (Adigun, et al., 2011).However, despite the impacts of outdoor pollution and measures put in place to control its menace, the length of time of exposure to indoor pollution, poor awareness of its effects and poor adaptive capacities have made its attention most compelling to public health need (Smith, 2002).

Air pollution is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality (Mishra, 2003). According to World Health Organization, an estimated 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributed to air pollution, 1.5 million of which are from indoor sources. Similarly, over 38.5million disability adjusted life years (DALYs) can be linked with indoor smokes from solid fuel (Torres et al 2008).

Problems of indoor air quality are recognized as important risk factors for human health in low, middle and highincome countries where many women, children and the aged had been reported to be most vulnerable (Bruce et al. 2000; Smith 1987). In residences, daycare centres, retirement homes and other special environments; the level of

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residents’ vulnerability to the impacts of indoor air pollution has been largely influenced by quality of building design and facilities, consumption pattern, health status and age. California Air Resources Board (2001) quoted a key informant as saying

“We spend most of our time indoors surrounded by sources of air pollution consumer products, gas appliances, building materials cigarettes and furniture ….yet, the toxic emissions from many of these sources are not controlled or are only partially controlled by Federal, State, and Local laws”.

About 3 billion world’s population had reportedly been relying on biomass fuel use for cooking (WHO, 2007). While Smith in 2002 attributed almost 80% of populations in developing nations as users of biomass fuels, Bruce et. al., 2002 and Ezatti, 2002 claimed that users of solid fuels are known to be exposed to large amount of smoke in their poorly ventilated homes. It is therefore topical and timely to crossexamine if there is any link between housing design and exposure to indoor air pollution. More importantly, embarking on this research to reduce indoor pollution is a key to achieving several of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) especially Goal 7: integrating sustainable development into country policies and programmes by decreasing the proportion of population using solid fuels.

Aim of the Research

The focus of this study is the measurement of intracity concentration in pollutants and assessment of residents’ vulnerability in Ogbomoso, (a medium sized precolonial city) Southwest Nigeria.

Objectives:

● Analyse the types and sources of indoor air pollutants; ● Measure levels of concentration of pollutants and how these vary among urban residential densities;

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● Assess the varying levels of residents’ perception of the impact and implications of indoor air pollution; ● Examine the impact of indoor air pollution on residents and suggest measures to reduce the same in the study area.

Research Hypotehesis

For this study the following hypotheses shall be tested:

● There is no intraurban variations in concentration of indoor air pollutants in the study area; ● Indoor air pollution does not have impacts on vulnerable group in the study area; and ● There is no relationship between indoor air pollution and health of urban residents. Research Methods

● Types and Sources of Data Both secondary and primary data was used for this study. The secondary data from published articles relating to indoor air pollution was used to complement the design and administration of structured questionnaire as well as field measurements of indoor air pollutants. In addition to this secondary data, hospital records on associated ailments on indoor air pollution was elicited from four recognizable hospitals in the study area: two major government hospitals (General hospital located in Ogbomoso South Local Government and LAUTECH Teaching Hospital in Ogbomoso North Local Government) and LAUTECH Health Centre as well as a Mission Hospital (BOWEN Teaching hospital). The selection of these hospitals is justified by the fact that, their scope of influence covers all the residential areas of the city and even beyond; their large capacity as well as the observable high level of patronage of patients. Table 1 summarises the research log frame and description of pertinent variables, sources of data and instrument to be used for data collection while Table 2 gives the summary of Sources and Potential Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollutants.

● Primary Data

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This comprises empirical data on the subject of this research. Structured questionnaire was used to obtain information relating to morphology and environmental characteristics of the study area from residents in various residential densities. This information include: socioeconomic characteristics of residents, sources of indoor air pollutants, perception of residents on impacts of indoor air pollution particularly on the vulnerable group (i.e. women, children and aged), among other relevant questions on the subject of discussion. The data also include field measurement of ten (10) gaseous pollutants

(Sulphur (IV) Oxide (SO2 ), Nitrogen (IV) Oxide (NO2 ), Volatile Organics (VO), Ammonia (NH3 ), Methane (CH 4), Carbon (II)

Oxide (CO), Hydrogen Sulphide (H2 S), formaldehyde, asbestos suspended particles among others). The concentration of these pollutants was determined and compared with exposure permissible limit as developed by FEPA standard 1991 and World Health Organization.

● Sample Frame The whole of Ogbomoso Township constitute the sample frame for this research. This comprises of two local government areas (Ogbomoso North and Ogbomoso South). The local government areas form the hub of development of the city with dense heterogeneous population characteristics in terms of income, education background, tribe, and types of building among others. The city is observed to be a medium developing urban centre with unprecedented growth both in population and spatial extent (Adeboyejo and Abolade, 2006). The growth of the city has been undoubtedly attributed to its educational function which has attracted new generation banks and establishment of new hospitals. It is also recognized to be the second largest indigenous city in Oyo State after Ibadan; this further enhances its selection for the research.

● Sampling Technique for Questionnaire Multistage method of sampling was employed for collection of primary information for this study. Using the existing spatial structure of the city, both stratified and systematic random sampling technique was employed. The inventory of localities from the twenty wards of LGAs, their residential densities and population figures was sourced from National

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Population Commission (2006). The localities in the twenty (20) recognizable wards within the study area was identified by residential densities (high, medium and low) using ratio 3:2:1 in that order and in consonance with Adeboyejo (2002); Afon (2005); and Singleton et. al. (1989).

Forty eight (48) localities stratified into high, medium and low residential densities were randomly selected and systematically sampled for questionnaire administration, picking the first resident at random and subsequent ones at an interval of two (2) buildings apart. A total number of three hundred and seventy three (373) structured questionnaires was administered to the residents in the selected localities. This represents 0.1% of the projected population for 2013. To examine resident’s perception of the impacts of indoor air pollution on their health, indices was developed. These include: Awareness Index (i.e. IIEA) to examine its level of awareness on its associated impacts within the indoor environment. This was measured through Likhert scale rating from Not agreed (0), Agreed (3), Very much agreed (5). The average weight for each variable was computed as individual index required for the study.

Sampling Technique for Measurement of Indoor Air Pollution Global Position System (GPS) was used to determine the sampling locations (Table 3, Figure 1). A total number of forty eight (48) locations was sampled. This is considered adequate because of exorbitant price of survey including daily cost of renting equipments. The locations comprises of residential quarters in randomly selected forty eight residential units were stratified to three residential densities (high, medium and low) to determine the intra urban variation in concentration of indoor air pollutants (S02 , N0 2, VO, NH 4 CH4 , CO, H2 S,). The pollutants, sources and its potential health effects. These pollutants were measured with scientific microprocessor Triple Plus Multigas detector and Tetra personal Multigas monitor to determine their varying levels of concentration.

The concentrations of Sulphur (IV) Oxide (SO2 ) Nitrogen (IV) Oxide (NO 2), Volatile Organics (VO), Ammonia (NH3 )

Methane (CH 4), Carbon (II) Oxide (CO), Hydrogen Sulphide H2 S was determined with the use of Triple Plus + Multigas 188

Detector with serial number 31679 and Tetra multi gas monitor. It is a microprocessor controlled portable multigas detector. Each of the equipment is designed to monitor four types of gases simultaneously and provide warning of hazardous levels. Using electrochemical catalytic and thermal conductivity sensors, the instrument may be configured to detect any practical combination of oxygen, toxic and flammable gas. It has detection range of 020 ppm and resolution of 0.1ppm.

The instrument is certified for use in ambient temperatures in the range 200 C to 50 0C. The researchers purposely selected time of exposure possibly weekend, late evenings and early morning when most of the house chores are carried out and coupled with the fact that majority of residents especially those in low and medium residential density are likely to be indoor. The instrument was placed at the point of discharge within the indoor environment for short term weighted average (TWA) i.e. 1530 minutes. The instantaneous read out concentrations of the monitored gasses as displayed on the screen with unit of measurement as part per million (ppm) This was recorded for each residential quarters monitored. The short term limit was be employed for this study to capture the actual concentration of pollutant emitted by the various residential quarters before any diffusion processed takes place in the air. This duration is acceptable since the instrument is designed to capture short term weighted average. Again the method has been employed by Sonibare, (2009), Abam et al (2009).

However, the instrument can also display gas level exposure for long term weighted average (TWA) or 8hrs. The highest reading after the monitor was turned on will be recorded. After the record had been taken, total time weighted was reset to zero when the instrument is switched off.

Sampling Methods for Meteorological Parameters

● During the field campaign, climate and meteorological parameters collected were: wind speed and direction, ambient

air temperature, and relative humidity. The gaseous air pollutants measured included methane (CH4 ), carbon monoxide

(CO), hydrogen sulphide (H2 S), Carbon dioxide (CO2 ), and Ozone (O 3). In addition, the ambient air was analysed for

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particulates with aerodynamic diameter less than 1 microns (PM1 .0), 2.5 microns (PM2 .5), 1 micron (PM1 ), 7 microns (PM7 .0),

and 10 microns (PM1 0). ● Relative Humidity and Temperature was measured using the Vaisala HUMICAP® HandHeld Lightweight, pocketsized Humidity and Temperature Meter HM34. The equipment provides a fast and convenient way to accurately spotcheck relative humidity and temperature. It is ideal for spot checking humidity levels,has a measurement range 0 – 100%RH, fast response with ±2% accuracy and temperature measurement range of 20 to +60 °C (4 to +140 °F).It incorporates Vaisala HUMICAP® Sensor that provides high accuracy, excellent longterm stability, neglible hysteresis, and insensitivity to dust and most chemicals with extendable probe. ● Weather Tracker Kestrel 4500 was used for the measurements of meteorological parameters. This Weather Tracker is a sophisticated, multifunction environmental monitoring instrument used to measure major environmental condition including Barometric Pressure, Altitude, Density, Temperature, Humidity, Wind Speed, Wind Chill, Dew Point, Wet Bulb, and Heat Index. It has a chart mode that allows users to recall and graph up to 250 measurements, along with the date and time of storage with a PC interface that allows data uploading for longterm storage, indepth analysis and detailed charting. This was used to monitor the wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity, pressure and temperature during the study period. Air Sampling for Particulates

● Particulate matter (PM) was measured with Aerocet 821 Particle Counter/Dust Monitor, an equipment from Met One Instruments. It is handheld, battery operated and completely portable unit measuring four number ranges of TSP:

PM1 .0, PM2 .5, PM7 , and PM 10. It has a sampling period of 2 minutes and a flow rate of 2.83 l/min. The Aerocet 831 uses a proprietary algorithm to counvert count data to mass measurement (µg/m 3). Fundamentally, the 831 calculates a volume for each detected particle that assigns a standard density for the conversion. The standard density value is adequate for

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most sampling environment.The instrument was placed at 1 m above the ground level, switched on in the environment of interest and the measured concentration read directly on the screen after particle capturing. Air Sampling for Gaseous Pollutants

● Hydrogen Sulphide (H 2S), Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ), and Methane (CH 4) Measurements: These gases were measured using Crowscon Tetra 3 multigas sampler.Tetra 3 is a diffusion sampling handheld. It can monitor up to four different gases and display the readings simultaneously on a display screen. Alarm warnings are given through a combination of a loud audible alarm, a bright visual alarm of blue/red flashing LEDs and an internal vibrator. The sampler is fitted with modular, plug and play gas sensors. Each sensor carries an intelligent processor which contains calibration and sensor information.Tetra 3 has a single operator button, and an intelligent userfriendly displaywith backlight. Gas levels are continuously monitored providing normal gas readings, peak readings and time weighted averages (TWA). Configuration and data/event logging is handled by Crowcon Portables PC software,the PC communication link being provided through the charger. ● Carbon Monoxide (CO) Measurements: CO measurements were taken using an in situ nonintegrated single gas carbon monoxide monitor (ToxiRAE Model PGM1150). The monitor is a 9.3 cm x 4.9 cm x 2.2 cm measuring instrument weighing about 0.1 kg with an instantaneous direct readout displays through which current carbon monoxide concentrations can be continuously monitored in ppm (parts per million). It has facility for Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) from which the carbon monoxide concentration for the last 15 minutes can be determined; the Time Weighted Average (TWA) from which the accumulated reading of the gas concentration since the monitor was turned on is divided by 8 hours; and the Peak Reading, which is the highest reading since the monitor was turned on. It has detection range of 0 – 500 ppm with 1 ppm resolution.

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Table 1: Research Log Frame

Type of Data Description Variables Source Instrument

Residential Socioeconomic characteristics Primary Questionnaire

Density Survey Perceived impacts of indoor Primary Questionnaire pollution on socio cultural

environment

Determination of Concentration of Seven Gaseous Primary Measurement the Pollutants: Methane(CH4 ), with Tetra concentration of Carbon(11)oxide (CO), Hydrogen personal multi pollutants Sulphide (H2 S), Sulphur (1V) gas monitor emitted within Oxide (SO ), 2 and Triple plus + residential Nitrogen(1V)Oxide(NO ), Volatile 2 multigas densities Organics(VO), Ammonia (NH ) 3 detector

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Source: Author’s Compilation (2013)

Table 2: Sources and Potential Effects of Indoor Air Pollutants

Pollutants Major Indoor Sources Potential Health Effects

Tobacco Smoke Cigarettes Respiratory Irritation, Bronchitis, Pneumonia in Children Emphysema, Lung cancer, heart disease

Carbon Stoves, tobacco smoke Headache, Nausea, Impaired Monoxide vision and mental functioning

Nitrogen Oxide Unvented or malfunctioning gas Eye, nose, and throat irritation, appliances increased respiratory infections in children

Organic Aerosols sprays, solvents, glues, Eye, nose, and throat irritation Chemicals cleaning agents, pesticides, headaches, loss of coordination, paints, moth repellents, air damage to liver, kidney, and fresheners, brain various cancer

Respirable Cigarettes, Charcoal, aerosol Eye, nose, and throat irritation Particles sprays and house dust increased susceptibility to respiratory infections and bronchitis lung cancer

Formaldehyde Pressed wood products such as Eye, nose, and throat irritation wall paper headache allergic reactions cancer

Asbestos Damaging or deteriorating Asbestosis, lung cancer, insulation fire proofing and mesothelioma

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Sulphur Dioxide Incomplete combustion of Eye, nose, and throat irritation, biomass fuel from kerosene headache stove

Suspended Charcoal, Dust Eye, nose, and throat irritation, particles headache

Source: Author’s Compilation (2014)

Table 3: Sampling Location for Meteorology and Air Quality Assessment

LOCATION SP LATITUDE LONGITUDE CLASSIFICATION

OJA IGBO A 11 80 7 ‘ 4 7.76 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4‘ 59.36 ‘ ‘E HD

A 12 80 7 ‘ 4 7.76 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 59.36 ‘ ‘E HD

A13 80 7 ‘ 47.76 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 59.36 ‘ ‘E HD

A 14 80 7 ‘ 47.76 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 59.36 ‘ ‘E HD

LAKA B 11 80 7 ‘ 3 7.99 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 8.95 ‘ ‘E HD

B 12 80 7 ‘ 37.99 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 8.95 ‘ ‘E HD

B 13 80 7 ‘ 37.99 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 8.95 ‘ ‘E HD

ISALE ORA C 11 80 7 ‘ 35.83 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 6 .24 ‘ ‘E HD

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C12 80 7 ‘ 3 5.83 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 6 .24 ‘ ‘E HD

C13 80 7 ‘ 35.83 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 6 .24 ‘ ‘E HD

ORA D11 80 6 ‘ 57.46 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 6.29 ‘ ‘E HD

D12 80 6 ‘ 57.46 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 6.29‘ ‘E HD

D13 80 6 ‘ 5 7.46 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 6.29 ‘ ‘E HD

D14 80 6 ‘ 57.46 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 6.29 ‘ ‘E HD

AROWOMOLE E 11 80 7 ‘ 0.98 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 1 9.12 ‘ ‘E HD

E12 80 7 ‘ 0.98 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 1 9.12 ‘ ‘E HD

E13 80 7 ‘ 3 .00 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 1 9.89 ‘ ‘E HD

IJERU FII 80 7 ‘ 33.17 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 2 9.66 ‘ ‘E HD

F12 80 7 ‘ 33.17 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 2 9.66 ‘ ‘E HD

F13 80 7 ‘ 3 3.82 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 2 9.33 ‘ ‘E HD

OWODE G 11 80 7 ‘ 2 0.86 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 2 7.5‘ ‘E MD

G12 80 7 ‘ 2 0.86 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 2 7.50 ‘ ‘E MD

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G13 80 1 5 ‘ 19.90 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 2 0.64 ‘ ‘E MD

ISALE AFON H11 80 7 ‘ 20.86 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 8.95 ‘ ‘E HD

H 12 80 7 ‘ 57.99’’N 40 1 ’I 4 8.75 ‘ ‘E HD

H 13 80 7 ‘ 57.99 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4’ 4 8.75’’E HD

OKEELERIN I 11 80 8 ’ 5 .38’ ’N 40 1 4’ 3 9.14’’E HD

I 12 80 8 ’ 4.88’ ’N 40 1 4’ 3 9.81’’E HD

I13 80 8 ’ 4.88’ ’N 40 1 4’ 4 8.75’’E HD

MASIFA J11 80 8 ’ 0.99’ ’N 40 1 5’ 1 3.85’ ’E HD

J12 80 8 ’ 0.99’ ’N 40 1 5’ 1 3.85’ ’E HD

J13 80 8 ’ 1 9.86’ ’N 40 1 5’ 1 7.63’ ’E HD

OKE ADO K11 80 8 ’41.79’ ’N 40 1 ’11.75’ ’E MD

K12 80 8 ’ 4 3.67’ ’N 40 1 5’ 1 2.44’ ’E MD

KI3 80 8 ’ 46.22’ ’N 40 1 5’ 1 3.8‘ ‘E MD

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CARE TAKER L11 80 7 ‘ 2 5.40 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 1 3.85 ‘ ‘E MD

L12 80 7 ‘ 25.40 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5I 1 2.44‘ ‘E MD

L13 80 7 ‘ 2 5.53 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5I 1 2.85‘ ‘E MD

LOWCOST M11 80 7 ‘ 2 5.40 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 1 2.85 ‘ ‘E LD

M12 80 7 ‘ 2 5.40 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 1 2.85 ‘ ‘E LD

M13 80 7 ‘ 2 5.40 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 1 2.85 ‘ ‘E LD

MARYLAND N11 80 9 ‘ 31.84 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 6.25 ‘ ‘E MD

N12 80 9 ‘ 3 2.33 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 6.11 ‘ ‘E MD

N13 80 9 ‘ 21.34 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 4 7.58 ‘ ‘E MD

SABO O 11 80 8 ‘ 3 8.51 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 5 7.78 ‘ ‘E HD

O12 80 8 ‘ 35.07 ‘ ‘N 40 1 4 ‘ 5 9.53 ‘ ‘E HD

O13 80 8 ‘ 33.58 ‘ ‘N 40 1 5 ‘ 1 .27 ‘ ‘E HD

ADENIKE P11 80 1 0 ‘ 2 4.51 ‘ ‘N 40 1 6 ‘ 1 3.44 ‘ ‘E LD

P12 80 1 0 ‘ 2 9.14 ‘ ‘N 40 1 6 ‘ 1 5.83 ‘ ‘E LD

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P13 80 1 0 ‘ 3 0.96 ‘ ‘N 40 1 6 ‘ 1 8.17 ‘ ‘E LD

LD: Low Density; MD: Medium Density; HD: High Density.

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Figure 1: Spaal Distribuon of Sampling Locaons in the Study Area

● Data Analysis

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Descriptive tools such as cross tabulations with Chisquare test specified, means and percentages were used to summarize and describe variables such as the socioeconomic characteristics of residents, and perceived presence and impacts of air pollutants in the selected study areas.

Inferential statistical tools: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) swasemployed to examine spatial variation of the subject within different residential densities and the local government areas; Correlation analysis will be employed to examine the effects and relationship between indoor air pollution and indices on perceived environmental effects. All these measurement show a reflection of how residents perceived the effects of the subjects on the indoor environment.

Result Presentation and Discussion

● Building Design and Residential Density As indoor air can only be investigated and analyzed within the context of buildings and building occupants, it becomes imperative to examine some salient building attributes that could directly or indirectly influence indoor air pollution. As shown in table 4, majority of the buildings (58%) are the Brazilian type in the study area. Such buildings are elongated structures with narrow passages, flanking rooms and separate kitchens that are often densely populated. Next are the flats (25.8%) and then the compound buildings which take 10%. Moreover, the Brazilian buildings are found majorly in the high and medium density areas and are least observed in the low density areas (see table 5). The Brazilian design also has implications to indoor air pollution with regards to design of building which are characterized with poor ventilation as well as the behavioral adaptation of occupants.

This is evident in the study area where most occupants living in Brazilian building types have their kitchen located outside the building and thus prefer to keep their cooking implements like stoves near their room instead of using the

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kitchen. This increases their susceptibility to the pollutants generated for the activity. The residents in flats and duplexes mostly cook in the kitchen and not necessarily in the passage, veranda, sitting room or bedrooms. The reverse is the case for brazilian or compound buildings as occupants of traditional compound buildings sometimes even cook in their parlour.

Table 4: Types of Building within Residential Density

Residentia Building Type Total l Density Brazilian Compoun Flat Duplex d

High 109 27 (16.6%) 26 (15.9% 1 (0.6%) 163 (66.9%) )

Medium 81 (60.4%) 7 (5.2%) 37 (27.6%) 9 (6.7%) 134

Low 18 (37.5%) 2 (4.2%) 24 (50%) 4 (8.3%) 48

Total 345

Source: Authors’ Field Survey, (2014)

Building Ventilation

With regards to ventilation in homes, larger proportion of the buildings in the study area (65.6%) have just a window on one side of the wall (see table 5) this corroborates the high number of Brazilian building in the study area and implication for stuffiness and as a consequence indoor pollution. Only 24.5% of the respondents dwell in rooms with cross ventilation. This suggests that about 75% of the buildings in the study area aren’t well aerated. In addition, window sizes in the study area are poor. 68.9% of the buildings are below (0.9m x 1.2m) which is not up to the required standard but a fair surface area

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of a window. Consequently, the concentration of gaseous pollutants will be high within the ambient environment because they are more likely to be trapped within the buildings as the buildings aren’t properly ventilated and the windows are substandard.

Table 5: Building Types and Characteristics

Variable Frequency Percentage

Building Type

Brazilian 209 58.1

Compound 36 10.0

Flat 93 25.8

Duplex 14 3.9

Missing Systems 8 2.2

Total 360 100.0

Bedroom Window

1 on a side of the 236 65.6 wall 74 20.6 1 on each side of two walls 30 8.3

2 on a side of the 14 3.9 wall 6 1.7 2 on each side of two walls 360 100.0

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Missing Systems

Total

Window Size

0.6m by 0.6m 220 61.1

0.6m by 1.2m 28 7.8

0.9m by 1.2m 67 18.6

1.2m by 1.8m 28 7.8

1.2m by 2.7m 4 1.1

Others 2 0.6

Missing Systems 11 3.1

Total 360 100.0

Ceiling Type

Nylon 5 1.4

Wood 20 5.6

Asbestos 265 76.3

POP 11 3.1

PVC 14 3.9

Others 1 0.3

None 32 8.9

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Missing Systems 12 3.3

Total 360 100.0

Painted Asbestos Ceiling

Yes 166 60%

No 111 40%

Total 277 100.0

Source: Authors’ Field Survey, (2014)

Building Components and Indoor Air Pollution

The four major building types all have peculiar characteristics which increases or decreases their susceptibility to indoor air pollution. Such features are inherent in the type of materials used in the construction of the buildings. Each building type is made of peculiar building material that determines its quality and susceptibility to indoor air pollution. Table 6 shows that the highest proportion of buildings with glass windows are flats (46.5%) while the Brazilian type has the highest proportion of buildings with wood and metal windows which aren’t the most efficient in ensuring ventilation. Moreover, the Brazilian building type however also takes the highest proportion of buildings with their kitchen outside or in the corridor with 71.6% and 86.0% respectively. These suggest that Brazilian buildings are more prone to indoor air pollution than flats.

Table 6: Types of Window Material

Count Building Type Total

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Window Brazilian Compoun Flat Duplex Material d

Glass 81 (43.8%) 6 (3.2%) 86 (46.5% 12(6.5%) 185 )

Wood 122 29 (18.2%) 6 (3.8%) 2 (1.3%) 159 (76.7%)

Metal 5 (71.4%) 1 (14.3%) 1 (14.3%) 0 (.0%) 7

Total 345

Source: Authors’ Field Survey, 2014

Table 7: Building Type and Space

Count Building Type Total

Kitchen Brazilian Compoun Flat Duplex Location d

Inbuilt 100 10 (4.7%) 91 12(5.6%) 213 (46.9%) (42.7% )

Passage/Corrido 39 6 (12.8%) 1 (2.1%) 1 (2.1%) 47 r (83.0%)

Outside 48 17 (25.4%) 1 (1.5%) 1 (1.5%) 67 (71.6%)

Total 327

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Source: Authors’ Field Survey, (2014)

The result of analysis on type of roofing materials shows that majority of the buildings use asbestos ceiling while other ceiling types recorded smaller proportion. The larger proportion in the usage of asbestos further enhances indoor air pollution and the associated health risks. Furthermore, the use of asbestos ceiling which accounts for 76.3% couple with the facts that 60% of the ceiling are unpainted has its health implication. Asbestos is a mineral fiber added to variety of products to strengthen them, provide heat insulation and fire resistance. The mere presence of asbestos in a home or a building is not hazardous, however, the danger lies in the fact that asbestos material may become damaged over time and damaged asbestos may release asbestos fibers that could become a health hazard. Recent studies have linked asbestos to an increasing risk of lung cancer (American Lung Association, 2010). The symptoms of lung cancer from inhaling asbestos fiber do not appear until about 20 – 30 years after exposure. It will however be observed that the highest proportion of buildings with

POP which is free from asbestos material are found in Flats and Duplexes with 63.6% and 36.4% (see table 8 ), same is for

PVC. Also, 8.9% of the buildings do not have ceiling at all which means the roofing planks are open. Thus particulate substances from woods and planks including phenolformaldehyde easily spread inside the rooms of such buildings. More so, the highest percentage buildings using asbestos and those without ceiling at all, (64.2%) and (58.1%) respectively is the

Brazilian type (See table 8 ).Wood windows equally limit adequate ventilation unlike the louvers which can be regulated with ease. This is a clear of the socioeconomic factors contributing to indoor air pollution are not only inherent in cooking

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energy source but also in the building materials. This increases the susceptibility of residents of these buildings to the pollutants.

Table 8 : Building Type and Ceiling Material

Ceiling Building Type Total Type Brazilian Compound Flat Duplex

Nylon 5 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0% ) 0 (0%) 5

Wood 11 (55.0%) 8 (40.8%) 1 (5.0%) 0 (0%) 20

Asbestos 167 11 (4.2%) 75 (28.8%) 7 (2.7%) 260 (64.2%)

POP 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 7 (63.6%) 4 (36.4%) 11

PVC 2 (14.3%) 1 (7.1%) 9 (64.3%) 2 (14.3%) 14

Others 1 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1

None 18 (58.1%) 13 (41.9%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 31

Total 342

Source: Authors’ Field Survey, (2014)

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Resident’s Awareness Index on Household Materials

Likhert scale analysis shows perception rating level of awareness on various household materials that are liable to indoor pollution. The result of analysis on cosmetics’ reveals that “roll on” and perfumes are potential sources of indoor air pollution. Table 9 shows that “roll on” have the highest index value of (2.69) implying that it is mostly perceived costmetics that releases indoor pollutants in to the ambient environment. It is followed by the use of “perfume” (2.44), the use of deodorants (2.26). The use of “perfumed cream” is perceived least among the identified variable under cosmetics (2.03). The RAI distribution recorded the standard variation of 0.15. The coefficient was 16.25%

The use of “bleach” has shown in the table have the highest index value of (3.01) which implies that it is the mostly perceived cleaning reagent that the respondents are aware can cause indoor pollutantion in the environment. It is followed sequentially by the use of “germicides” (2.55). The use of “harpic (2.01)” is perceived least among the identified variable under cleaning reagent. The RAI distribution recorded the standard deviation of 0.32. The coefficient was 12.69%

The use of odour expellers in homes and its susceptibility to indoor air reveals high level of awareness for incense has the highest index value of (2.66) followed by naphthalene with an RAI of (2.40) and air freshener RAI (2.37). The use of which implies that it is mostly perceived as a household material that contributes to indoor air pollution in the environment. This recorded standard deviation of 0.13 and coefficient was 5.24%

The level of awareness of respondents on the use of rodenticides was perceived very indoor high. This recorded high highest RAI values (2.97) compared to other categories. This implies that it is mostly perceived as a household material that the respondents are aware most as an indoor pollutants in the environment. Following this is Insecticides (2.78) while the use of mosquito repellant leaf is perceived least (2.18) among the identified variable under insecticides and rodenticides. The RAI distribution recorded the standard deviation of 0.092. The coefficient was 3.47%

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The relatively high RAI values for fuel and lighting materials suggests that the people are well aware of the fact that gaseous emissions from the fuel source actually course indoor air pollution. The use of generator has the highest index value of (2.75). It is followed sequentially by the use of naked fire (2.64), the use of fire wood (2.63), the use of lantern (2.45), the use of “charcoal” (2.34). The use of “rechargeable lantern” is perceived least among the identified variable under fuels and lightening (1.70). This is a clear indication that majority of the sampled respondents to a certain extent actually recognize the potential sources of indoor air pollution in their ambient environment. The RAI distribution recorded the standard deviation of 0.56. The coefficient was 23.93%.

The use of radio as shown in the table have the highest index value of (3.97) which implies that it is mostly perceived as a household material that the respondents aware most as an indoor pollution either inform of heat or noise in the environment. It is followed sequentially by the use of standing fan (2.86), the use of “television” (2.10), the use of “coal iron” (2.05), the use of refrigerator (1.71). The use of “air conditioner” is perceived least among the identified variable under household equipments (1.59) probably because majority have very low socioeconomic background and consequently cannot afford some household appliances like air conditioner. The RAI distribution recorded the standard variation of 0.7963. The coefficient was 0.018%

The resident’s awareness index on building materials shows that building material are the least recognized causes of indoor air pollution in the sampled population. The recorded RAI values is very low compared to others. Building paints has the highest index value of (2.09) which implies that it is the one mostly perceived as a potential source of indoor pollution though the RAI value is really low. This is followed by asbestos, furniture and POP all of which have low RAI values. In other words, majority of the population are not really aware of the contribution of building materials to indoor air pollution. The RAI distribution recorded the standard deviation of 0.9550 and coefficient was 51.62% indicating very low awareness

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Table 9: Percepon on Awareness of Household Material and Indoor Polluon

Household Respondents Opinion NR AWV RAI (A‐A) (A‐A) 2 Materials 4 3 2 1

Roll on 59 86 36 171 360 751 2.69 0.12 0.0144

Perfume 94 103 32 131 360 880 2.44 ‐0.23 0.0529

Deodorants 68 100 51 141 360 815 2.26 ‐0.05 0.0025

Perfumed cream 54 84 41 181 360 731 2.03 0.18 0.0324

Bleach 61 88 49 160 360 1086 3.01 ‐0.46 0.0211 6

Germicides 100 108 43 109 360 919 2.55 ‐0.00 0.000

Harpic 64 77 58 171 360 724 2.01 0.54 0.2916

Incense 121 107 22 110 360 959 2.66 ‐0.18 0.0324

Naphthalene 90 99 36 135 360 864 2.40 0.08 0.0064

Air Fresheners 92 84 50 134 360 854 2.37 0.11 0.0121

Rodencides 157 109 20 74 360 1069 2.97 ‐0.31 0.0961

Inseccides 125 108 50 77 360 1001 2.78 ‐0.12 0.0144

Mosquito coil 109 110 76 45 360 963 2.68 ‐0.02 0.0004

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Mosquito Repellant 88 93 35 114 360 785 2.18 0.48 0.2304 leaf

Generator 137 97 25 101 360 990 2.75 ‐0.42 0.1764

Naked Fire 112 91 54 123 360 952 2.64 0.31 0.0961

Firewood 122 89 44 105 360 948 2.63 0.3 0.09

Lantern 93 100 43 124 360 882 2.45 ‐0.12 0.0144

Charcoal 82 97 44 137 360 941 2.34 ‐0.01 0.0001

Saw Dust 83 95 36 147 360 835 2.32 0.01 0.0001

Candle 72 81 40 167 360 678 1.88 0.45 0.2025

Rechargeable 57 67 37 190 360 613 1.70 ‐0.63 0.3969 Lantern

Radio 69 70 23 198 360 1430 3.97 ‐1.69 2.8561

Standing Fan 41 59 29 231 360 1030 2.86 ‐0.58 0.3364

Television 179 64 31 186 360 7560 2.10 ‐0.81 0.0324

Coal Iron 62 79 30 194 360 739 2.05 0.23 0.0529

Refrigerator 31 53 54 223 360 614 1.71 0.57 0.3249

Electric Iron 39 50 32 236 360 606 1.68 0.60 0.36

Air condioner 30 48 28 253 360 574 1.59 0.69 0.4761

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Painng 56 75 49 180 360 727 2.09 ‐0.21 0.0441

Asbestos 60 54 35 206 360 678 1.88 1.78 3.1684

Furniture 41 70 28 220 360 650 1.81 ‐0.01 0.0001

P.O.P 34 47 49 180 360 582 1.61 0.19 0.361

Table 10: IAP‐RELATED HOUSEHOLD MATERIALS AND THE RESIDENT’S AWARENESS INDEX

Causes of indoor polluon Mean (RAI)

Cosmecs 2.35

Cleaning Reagents 2.52

Odour expellers 2.47

Inseccides and Rodencides 2.65

Fuel and lightening materials 2.34

Household Equipments 2.28

Building Materials 1.85

Source: Authors’ Field Survey, 2014

Table 10 succinctly summarizes the average resident’s awareness index for each group of household materials that cause indoor pollution. Here, it’s is evidents that building materials like paints, asbestos, furniture and other are the least perceived sources of indoor air pollution in the study area with Mean RAI of 1.85. This indicates that residents are not really aware of the contributions of building materials to indoor air pollution. Their level of awareness on the impacts of

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household equipments is also low. However, majority of the residents know the impacts of cosmetics, cleaning agents, odour expellers, insecticides and rodenticides towards indoor air pollution and act accordingly. The fact that cosmetics have the lowest Residents’ Usage Index Value corroborates this assertion.

Residents’ Perception on Usage of Household Materials and Indoor Air Pollution

Likhert scale rating was employed to ascertain the frequency of the use of house materials that generate indoor air pollution in the area. The responses of the respondents’ were rated into four classes respectively to calculate Residents’ Usage Index (RUI). Thirty four identified variables were examined to determine the frequency of residents’ usage of materials that generates indoor air pollution. Each of the variables will be rated in respect to Likhert Scale (1961) as either “very frequent”, ”frequent”, ”not frequent”,” none”, to indicate the level of respondents’ usage and each of the rating was assigned a weight value of 4,3,2, and 1 respectively in decreasing order of relevance.

Resident Usage Index (RUI) was each variable, was calculated, the weight value was summed up and divided by the total number of the respondents. The usage weight value (UWV) was obtained by adding the products of the numbers of responses in each of the identified variables and the weight attached to each rating. The mean of RUI distribution was derived by dividing the total UWV by total number of questionnaire. The deviation about the mean was calculated. The standard deviation (S.D) and variance of the distribution were also calculated to measure how they are scattered around the mean as illustrated in Figure I and 2 (i.e how small or large the observations fluctuate below or above the mean). The coefficient of variation was determined to measure the usage in the data relative to the mean in percentage. A positive calculated deviation indicates a high level of usage of the interested variables. When the deviation is negative it denotes a poor level of usage of the concerned variables.

RAI= Residents Usage Index

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UWV=Usage Weight Value

NR=Number of Respondents

∑(UWV/N)=RAI

Or RUI=a/NR(a=UWV)

S/N=Number of materials that generate indoor air pollution as deodorants

Usage of Cosmetics

The use of” perfume” as cosmetics have the highest index value of (2.30) compared to other categories. This implies that it is the most frequently used in the study area that contributes to indoor pollution. This is probably because larger proportions of the respondents are female and they use perfume to expel body odour. This is followed sequentially by the use of “perfumed cream” (2.18), and use of Deodorants (1.90). The use of “roll on” is the least used among the identified variables under deodorants (1.60). The RUI distribution recorded a variance of 0.2024 and the standard variation of 0.22. The coefficient was 18.33% (table 1).

Usage of Cleaning Agents

Among the variables employed to examine level of usage of cleaning agents, “germicides” has the highest index value of (2.61) as shown in Table, which implies that it is the most frequently used household materials that constitute indoor air pollution in the study area. Most respondents use it because it helps in the prevention of germs especially in toilets and bathrooms. It is followed by the use of “bleach” (2.00). Harpic is the least used among the identified variables (1.76). This is because harpic is only common with the high income earners and those with high education standard. Who use modern

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toilet as against those with low socioeconomic status. The excess use of such materials will lead to respiratory disorder and sometimes skin irritation most especially when it comes in contact with skin. The RUI distribution recorded a variance of 0.3841 and the standard variation of 0.31. The coefficient was 19.38%.

Usage of Odour Expeller

The usage of odour expeller was also examined as one of the categories of household materials liable to generate indoor pollution. Among the variables identified, in the use of air fresheners which recorded the highest usage index value of (2.30) as shown in Table 1. This implies that it is most frequently used household materials that constitute indoor air pollution in the study area. This is followed by the use of naphthalene having (1.97). Incense is least used among the identified variables under odour expellants (1.79). The excess use of all these materials has serious health implications. The RUI distribution recorded a variance of 0.1338 and the standard variation of 0.18. The coefficient was 11.11%.

Usage of Insecticides and Rodenticides

The use of insecticides like mobil, raid among others, has the highest index value of (2.29). The incidence of high index value is premised on the poor hygienic and unsanitary nature of most houses and other environment which allows for infestation of insects like mosquitoes, cockroaches and flies. Consequently, the need for insecticides of various grades and types is necessitated. On the other hand some household have employed the use of mosquito coils which has index value of 2.23 and mosquito repellant leaf RUI (1.79.) where available because it is cost free and less harmful. Similarly rodenticides have been put in use to control; the breeding of rodents and other pests. Rodenticides use had an index value of 2.14 as

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indicated in table 1. The Residents Usage Index with a mean value of 2.11 has a standard variation value of 0.33 and corresponding coefficient of variation of 15.64%. The exposure of humans to such materials like insecticides without adequate ventilation in building will lead to several respiratory problems, which will undoubtedly lead to irritation of the lung.

Usage of Fuels and Lightening Materials

The use of kerosene, lanterns, charcoal and generators all have high RUI index values of 2.57, 2.38, 2.20, and 2.15 respectively which imply that they are frequently used in the study area. All these are however sources of noxious indoor pollutants. Others like candle, firewood and sawdust have a relatively low RUI value (1.75) when compared with the mean value. Exposure of eyes and nose to cooking fuels can generate oxides of carbon, which often results to eyes and lung problems. The RUI distribution recorded a variance of 1.127 and the standard variation of 0.22. The coefficient was 12.87.

Usage of Household Equipments

Among other variables employed for measurement for household equipments, use radio has the highest index value of (3.09). It is followed sequentially by the use of “electric iron” having (3.00), the use of television (2.97), the use of standing fan (2.71), and the use of refrigerator (2.57). The use of “air conditioner” has the least RUI value of 1.78. This is because it can only be afforded by the high income earners. The high usage of household equipment like radio television, use of electric iron will increase indoor temperature and sometimes emit waves that may likely heat up the body, this consequently leads to damage of cells in the body. The RUI distribution recorded a variance of 1.214 and the standard variation of 0.42. The coefficient was 15.79

Usage of Building Materials

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Among variables examined under the use of building materials ” asbestos” as building material have the highest index value of (2.71). It is the most frequently used household materials that constitute indoor air pollution in the study area. It is followed sequentially by the use of paints having (2.49). The use of POP is the least among the identified variables in the use of building material with (1.36). The least proportion recorded for POP is expected because it is highly expensive when compared with other roofing materials like asbestos or modern roof; consequently it is mostly used by affluent or rich people. Exposure to particles from asbestos and POP can results to cancer of the lung. The RUI distribution recorded a variance of 0.0783 and the standard variation of 0.020. The coefficient was 6.39%.

Table 11: Percepon on Usage of Household Material and Indoor Polluon

Household Respondents Opinion NR AWV RAI (A‐A) (A‐A) 2 Materials 4 3 2 1

Perfume 78 76 83 123 360 829 2.30 ‐0.3 0.00

Perfumed cream 100 85 55 120 360 785 2.18 ‐0.18 0.0324

Deodorants 34 72 70 184 360 676 1.90 0.1 0.01

Roll on 35 51 72 202 360 567 1.60 0.4 0.16

Germicides 113 89 61 97 360 938 2.61 ‐0.49 0.2401

Bleach 32 89 86 153 360 720 2.00 0.12 0.0144

Harpic 42 56 77 185 360 633 1.76 0.36 0.1296

Air Fresheners 90 67 65 136 360 827 2.30 ‐0.28 0.0784

Naphthalene 50 70 60 180 360 710 1.97 0.05 0.0025

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Incense 47 51 43 219 360 646 1.79 0.23 0.0529

Inseccides 45 129 71 115 360 824 2.29 ‐0.18 0.0324

Mosquito coil 62 92 74 132 360 804 2.23 ‐0.12 0.0144

Rodencides 55 87 72 146 360 771 2.14 ‐0.03 0.0009

Mosquito 36 70 36 218 360 644 1.79 0.32 0.1024 Repellant leaf

Rechargeable 144 93 38 85 360 1016 2.82 ‐0.66 0.4356 Lantern

Kerosene 111 91 49 109 360 924 2.57 ‐0.41 0.1681

Lantern 88 96 41 135 360 857 2.38 ‐0.22 0.0484

Charcoal 67 87 56 150 360 791 2.20 ‐0.04 0.0016

Generator 94 93 41 132 360 775 2.15 0.01 0.001

Candle 43 69 48 199 360 674 1.87 0.29 0.0841

Firewood 60 48 33 219 360 669 1.86 0.3 0.09

Naked Fire 42 61 40 217 360 648 1.80 0.36 0.1296

Saw Dust 50 39 43 228 360 631 1.75 0.41 0.1682

Radio 172 107 23 59 360 1114 3.09 ‐0.43 0.1855

Electric Iron 157 108 32 63 360 1079 3.00 ‐0.34 0.1154

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Television 177 75 29 79 360 1070 2.97 ‐0.31 0.0988

Standing Fan 131 85 51 93 360 974 2.71 ‐0.05 0.0025

Refrigerator 135 63 35 127 360 926 2.57 0.09 0.001

Coal Iron 102 94 37 125 360 889 2.47 0.19 0.0361

Air condioner 62 36 23 239 360 641 1.78 0.88 0.7744

Asbestos 141 80 31 108 360 974 2.71 0.02 0.004

Painng 108 87 39 126 360 897 2.49 ‐0.3 0.09

Furniture 106 89 45 12 360 793 2.20 ‐0.01 0.0001

P.O.P 20 18 34 287 360 489 1.36 0.83 0.6889

Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2014)

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Health Effects Associated with Household Sources of Indoor Air Pollution

Table 12 summarizes responses of residents and their vulnerability to various ailments from the use of selected household materials. The results of analysis reveals that use of Odour expeller such as air fresheners, incense and naphthalene by residents in the study area causes discomfort such as sneezing (47.0%) and eye irritation (35.3%) problems The same pattern of ailment was observed for fuel and lightning materials like charcoal, firewood, saw dust, kerosene, generators, naked fire lamps, lantern and others where larger proportion of residents also experience sneezing (47.8%) and eye irritation (43.9%). Similarly the responses on effect of building materials (asbestos, pop plywood among others) and cleaning reagents like bleach, happic etc reveals that most residents experience sneezing, eye irritation, dizziness while some

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reported symptoms of headache. On the contrary, the ailments experienced from the use of insecticides and rodenticide differs slightly from the pattern recorded for other household materials. It is equally revealed from result of analysis in Table 12 that use of insecticides causes sneezing (40.5%), dizziness (33.0%), breathing problems(31,4%) while use of electrical equipments like radio often cause headache (23.2%) compared to proportion of other aliments experienced by residents. This is expected because of the high noise level mostly produced when the instrument its put to use. Generally, the ailment experienced by use of household materials liable to cause indoor pollution varies from sneezing, eye irritation, dizziness headache and breathing problems. The symptoms of sneezing associated with most household materials are established in literature that nasal irritation and neurological damage is associated with the use of asbestos ceilings. Further analysis reveals that the proportion of ailment among residential density varies and decreases from brazillian, flat compound and flat residential unit. The distribution of diseases among different building type is an indication of building characteristics vis a vis design pattern type of sources of household materials and socioeconomic characteristics of residents. Table 12: Household Materials and the Associated Ailments

Odour Expellers Frequency Percentage

Dizziness 85 25.0%

Eye Irritation 120 35.3%

Sneezing 160 47.0%

Head Ache 74 21.8%

Breathing problems 66 19.4%

Fuel and Lightening materials

Dizziness 73 21.7%

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Eye Irritation 148 43.9%

Sneezing 161 47.8%

Head Ache 82 24.3%

Breathing problems 100 29.7%

Building Materials

Dizziness 24 7.1%

Eye Irritation 62 18.2%

Sneezing 88 25.9%

Head Ache 42 12.4%

Breathing problems 35 10.3%

Insecticides/Rodenticides

Dizziness 78 23.1%

Eye Irritation 62 18.3%

Sneezing 137 40.5%

Head Ache 61 18.0%

Breathing problems 89 26.3%

Cosmetics

Dizziness 114 33.0%

Eye Irritation 111 32.1%

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Sneezing 142 41.1%

Head Ache 42 15.7%

Breathing problems 106 31.4%

Cleaning Reagents

Dizziness 104 30.9%

Eye Irritation 101 29.7%

Sneezing 123 36.2%

Head Ache 56 16.5%

Breathing problems 52 15.3%

Electrical Equipment Frequency Percentage

Dizziness 43 12.7%

Eye Irritation 68 20.1%

Sneezing 59 17.4%

Head Ache 79 23.2%

Breathing problems 41 12.0%

Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2014)

Residents’ Perception on the Level of Exposure of Household Members to Indoor Air Pollution

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Analysis on household members’ vulnerability to indoor air pollution in the study area, was analyzed using the Likhert scale. Four level of perception were used to rate respondents’ level of agreement on selected household members’ exposure to indoor air pollution. They include “Strongly agree”, “Agree”, “Strongly disagree” and “Disagree” with the ratings being from 4 to 1 in order of agreement. Residents’ responses to these were rated numerically to calculate Residents’

Agreement Index (RAg I). Four basic household members were identified (namely fathers, mothers, male and female children). These was cross matched to derive seven different suppositions on which respondent’s level of agreement can be queried and rated using the Likhert scale. Resident’s Agreement Index (RAg I) of each supposition and the calculated weight value (WV) of each was summed up to get the Total Weighted Value (TWV). This was divided by the total number of the respondents. Calculated Weighted Value (WV) was derived by adding the products of the numbers of responses for each supposition was and the weight attached to each rating.

TWV = Total Weight Value = (WV X rating)

NR = Number of Respondents

WV = Weighted Value

RAg I = TWV/NR

RAg I = Residents Agreement Index

Table 13 shows the respondents’ level of agreement on which household members are most susceptible to indoor pollution.A critical examination of the result of analysis reveals low Agreement index (RAg I) of 1.85 for response “on male children are more exposed to indoor air pollution than the female”. This implies that majority of the sampled population do not agree that male children are more exposed to indoor air pollution compared to the female. This explains why the

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supposition that female children are more exposed to indoor air pollution has a very high (RAg I) of 2.72. The same trend is shown in the third supposition with majority not agreeing that fathers (RAg I of 1.81) are more exposed than mothers but agreeing that mothers are the ones really exposed with a very high RAg I value of 2.97. Moreover, the table further suggests that parents (RAg I of 2.28)) are more exposed to indoor air pollution than children (RAg I of 2.21) in the study area.

Conclusively and deducing from the (RAg I) values in order of decreasing magnitude, the most susceptible to indoor air pollution within the residential environment are mothers with the highest RAg I value of 2.97. Next are the female children with (RAg I) of 2.72. This certainly owes to the fact that girls whether directly or indirectly share the mother’s duty in the home. Then the male children are next to the female in susceptibility with RAg I value 1.85 while the fathers are the least affected probably because they are less involved with household chores. The distribution of of calculated RPI is illustrated in Figure 3, where majority of RPI values fluctuate above the mean. This implies they were highly perceived by residents as vulnerable group to indoor pollution

226

Table 13: Residents’ Perception on Vulnerability of Household Members to Indoor Pollution

Vulnerable Group WV for Respondents’ Level NR TW RPI Remar of Agreement V k

4 3 2 1

Male children are more 88 135 108 125 246 456 1.85 Low exposed than female children

Female children are more 348 225 24 72 246 669 2.72 Very exposed than male children High

Mothers are more exposed 560 297 22 70 320 949 2.97 Very than fathers High

Fathers are more exposed than 120 174 102 176 315 572 1.81 Low mothers

Children are more exposed 276 240 36 150 317 702 2.21 High than parents

Parents are more exposed than 228 297 78 123 318 726 2.28 High children

All are equally exposed 340 156 110 148 340 754 2.21 High

Source: Authors’ Field Survey, (2014)

227

a) Temporal Variation in Incidence of Indoor Air Related Diseases (IARDs) across Residential Areas of Ogbomoso

(20082013)

Within the review period (20082013), enteritis (78.5%); asthma (5.6%); cough/sneezing (4.7%) and bronchitis (3.8%) were major Indoor Air Related Diseases (IARDs) for which more than hundreds of people had been treated in and beyond

Ogbomoso city. With the exception of year 2008 when 2.7% (132 people) of the patients with IARDs treated patronised any hospital in Ogbomoso, other years under review witnessed patronage of patients in excess of 500 people. Some 19.1%; 12.5%;

228

20.1%; 31.8% and 13.8% of the total of four thousand, eight hundred and seventy three (4,873) patients were treated in 2009;

2010; 2011; 2012 and 2013 respectively (Table 14).

Table 14: Temporal Variaon in Indoor Air Related Diseases Treated in Ogbomoso (2008‐2013)

IARDs Year of Incidence and Treatment of IARDs Total

2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008

Respiratory Irritaon 69 4 11 10 4 0 98

Bronchis 8 64 31 40 38 2 183

Pneumonia 27 21 1 7 10 0 66

Emphysema 8 17 8 2 1 0 36

Lung Cancer 10 10 5 0 0 0 25

Heart Disease 15 9 2 5 3 1 35

Impaired Vision 3 9 8 0 0 0 20

Asthma 73 109 19 12 45 15 273

Cough/Sneezing 25 84 5 46 49 19 228

229

Tuberculosis 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

Cataracts 46 35 0 1 1 0 83

Cardiovascular 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Diseases

Enteris 388 1186 888 488 779 95 3824

Total 1549 978 611 930 132 4873 673

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork, (2014) X 2 = 1529.541; df = 65; p‐ value = 0.000

However, the variation observed over time in patronage and treatment of IARDs in Ogbomoso was significant. With

X2 value of 1529.541 and pvalue of 0.000, it is observed that the relationship between years of admission and patronage for treatment had been influenced by other factors such as awareness of availability of medical personnel, facilities and places to diagnose and treat such ailments on the one hand, and literacy and financial capability of patients to seek medical attention. b) Spatial Variation in Patronage for Indoor Air Related Diseases (IARDs) Treatment in Ogbomoso (20082013)

The result of analysis on residents patronage of hospitals in Ogbomoso for treatment of any IARDs was least (1.3%) recorded from low density residential areas of the city while 13.0% and 13.9% of total patronages were from medium and high density residential areas. However, majority of the patronage (71.9%) were from undisclosed residential density. These patients

230

expectedly are likely to have come from any part of the city and beyond but, for inconsistencies in record keeping and consequent on difficulty in obtaining health related record particularly in BOWEN was a great limitation to the study.

It was also observed that enteritis (63.5%); cough/sneezing (22.2%); heart disease (4.8%) and asthma (3.2%) were the most treated IARDs from low density residential areas. In medium density residential areas, enteritis (59.4%); cough/sneezing (16.7%); asthma (13.6%) and cataracts (3.8%) were the most treated IARDs whereas, enteritis (59.7%); cough/sneezing (15.6%); asthma (12.7%) and cataracts (4.6%) were the most treated IARDs for which patients across the city had sought treatment. However, for majority incidence of enteritis (85.8%); and bronchitis (4.1%); asthma and respiratory irritation (2.8%) patients from undisclosed residential areas were treated within the review years.

Table 15: Spaal Variaon in Patronage of IARDs Treatment in Ogbomoso

IARDs Residenal Density Total

Low Medium High Not Available

Respiratory 0 0 0 98 98 Irritaon

Bronchis 1 20 19 143 183

Pneumonia 0 4 4 58 66

Emphysema 0 2 7 27 36

Lung Cancer 0 0 3 22 25

Heart Disease 3 10 12 10 35

231

Impaired Vision 0 3 5 12 20

Asthma 2 86 86 99 273

Cough/Sneezing 14 106 105 3 228

Tuberculosis 0 1 0 0 1

Cataracts 3 24 31 25 83

Cardiovascular 0 1 0 0 1 Diseases

Enteris 40 376 403 3007 3824

Total 63 633 675 3502 4873

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork, 2014 X 2 = 2376.867; df = 39; p‐ value = 0.000

With X2 value of 2376.867 and corresponding pvalue of 0.000, the observed variation in level of patronage across residential areas of the city and beyond is significant. This incidence seemingly skewed towards the high and medium density residential areas where there are poor and jampacked buildings with little or no ventilation, high dependence on solid fuels with incomplete combustion and poor attitude towards seeking medical attention.

(20082013)

232

Within the review period, the incidence and patronage for treatment of IARDs showed that more females (53.5%) than males (46.4%) had sought medical attention in any of the selected hospitals in Ogbomoso. The number of patients with incidence of enteritis was highest (79.3%) and (77.9%) for both male and female patients respectively. For asthma, respiratory irritation and cough/sneezing, (5.1%); (2.1%) and (3.7%) of male patients were treated whereas (6.0%); (1.9%) and (5.5%) of female patients were treated respectively.

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork, 2014 X 2 = 106.486; df = 26; p‐ value = 0.000

233

With X2 value of 106.486 and pvalue of 0.000, the disparity in incidence and patronage for treatment of IARDs was significant. Females were seen to patronise hospitals in Ogbomoso for treatment more than their male counterpart. This might be due to the fact that females are more apt in seeking medical intervention for their ailments than males. c) Variation in Incidence and Patronage for Indoor Air Related Diseases (IARDs) Treatment among Age Grades in Ogbomoso (20082013) The incidence of IARDs in Ogbomoso as reflected by the level of patronage for treatment show that patients aged 2035years (40.5%) were most treated with any IARDs. However, 19.6%; 14.0%; 8.8%; 7.1% and 5.3% others treated were aged 3660years; less than 5years; 1319years; 612years and above 60years respectively whereas, some 4.7% of patients treated did not specify their ages in the hospital records.

Some 86.3%; 5.4% and 3.2% of patients aged 2035years were treated for incidence of enteritis, asthma and cough/sneezing compared with 75.2%; 9.0% and 4.1% of patients aged 3660years, and some 86.5%; 0.9% and 5.3% among the infants (aged <5years) treated in that order.

234

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork, 2014 X 2 = 2068.275; df = 78; p‐ value = 0.000

With X2 value of 2068.275 and corresponding pvalue of 0.000, the relationship between patients age and treatment of IARDs is significant. It was observed that the incidence and/or treatment of IARDs were rampart among working class age (2035years and 3660years) and among the infants than among any other age grades probably as a result of their increased activities that expose them to sources of indoor air pollution and for their weak immune system respectively. d) Hospital Patronage for Indoor Air Related Diseases (IARDs) Treatment in Ogbomoso (20082013)

235

The treatment of IARDs in Ogbomoso found expression with Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH) Health Centre (LHC, Ogbomoso) as majority (65.0%) of the cases treated throughout the review period were handled there. However, some 22.6%; 6.3% and 6.1% of IARDs cases were treated at General Hospital Sunsun (General, Sunsun), Ogbomoso; BOWEN Teaching Hospital (BOWEN TH) Ogbomoso and LAUTECH Teaching Hospital (LTH) Ogbomoso respectively. A larger proportion of patients with 60.6% of enteritis cases were treated at LHC Ogbomoso, 37.6% and 1.8% others were treated at BOWEN TH Ogbomoso and LTH Ogbomoso respectively within 20082013 review period. Also, 34.8%; 28.6% and 36.6% of patients with asthma cases were treated at LHC, Ogbomoso; LTH Ogbomoso and General, Sunsun respectively whereas majority (98.7%); (0.9%) and (0.4%) of cases of cough/sneezing were treated at General, Sunsun; LTH, Ogbomoso and LHC, Ogbomoso respectively.

236

X 2 = 7237.174; df = 39; p‐ value = 0.000

With X2 value of 7237.174% and pvalue of 0.000, the relationship between incidence of IARDs and patronised hospitals was significant at 0.05 probability level of confidence. The result attested to the fact that some hospitals were better patronised than the others. Perhaps, hospital records were found in retrievable format at LHC Ogbomoso (most of which are

237

likely to be records of staff and students of the institution and probably their relations) and General Hospital Sunsun seem to be patronised more by indigent population whereas at LTH, Ogbomoso only 3years (20112013) hospital records were available owing to the upgrading to teaching hospital status and reconstruction in recent years. ● Meteorology and Air Quality Assessment Reported and discussed in this section are the data obtained during the field campaign. In addition to these are the other information relevant to the study area as gathered from the literature and past studies.

Indoor and Outdoor Climate and Microclimatic Parameters

Measured indoor and outdoor microclimatic parameters (relative humidity and temperature) were reported and compared with the historical records for Ogbomoso in the following subsections.

Air Temperature

The study area experiences temperatures ranging between 16°C and 35 °C with an annual mean of 26.6 °C (Figure 5). The highest monthly maximum temperature occurs in March with the lowest in July September. During the field study, the measured ambient air temperature ranged between 31.8 and 46.2 °C with an average of 34.15 °C (Figure 7) which agree with the historical temperature usually experienced in Ogbomoso around the month of April and May, 2014 when this field work took place. In the indoor environment, measured temperature ranged from 29 – 33.4°C with an average of 31.56 °C.

238

Figure 7: Historical Atmospheric Temperature in the study Area (Meoweather, 2014)

239

Figure 8: Box and Whiskers plot showing the temperature ranges in the study area

Relative Humidity

The ambient relative humidity in Ogbomoso town ranges between 68 and 92 % using the past year historical data (Figure 8) with an average of 75.2%. The months of May through October are the wettest (82% – 92%) while the months of November through April are the driest (68 – 74%). During the field measurements, indoor relative humidity were measured to be 42.6% – 52% with an average of 49.91% (Figure 9) while outdoor ambient relative humidity range between 44.4%

240

50.5% with an average of 46.76%. The measured values were fall below the historical data of the area. This is probably because most measurements were taken in the afternoon.

Figure 9: Historical Atmospheric Relave Humidity in the study Area (Meoweather, 2014)

241

Figure 10: Box and Whiskers plot showing the measured relave humidity ranges in the Study area

● Indoor and Outdoor Air Quality Indoor Concentraon of Parculate Maer

Indoor concentrations of particulate matter measured in the fifty sampling for 1hr, 8hr, and 24 –hr averaging periods were summarized in Tables 16, 17 and 18, respectively for PM 1, PM 2.5, PM 4.0 and PM1 0. For the 1hr averaging period (Table 16), the concentration of particulates ranged from 1 – 66.30 µg/m 3, 4.70 – 310.80µg/m 3, 13.90 – 338.10µg/m 3, and

3 30.90 – 397.40µg/m , respectively for PM 1, PM 2.5,PM 4.0, and PM1 0. As observed from the results presented, higher levels of particulate concentrations were obtained in the high and medium density areas of the town.

The extrapolated 8hr average concentrations of particulates ( Table 17) are 0.56 – 37.04µg/m 3 with an average of

3 3 3 3 3.66±7.21µg/m for PM 1; 2.63 – 173.61µg/m with an average of 14.36± 27.17 µg/m for PM2 .5;7.76 – 188.86µg/m with an

242

3 3 3 average of 27.44± 28.47µg/m for PM4 .0 and 17.26 – 221.99µg/m , with an average of 76.62±44.16µg/m for PM1 0. Similarly, the averaged 24hr indoor PM concentrations (Table 18) were 0.41 – 27.22µg/m 3 with an average value of 2.69±5.30µg/m3 for

3 3 3 PM1 ; 1.93 – 127.61µg/m with an average of 10.55± 19.97 µg/m for PM 2.5;5.71 – 138.82µg/m with an average of 20.17± 3 3 3 20.92µg/m for PM4 .0 and 12.69 – 163.17µg/m , with an average of 56.32±32.46µg/m for PM1 0.

Table 16: Averaged 1 hr Outdoor Concentration of Particulate Matter

Measured Concentraon (µg/m 3)

PM 1.0 PM 2.5 PM 4.0 PM 10

Locaon ID Indoor

A11 1.10 5.80 13.90 30.90

A12 1.50 7.10 16.00 41.70

A13 1.10 4.70 15.60 57.50

A14 46.00 169.80 193.00 225.00

B11 66.30 310.80 338.10 396.80

B12 1.00 5.70 24.40 177.90

B13 2.10 9.90 20.80 49.50

C11 5.80 14.60 29.30 76.20

C12 2.20 7.40 17.10 50.80

C13 8.90 24.60 48.60 146.60

D11 1.80 13.40 32.20 135.30

243

D12 1.50 10.50 29.30 113.70

D13 27.60 46.10 75.00 228.00

D14 3.50 8.70 20.20 86.90

E11 6.70 22.40 53.70 142.50

E12 1.10 6.60 17.00 41.30

E13 1.50 7.30 20.80 82.70

F11 32.50 81.20 102.30 168.90

F12 1.60 8.20 26.30 81.00

F13 3.30 10.30 26.30 87.50

G11 1.20 9.60 28.40 96.40

G12 1.30 11.00 36.50 127.00

G13 1.40 14.20 46.40 149.10

H11 19.80 51.00 94.30 188.90

H12 13.70 33.60 63.30 155.50

H13 1.40 12.70 41.70 142.50

I11 3.50 16.60 44.30 134.20

I12 1.90 15.70 55.70 217.10

I13 1.60 17.10 52.40 158.10

J11 1.30 10.80 33.30 109.80

244

J12 1.30 12.60 48.80 397.40

J13 1.10 9.10 26.20 79.40

K11 2.10 13.50 36.40 138.50

K12 1.30 10.00 28.80 87.40

K13 1.60 20.20 38.20 97.10

L11 1.40 11.60 34.20 107.40

L12 1.30 10.70 31.80 94.40

L13 33.40 59.90 87.00 191.40

M11 1.10 10.00 29.30 85.30

M12 1.20 11.40 39.40 152.20

M13 1.20 10.50 29.80 87.30

N11 1.60 16.10 38.80 102.90

N12 1.30 12.20 35.40 96.20

N13 1.50 12.60 35.10 96.60

O11 1.90 14.70 43.30 149.40

O12 1.70 13.70 41.10 158.80

O13 1.60 13.90 39.90 124.10

P11 2.60 19.90 79.10 349.10

P12 1.90 18.10 51.40 201.00

245

P13 2.10 16.90 46.10 162.70

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

Table 17: Averaged 8‐hr Indoor Concentraon of Parculate Maer

Extrapolated Concentraon (µg/m3 )

PM1 .0 PM2 .5 PM4 .0 PM1 0

Locaon ID Indoor

A11 0.61 3.24 7.76 17.26

A12 0.84 3.97 8.94 23.29

A13 0.61 2.63 8.71 32.12

A14 25.70 94.85 107.81 125.69

B11 37.04 173.61 188.86 221.65

B12 0.56 3.18 13.63 99.37

B13 1.17 5.53 11.62 27.65

C11 3.24 8.16 16.37 42.57

C12 1.23 4.13 9.55 28.38

C13 4.97 13.74 27.15 81.89

D11 1.01 7.49 17.99 75.58

246

D12 0.84 5.87 16.37 63.51

D13 15.42 25.75 41.90 127.36

D14 1.96 4.86 11.28 48.54

E11 3.74 12.51 30.00 79.60

E12 0.61 3.69 9.50 23.07

E13 0.84 4.08 11.62 46.20

F11 18.15 45.36 57.14 94.35

F12 0.89 4.58 14.69 45.25

F13 1.84 5.75 14.69 48.88

G11 0.67 5.36 15.86 53.85

G12 0.73 6.14 20.39 70.94

G13 0.78 7.93 25.92 83.29

H11 11.06 28.49 52.68 105.52

H12 7.65 18.77 35.36 86.86

H13 0.78 7.09 23.29 79.60

I11 1.96 9.27 24.75 74.96

I12 1.06 8.77 31.11 121.27

I13 0.89 9.55 29.27 88.31

J11 0.73 6.03 18.60 61.33

247

J12 0.73 7.04 27.26 221.99

J13 0.61 5.08 14.64 44.35

K11 1.17 7.54 20.33 77.37

K12 0.73 5.59 16.09 48.82

K13 0.89 11.28 21.34 54.24

L11 0.78 6.48 19.10 59.99

L12 0.73 5.98 17.76 52.73

L13 18.66 33.46 48.60 106.92

M11 0.61 5.59 16.37 47.65

M12 0.67 6.37 22.01 85.02

M13 0.67 5.87 16.65 48.77

N11 0.89 8.99 21.67 57.48

N12 0.73 6.81 19.77 53.74

N13 0.84 7.04 19.61 53.96

O11 1.06 8.21 24.19 83.45

O12 0.95 7.65 22.96 88.71

O13 0.89 7.76 22.29 69.32

P11 1.45 11.12 44.19 195.01

P12 1.06 10.11 28.71 112.28

248

P13 1.17 9.44 25.75 90.88

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

249

Table 18: Averaged 24hr Indoor Concentraon of Parculate Maer

Extrapolated Concentraon (µg/m 3)

PM 1.0 PM 2.5 PM 4.0 PM 10

Locaon ID Indoor

A11 0.45 2.38 5.71 12.69

A12 0.62 2.92 6.57 17.12

A13 0.45 1.93 6.41 23.61

A14 18.89 69.72 79.25 92.39

B11 27.22 127.61 138.82 162.93

B12 0.41 2.34 10.02 73.05

B13 0.86 4.06 8.54 20.32

C11 2.38 5.99 12.03 31.29

C12 0.90 3.04 7.02 20.86

C13 3.65 10.10 19.96 60.19

D11 0.74 5.50 13.22 55.55

D12 0.62 4.31 12.03 46.69

D13 11.33 18.93 30.80 93.62

250

D14 1.44 3.57 8.29 35.68

E11 2.75 9.20 22.05 58.51

E12 0.45 2.71 6.98 16.96

E13 0.62 3.00 8.54 33.96

F11 13.34 33.34 42.00 69.35

F12 0.66 3.37 10.80 33.26

F13 1.35 4.23 10.80 35.93

G11 0.49 3.94 11.66 39.58

G12 0.53 4.52 14.99 52.15

G13 0.57 5.83 19.05 61.22

H11 8.13 20.94 38.72 77.56

H12 5.63 13.80 25.99 63.85

H13 0.57 5.21 17.12 58.51

I11 1.44 6.82 18.19 55.10

I12 0.78 6.45 22.87 89.14

I13 0.66 7.02 21.52 64.92

J11 0.53 4.43 13.67 45.08

J12 0.53 5.17 20.04 163.17

J13 0.45 3.74 10.76 32.60

251

K11 0.86 5.54 14.95 56.87

K12 0.53 4.11 11.83 35.89

K13 0.66 8.29 15.68 39.87

L11 0.57 4.76 14.04 44.10

L12 0.53 4.39 13.06 38.76

L13 13.71 24.59 35.72 78.59

M11 0.45 4.11 12.03 35.02

M12 0.49 4.68 16.18 62.49

M13 0.49 4.31 12.24 35.85

N11 0.66 6.61 15.93 42.25

N12 0.53 5.01 14.54 39.50

N13 0.62 5.17 14.41 39.66

O11 0.78 6.04 17.78 61.34

O12 0.70 5.63 16.88 65.20

O13 0.66 5.71 16.38 50.96

P11 1.07 8.17 32.48 143.34

P12 0.78 7.43 21.10 82.53

P13 0.86 6.94 18.93 66.80

252

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

Outdoor Concentration of Particulate Matter

As summarized in Table 19 21, particulates were detected in all the outdoor locations of the study area. For the 1hr

3 3 averaging time (Table 19), PM1 concentration ranged from 1.00 – 30.30 µg/m with an average of 2.60±4.26µg/m ; PM 2.5 3 3 concentration ranged from 5.10 – 124.80 µg/m with an average of 16.48±18.84µg/m ; PM 4.0 concentration ranged from 12.60 3 3 3 – 138.80µg/m ; and PM1 0 concentration was 31.40 – 1161.90µg/m with an average of 125.99±161.22µg/m .

On extrapolation, the 8 hourly averaging concentration (Table 21) became 0.56 16.93µg/m3 (1.45±2.38µg/m 3 ); 2.85 – 69.71 µg/m 3 (9.21±10.52µg/m 3); 7.04 – 77.53 (19.39±11.47µg/m3 ); and 17.54 – 649.04 µg/m 3 (70.38 – 90.06µg/m 3), respectively for PM1 , PM2 .5, PM4 .0 and PM 10. Similarly, the respective 24 hours extrapolated concentrations for PM1 , PM2 .5, PM4 .0 and PM 10 (Table 7)were 0.41 – 12.44 µg/m 3 (1.07±1.75µg/m3 ); 2.09 – 51.24 µg/m 3 (6.77±7.73µg/m3 ); 5.17 – 56.99 µg/m 3 (14.26±8.43µg/m3 ) and 12.89 – 477.08 µg/m3 (51.73±66.20µg/m 3).

Table 19: Averaged1 hr Outdoor Concentraon of Parculate Maer

Measured Concentraon (µg/m 3)

253

Locaon

ID PM 1.0 PM 2.5 PM 4.0 PM 10

Outdoor

A11 1.10 10.20 21.20 49.70

A12 1.00 8.00 14.90 41.70

A13 1.00 8.00 14.90 41.70

A14 1.00 8.00 14.90 41.70

B11 1.00 5.10 12.60 31.40

B12 1.00 5.10 12.60 31.40

B13 1.00 5.10 12.60 31.40

C11 1.70 6.70 15.60 36.00

C12 1.70 6.70 15.60 36.00

C13 6.70 18.60 28.10 43.70

D11 2.90 18.60 25.10 93.20

D12 2.90 18.60 25.10 93.20

D13 30.30 124.80 138.80 180.40

D14 8.00 18.50 27.60 83.90

254

E11 1.70 6.50 16.60 46.60

E12 1.20 9.80 22.40 72.20

E13 1.50 7.70 19.90 72.10

F11 5.50 14.70 38.10 144.60

F12 1.30 7.20 20.40 74.40

F13 1.30 77.20 22.80 77.50

G11 1.00 9.00 27.40 85.20

G12 1.10 11.40 31.20 114.70

G13 1.50 15.40 47.90 164.90

H11 5.50 19.30 58.50 204.30

H12 2.90 18.20 51.40 188.90

H13 1.40 11.50 38.90 1161.90

I11 2.00 15.30 47.00 144.90

I12 2.20 25.10 70.60 313.40

I13 1.70 16.20 46.40 121.10

J11 1.60 10.40 33.20 98.10

J12 1.40 14.00 35.20 109.70

J13 1.60 8.30 31.00 121.80

K11 1.30 9.90 28.10 85.10

255

K12 1.40 14.00 31.70 88.70

K13 2.90 14.20 37.70 123.50

L11 1.50 21.70 62.40 298.20

L12 1.40 11.60 32.20 89.30

L13 1.40 10.30 32.60 95.50

M11 1.10 10.70 28.30 74.70

M12 1.10 10.00 27.40 68.50

M13 1.20 13.50 34.30 107.10

N11 1.30 10.30 34.70 105.90

N12 1.70 17.20 39.20 117.30

N13 1.80 13.10 34.00 82.60

O11 3.30 19.00 47.00 143.60

O12 1.60 13.30 42.40 140.00

O13 1.80 13.50 34.10 90.10

P11 3.20 30.50 65.20 186.70

P12 1.70 15.70 43.30 132.30

P13 2.60 16.30 42.90 118.60

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

256

Table 20: Averaged 8‐ hr Outdoor Concentraon of Parculate Maer

Extrapolated Concentraon (µg/m3 )

PM1 .0 PM2 .5 PM4 .0 PM1 0

Locaon ID Outdoor

A11 0.61 5.70 11.84 27.76

A12 0.56 4.47 8.32 23.29

A13 0.56 4.47 8.32 23.29

A14 0.56 4.47 8.32 23.29

B11 0.56 2.85 7.04 17.54

B12 0.56 2.85 7.04 17.54

B13 0.56 2.85 7.04 17.54

C11 0.95 3.74 8.71 20.11

C12 0.95 3.74 8.71 20.11

C13 3.74 10.39 15.70 24.41

D11 1.62 10.39 14.02 52.06

D12 1.62 10.39 14.02 52.06

D13 16.93 69.71 77.53 100.77

D14 4.47 10.33 15.42 46.87

E11 0.95 3.63 9.27 26.03

257

E12 0.67 5.47 12.51 40.33

E13 0.84 4.30 11.12 40.28

F11 3.07 8.21 21.28 80.77

F12 0.73 4.02 11.40 41.56

F13 0.73 43.12 12.74 43.29

G11 0.56 5.03 15.31 47.59

G12 0.61 6.37 17.43 64.07

G13 0.84 8.60 26.76 92.11

H11 3.07 10.78 32.68 114.12

H12 1.62 10.17 28.71 105.52

H13 0.78 6.42 21.73 649.04

I11 1.12 8.55 26.25 80.94

I12 1.23 14.02 39.44 175.07

I13 0.95 9.05 25.92 67.65

J11 0.89 5.81 18.55 54.80

J12 0.78 7.82 19.66 61.28

J13 0.89 4.64 17.32 68.04

K11 0.73 5.53 15.70 47.54

K12 0.78 7.82 17.71 49.55

258

K13 1.62 7.93 21.06 68.99

L11 0.84 12.12 34.86 166.57

L12 0.78 6.48 17.99 49.88

L13 0.78 5.75 18.21 53.35

M11 0.61 5.98 15.81 41.73

M12 0.61 5.59 15.31 38.26

M13 0.67 7.54 19.16 59.83

N11 0.73 5.75 19.38 59.16

N12 0.95 9.61 21.90 65.52

N13 1.01 7.32 18.99 46.14

O11 1.84 10.61 26.25 80.21

O12 0.89 7.43 23.68 78.20

O13 1.01 7.54 19.05 50.33

P11 1.79 17.04 36.42 104.29

P12 0.95 8.77 24.19 73.90

P13 1.45 9.11 23.96 66.25

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

259

Table 21: Averaged24‐ hr Outdoor Concentraon of Parculate Maer

Extrapolated Concentraon (µg/m3 )

Locaon ID PM1 .0 PM2 .5 PM4 .0 PM1 0

Outdoor

A11 0.45 4.19 8.70 20.41

A12 0.41 3.28 6.12 17.12

A13 0.41 3.28 6.12 17.12

A14 0.41 3.28 6.12 17.12

B11 0.41 2.09 5.17 12.89

B12 0.41 2.09 5.17 12.89

B13 0.41 2.09 5.17 12.89

C11 0.70 2.75 6.41 14.78

C12 0.70 2.75 6.41 14.78

C13 2.75 7.64 11.54 17.94

D11 1.19 7.64 10.31 38.27

D12 1.19 7.64 10.31 38.27

D13 12.44 51.24 56.99 74.07

D14 3.28 7.60 11.33 34.45

E11 0.70 2.67 6.82 19.13

260

E12 0.49 4.02 9.20 29.65

E13 0.62 3.16 8.17 29.60

F11 2.26 6.04 15.64 59.37

F12 0.53 2.96 8.38 30.55

F13 0.53 31.70 9.36 31.82

G11 0.41 3.70 11.25 34.98

G12 0.45 4.68 12.81 47.10

G13 0.62 6.32 19.67 67.71

H11 2.26 7.92 24.02 83.89

H12 1.19 7.47 21.10 77.56

H13 0.57 4.72 15.97 477.08

I11 0.82 6.28 19.30 59.50

I12 0.90 10.31 28.99 128.68

I13 0.70 6.65 19.05 49.72

J11 0.66 4.27 13.63 40.28

J12 0.57 5.75 14.45 45.04

J13 0.66 3.41 12.73 50.01

K11 0.53 4.06 11.54 34.94

K12 0.57 5.75 13.02 36.42

261

K13 1.19 5.83 15.48 50.71

L11 0.62 8.91 25.62 122.44

L12 0.57 4.76 13.22 36.67

L13 0.57 4.23 13.39 39.21

M11 0.45 4.39 11.62 30.67

M12 0.45 4.11 11.25 28.13

M13 0.49 5.54 14.08 43.98

N11 0.53 4.23 14.25 43.48

N12 0.70 7.06 16.10 48.16

N13 0.74 5.38 13.96 33.92

O11 1.35 7.80 19.30 58.96

O12 0.66 5.46 17.41 57.48

O13 0.74 5.54 14.00 37.00

P11 1.31 12.52 26.77 76.66

P12 0.70 6.45 17.78 54.32

P13 1.07 6.69 17.61 48.70

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

Indoor/Outdoor Particulate Matter Ratio

262

The Indoor/outdoor ratio was used as an indicator to evaluate the differences between indoor concentrations and their corresponding outdoor levels (Massey et al., 2012). It could also be an indicator for the strength of indoor particulates sources (Huang et al ., 2007). Indoor/Outdoor concentration ratios of particulates in the study area are presented in Table 22. Large variations of indoor and outdoor concentration ratios were observed throughout the duration of measurement. High outdoor concentrations may be attributed to heavy vehicular traffic flow especially at roadside residential locations, emissions from local manufacturing industries and businesses, incineration of wastes, exhaust from offgrid electric generators and resuspension of road and soil dusts. The ratio were between 0.44 – 66.30; 0.13 – 60.94; 0.54 – 26.83; 0.12 –

12.64, respectively for PM1 , PM2 .5, PM4 .0 and PM1 0.

Higher Indoor/Outdoor ratio were obtained in sites in the proximity of local manufacturing industries such as the Garri processing industry and local food vendors where biomass are used for cooking. Cooking in the residences sampled were also major sources of particulates. Inadequate ventilation hindered the diffusion of the particulates.High outdoor particulates level have impact on the indoor environment concentration via infiltration as the results obtained showed positive correlation between the indoor/outdoor particulates level especially where no major indoor/outdoor sources have domineering effects on particulate concentration levels.

The average mean Indoor/Outdoor ratio also varied largely due to population distribution, building design and the different activities. The average Indoor/Outdoor ratio for the high density area (Figure 10) were 0.44 – 66.30; 0.13 – 60.94;

0.54 – 26.83; and 0.12 – 12.64 for PM 1, PM 2.5, PM 4.0 and PM1 0, respectively while similar results obtained for the medium density locations (Figure 11) were 0.55 – 23.86; 0.53 – 5.82; 0.55 – 2.67; and 0.36 – 2.00. The ratios were smaller for the low density areas where biomass are less used as a source of cooking, and building ventilation were better as compared to high and medium density locations. The ratio obtained for for PM 1, PM 2.5, PM 4.0 and PM1 0, were 0.55 – 23.86; 0.53 – 5.82; 0.55 –

263

2.67; and 0.36 – 2.00, respectively (Figure 12 ). The average ratios for particulate matter in roadside environment were almost 1 for the investigated particle sizes.

264

Table 22: Indoor/Outdoor Rao of Parculate Maer

Locaon ID PM1 PM2 .5 PM4 .0 PM1 0

Indoor/Outdoor rao

A11 1.00 0.57 0.66 0.62

A12 1.50 0.89 1.07 1.00

A13 1.10 0.59 1.05 1.38

A14 46.00 21.23 12.95 5.40

B11 66.30 60.94 26.83 12.64

B12 1.00 1.12 1.94 5.67

B13 2.10 1.94 1.65 1.58

C11 3.41 2.18 1.88 2.12

C12 1.29 1.10 1.10 1.41

C13 1.33 1.32 1.73 3.35

D11 0.62 0.72 1.28 1.45

D12 0.52 0.56 1.17 1.22

D13 0.91 0.37 0.54 1.26

D14 0.44 0.47 0.73 1.04

E11 3.94 3.45 3.23 3.06

E12 0.92 0.67 0.76 0.57

265

E13 1.00 0.95 1.05 1.15

F11 5.91 5.52 2.69 1.17

F12 1.23 1.14 1.29 1.09

F13 2.54 0.13 1.15 1.13

G11 1.20 1.07 1.04 1.13

G12 1.18 0.96 1.17 1.11

G13 0.93 0.92 0.97 0.90

H11 3.60 2.64 1.61 0.92

H12 4.72 1.85 1.23 0.82

H13 1.00 1.10 1.07 0.12

I11 1.75 1.08 0.94 0.93

I12 0.86 0.63 0.79 0.69

I13 0.94 1.06 1.13 1.31

J11 0.81 1.04 1.00 1.12

J12 0.93 0.90 1.39 3.62

J13 0.69 1.10 0.85 0.65

K11 1.62 1.36 1.30 1.63

K12 0.93 0.71 0.91 0.99

K13 0.55 1.42 1.01 0.79

266

L11 0.93 0.53 0.55 0.36

L12 0.93 0.92 0.99 1.06

L13 23.86 5.82 2.67 2.00

M11 1.00 0.93 1.04 1.14

M12 1.09 1.14 1.44 2.22

M13 1.00 0.78 0.87 0.82

N11 1.23 1.56 1.12 0.97

N12 0.76 0.71 0.90 0.82

N13 0.83 0.96 1.03 1.17

O11 0.58 0.77 0.92 1.04

O12 1.06 1.03 0.97 1.13

O13 0.89 1.03 1.17 1.38

P11 0.81 0.65 1.21 1.87

P12 1.12 1.15 1.19 1.52

P13 0.81 1.04 1.07 1.37

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

267

Figure 10: Indoor/Outdoor Parculate Raos in High Density Locaons

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

268

Figure 11: Indoor/Outdoor Parculate Raos in Medium Density Locaons

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

269

Figure 12: Indoor/Outdoor Particulate Ratios in High Density Locations

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

● Toxicity Potential Level of Particulates in Indoor Environment Toxicity potential, which is expressed as the ratio of measured ambient PM concentration to the statutory limit of ambient concentration (Sonibare et al ., 2005) is useful in assessing the deleterious effects of the air emissions on human health. As summarized in Table 23, the computed toxicity potential of particulates using the daily averaging statutory limits of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), World Health Organization (WHO), and the American Society

270

of Heating, Refridgeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) for PM2 .5 and PM 10. The statutory limits value used are given in Appendix (Table A1).

Table 23 :Toxicity Potenal Level of Parculates in Indoor Environment

Toxicity Potenal Level

EPA WHO ASHRAE

Locaon ID PM 2.5 PM 10 PM 2.5 PM 10 PM 2.5 PM 10

A11 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.25 0.16 0.25

A12 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.34 0.19 0.34

A13 0.06 0.16 0.08 0.47 0.13 0.47

A14 1.99 0.62 2.79 1.85 4.65 1.85

B11 3.65 1.09 5.10 3.26 8.51 3.26

B12 0.07 0.49 0.09 1.46 0.16 1.46

B13 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.41 0.27 0.41

C11 0.17 0.21 0.24 0.63 0.40 0.63

C12 0.09 0.14 0.12 0.42 0.20 0.42

C13 0.29 0.40 0.40 1.20 0.67 1.20

D11 0.16 0.37 0.22 1.11 0.37 1.11

D12 0.12 0.31 0.17 0.93 0.29 0.93

271

D13 0.54 0.62 0.76 1.87 1.26 1.87

D14 0.10 0.24 0.14 0.71 0.24 0.71

E11 0.26 0.39 0.37 1.17 0.61 1.17

E12 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.34 0.18 0.34

E13 0.09 0.23 0.12 0.68 0.20 0.68

F11 0.95 0.46 1.33 1.39 2.22 1.39

F12 0.10 0.22 0.13 0.67 0.22 0.67

F13 0.12 0.24 0.17 0.72 0.28 0.72

G11 0.11 0.26 0.16 0.79 0.26 0.79

G12 0.13 0.35 0.18 1.04 0.30 1.04

G13 0.17 0.41 0.23 1.22 0.39 1.22

H11 0.60 0.52 0.84 1.55 1.40 1.55

H12 0.39 0.43 0.55 1.28 0.92 1.28

H13 0.15 0.39 0.21 1.17 0.35 1.17

I11 0.19 0.37 0.27 1.10 0.45 1.10

I12 0.18 0.59 0.26 1.78 0.43 1.78

I13 0.20 0.43 0.28 1.30 0.47 1.30

J11 0.13 0.30 0.18 0.90 0.30 0.90

272

J12 0.15 1.09 0.21 3.26 0.34 3.26

J13 0.11 0.22 0.15 0.65 0.25 0.65

K11 0.16 0.38 0.22 1.14 0.37 1.14

K12 0.12 0.24 0.16 0.72 0.27 0.72

K13 0.24 0.27 0.33 0.80 0.55 0.80

L11 0.14 0.29 0.19 0.88 0.32 0.88

L12 0.13 0.26 0.18 0.78 0.29 0.78

L13 0.70 0.52 0.98 1.57 1.64 1.57

M11 0.12 0.23 0.16 0.70 0.27 0.70

M12 0.13 0.42 0.19 1.25 0.31 1.25

M13 0.12 0.24 0.17 0.72 0.29 0.72

N11 0.19 0.28 0.26 0.85 0.44 0.85

N12 0.14 0.26 0.20 0.79 0.33 0.79

N13 0.15 0.26 0.21 0.79 0.34 0.79

O11 0.17 0.41 0.24 1.23 0.40 1.23

O12 0.16 0.43 0.23 1.30 0.38 1.30

O13 0.16 0.34 0.23 1.02 0.38 1.02

P11 0.23 0.96 0.33 2.87 0.54 2.87

273

P12 0.21 0.55 0.30 1.65 0.50 1.65

P13 0.20 0.45 0.28 1.34 0.46 1.34

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

274

275

Figure 13: Indoor 24‐hour Averaging Concentraon of PM 2.5 and PM10 Comparism with Statutory Limits

276

277

Table 24: Toxicity Potenal Level of Parculates in Outdoor Environment

Toxicity Potenal Level

EPA WHO ASHRAE

Locaon ID PM 2.5 PM 10 PM 2.5 PM 10 PM 2.5 PM 10

A11 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.41 0.28 0.41

A12 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.34 0.22 0.34

A13 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.34 0.22 0.34

A14 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.34 0.22 0.34

B11 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.26 0.14 0.26

B12 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.26 0.14 0.26

B13 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.26 0.14 0.26

C11 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.30 0.18 0.30

C12 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.30 0.18 0.30

C13 0.22 0.12 0.31 0.36 0.51 0.36

D11 0.22 0.26 0.31 0.77 0.51 0.77

D12 0.22 0.26 0.31 0.77 0.51 0.77

278

D13 1.46 0.49 2.05 1.48 3.42 1.48

D14 0.22 0.23 0.30 0.69 0.51 0.69

E11 0.08 0.13 0.11 0.38 0.18 0.38

E12 0.11 0.20 0.16 0.59 0.27 0.59

E13 0.09 0.20 0.13 0.59 0.21 0.59

F11 0.17 0.40 0.24 1.19 0.40 1.19

F12 0.08 0.20 0.12 0.61 0.20 0.61

F13 0.91 0.21 1.27 0.64 2.11 0.64

G11 0.11 0.23 0.15 0.70 0.25 0.70

G12 0.13 0.31 0.19 0.94 0.31 0.94

G13 0.18 0.45 0.25 1.35 0.42 1.35

H11 0.23 0.56 0.32 1.68 0.53 1.68

H12 0.21 0.52 0.30 1.55 0.50 1.55

H13 0.13 3.18 0.19 9.54 0.31 9.54

I11 0.18 0.40 0.25 1.19 0.42 1.19

I12 0.29 0.86 0.41 2.57 0.69 2.57

I13 0.19 0.33 0.27 0.99 0.44 0.99

J11 0.12 0.27 0.17 0.81 0.28 0.81

279

J12 0.16 0.30 0.23 0.90 0.38 0.90

J13 0.10 0.33 0.14 1.00 0.23 1.00

K11 0.12 0.23 0.16 0.70 0.27 0.70

K12 0.16 0.24 0.23 0.73 0.38 0.73

K13 0.17 0.34 0.23 1.01 0.39 1.01

L11 0.25 0.82 0.36 2.45 0.59 2.45

L12 0.14 0.24 0.19 0.73 0.32 0.73

L13 0.12 0.26 0.17 0.78 0.28 0.78

M11 0.13 0.20 0.18 0.61 0.29 0.61

M12 0.12 0.19 0.16 0.56 0.27 0.56

M13 0.16 0.29 0.22 0.88 0.37 0.88

N11 0.12 0.29 0.17 0.87 0.28 0.87

N12 0.20 0.32 0.28 0.96 0.47 0.96

N13 0.15 0.23 0.22 0.68 0.36 0.68

O11 0.22 0.39 0.31 1.18 0.52 1.18

O12 0.16 0.38 0.22 1.15 0.36 1.15

O13 0.16 0.25 0.22 0.74 0.37 0.74

P11 0.36 0.51 0.50 1.53 0.83 1.53

280

P12 0.18 0.36 0.26 1.09 0.43 1.09

P13 0.19 0.32 0.27 0.97 0.45 0.97

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

281

Figure 14: Outdoor 24‐hour Averaging Concentraon of PM 2.5 and PM10 Comparism with Statutory Limits

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

282

283

● Gaseous Pollutants Table 25 summarizes the 1hour measured concentrations of the gaseous pollutants in the indoor environments of the sampling locations.Ozone (O 3) was detected in 12 locations, carbon monoxide in 30 locations, Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in 46 locations, Hydrogen Sulphide (H2 S) in 42 locations. Methane was not detected in any of the sampling locations in Ogbomoso. One hour measured concentration ranged from 0.00 – 0.07 ppm; 0.00 – 50.00 ppm; 0.00 – 0.36 ppm; and 0.00 –

2.00 ppm, respectively for O 3, CO, CO2 and H2 S which became 0.00 – 0.04 ppm; 0/00 – 27.93 ppm ; 0.00 0.20 and 0.00 – 1.12 ppm for 8 hour averaging period (Table 26). For the 24 – hour averaging period, the concentrations were 0.00 – 0.03 ppm,

0.00 – 20.54 ppm, 0.00 – 0.15 ppm and 0.00 – 0.82 ppm, respectively for O 3, CO, CO2 and H2 S (Table 27).

All the measured parameters with 24hour averaging period concentrations can be considered to be within the recommended limit of the Federal Ministry of Environment. However, chronic short term exposures to these gaseous pollutants could have long term adverse effect on human health such as cancer and cardiorespiratory diseases.

284

Table 25: Averaged 1 – hr Indoor Concentraon of Gaseous Pollutants

Measured Concentraon (ppm)

Locaon ID O 3 CO CO 2 H 2S CH 4 Indoor

A11 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

A12 0.01 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.00

A13 0.01 2.00 0.08 1.00 0.00

A14 0.01 0.00 0.08 2.00 0.00

B11 0.05 3.00 0.08 1.00 0.00

B12 0.00 0.00 0.07 1.00 0.00

B13 0.00 0.00 0.03 1.00 0.00

C11 0.00 0.00 0.09 1.00 0.00

C12 0.00 0.00 0.08 1.00 0.00

C13 0.00 11.00 0.09 1.00 0.00

D11 0.00 23.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

D12 0.00 3.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

D13 0.00 14.00 0.07 1.00 0.00

D14 0.00 7.00 0.06 2.00 0.00

E11 0.07 4.00 0.11 1.00 0.00

E12 0.00 0.00 0.08 1.00 0.00

285

E13 0.00 0.00 0.22 1.00 0.00

F11 0.01 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00

F12 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00

F13 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00

G11 0.04 1.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

G12 0.03 1.00 0.07 1.00 0.00

G13 0.02 4.00 0.08 1.00 0.00

H11 0.02 15.00 0.11 1.00 0.00

H12 0.00 15.00 0.09 2.00 0.00

H13 0.02 2.00 0.06 1.00 0.00

I11 0.00 2.00 0.05 1.00 0.00

I12 0.00 2.00 0.36 2.00 0.00

I13 0.00 1.00 0.06 1.00 0.00

J11 0.00 1.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

J12 0.00 1.00 0.06 1.00 0.00

J13 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00

K11 0.00 6.00 0.05 1.00 0.00

K12 0.00 1.00 0.05 1.00 0.00

K13 0.00 2.00 0.06 1.00 0.00

L11 0.00 0.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

L12 0.00 0.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

286

L13 0.00 50.00 0.06 2.00 0.00

M11 0.00 0.00 0.05 1.00 0.00

M12 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00

M13 0.00 29.00 0.08 2.00 0.00

N11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

N12 0.00 0.00 0.03 1.00 0.00

N13 0.00 0.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

O11 0.00 3.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

O12 0.00 0.00 0.06 1.00 0.00

O13 0.00 1.00 0.03 1.00 0.00

P11 0.00 4.00 0.06 1.00 0.00

P12 0.00 3.00 0.04 1.00 0.00

P13 0.00 0.00 0.03 1.00 0.00

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

Table 26: Averaged 8 – hr Indoor Concentraon of Gaseous Pollutants

Extrapolated 8 hr Concentraon (ppm)

ID OZONE CO CO2 H2 S CH4

Indoor

A11 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

287

A12 0.01 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.00

A13 0.01 1.12 0.04 0.56 0.00

A14 0.01 0.00 0.04 1.12 0.00

B11 0.03 1.68 0.04 0.56 0.00

B12 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.56 0.00

B13 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.56 0.00

C11 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.56 0.00

C12 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.56 0.00

C13 0.00 6.14 0.05 0.56 0.00

D11 0.00 12.85 0.02 0.56 0.00

D12 0.00 1.68 0.02 0.56 0.00

D13 0.00 7.82 0.04 0.56 0.00

D14 0.00 3.91 0.03 1.12 0.00

E11 0.04 2.23 0.06 0.56 0.00

E12 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.56 0.00

E13 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.56 0.00

F11 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00

F12 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00

F13 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00

288

G11 0.02 0.56 0.02 0.56 0.00

G12 0.02 0.56 0.04 0.56 0.00

G13 0.01 2.23 0.04 0.56 0.00

H11 0.01 8.38 0.06 0.56 0.00

H12 0.00 8.38 0.05 1.12 0.00

H13 0.01 1.12 0.03 0.56 0.00

I11 0.00 1.12 0.03 0.56 0.00

I12 0.00 1.12 0.20 1.12 0.00

I13 0.00 0.56 0.03 0.56 0.00

J11 0.00 0.56 0.02 0.56 0.00

J12 0.00 0.56 0.03 0.56 0.00

J13 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00

K11 0.00 3.35 0.03 0.56 0.00

K12 0.00 0.56 0.03 0.56 0.00

K13 0.00 1.12 0.03 0.56 0.00

L11 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.56 0.00

L12 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.56 0.00

L13 0.00 27.93 0.03 1.12 0.00

M11 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.56 0.00

289

M12 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00

M13 0.00 16.20 0.04 1.12 0.00

N11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

N12 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.56 0.00

N13 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.56 0.00

O11 0.00 1.68 0.02 0.56 0.00

O12 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.56 0.00

O13 0.00 0.56 0.02 0.56 0.00

P11 0.00 2.23 0.03 0.56 0.00

P12 0.00 1.68 0.02 0.56 0.00

P13 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.56 0.00

Source Authors’ Field Survey 2014

Table 27: Averaged 24 – hr Indoor Concentraon of Gaseous Pollutants

Extrapolated 24 hr Concentraon (ppm)

ID O3 CO CO2 H2 S CH4

Indoor

290

A11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

A12 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00

A13 0.00 0.82 0.03 0.41 0.00

A14 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.82 0.00

B11 0.02 1.23 0.03 0.41 0.00

B12 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.41 0.00

B13 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.41 0.00

C11 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.41 0.00

C12 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.41 0.00

C13 0.00 4.52 0.04 0.41 0.00

D11 0.00 9.45 0.02 0.41 0.00

D12 0.00 1.23 0.02 0.41 0.00

D13 0.00 5.75 0.03 0.41 0.00

D14 0.00 2.87 0.02 0.82 0.00

E11 0.03 1.64 0.05 0.41 0.00

E12 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.41 0.00

E13 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.41 0.00

F11 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00

F12 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00

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F13 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00

G11 0.02 0.41 0.02 0.41 0.00

G12 0.01 0.41 0.03 0.41 0.00

G13 0.01 1.64 0.03 0.41 0.00

H11 0.01 6.16 0.05 0.41 0.00

H12 0.00 6.16 0.04 0.82 0.00

H13 0.01 0.82 0.02 0.41 0.00

I11 0.00 0.82 0.02 0.41 0.00

I12 0.00 0.82 0.15 0.82 0.00

I13 0.00 0.41 0.02 0.41 0.00

J11 0.00 0.41 0.02 0.41 0.00

J12 0.00 0.41 0.02 0.41 0.00

J13 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00

K11 0.00 2.46 0.02 0.41 0.00

K12 0.00 0.41 0.02 0.41 0.00

K13 0.00 0.82 0.02 0.41 0.00

L11 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.41 0.00

L12 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.41 0.00

L13 0.00 20.54 0.02 0.82 0.00

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M11 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.41 0.00

M12 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00

M13 0.00 11.91 0.03 0.82 0.00

N11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

N12 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.41 0.00

N13 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.41 0.00

O11 0.00 1.23 0.02 0.41 0.00

O12 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.41 0.00

O13 0.00 0.41 0.01 0.41 0.00

P11 0.00 1.64 0.02 0.41 0.00

P12 0.00 1.23 0.02 0.41 0.00

P13 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.41 0.00

Conclusion:

The research work has established that usage of most household materials that are liable to generate pollution is mostly used by residents. Continuous usage and exposure to such household materials will undoubtedly cause major damage to organs of the vulnerable group if appropriate action are not put in place. The research has also shown the various building characteristics and connection with indoor pollution’ Indoor Air Pollution ha ve also been seen as a major aspect of Air Pollution, it has been observed that materials that generate Indoor Air Pollution is mostly house hold materials which

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have adverse effects onhealth.Indoor Air Pollution has been seen as a major aspect of Air Pollution, it has been observed that materials that generate Indoor Air Pollution are most of our house hold materials which have adverse effects on our health. It also reveals level of percep tion on specific household materials that are liable to cause pollution to the indoor environment.

Recommendations

The research therefore, recommends use of local household material that are less free of pollutant and cleaner fuel should be made available by concerned government. Also proper awareness programme should be carried out to sensitize populace on associated danger on exposure to household materials the are prone to generate indoor pollution

To enhance the ability of the people to further cope with the challenges of indoor air related diseases (IARDs), it is envisaged that the following recommendations be ensured and fortified through environmental education. Residents in Ogbomoso and environs should ensure reduction of exposure to air pollutants by improving ventilation by having more window openings in service areas (living room, bed rooms, kitchen and lobby). Concern therefore should be on building designs to ensure living spaces are not only having large window sizes but, cross ventilation.

Likewise, behavioural adjustment among mothers and children is essential to reduce time spent doing cooking and other household chores in smoke and dustladen environment especially while using solid fuels because of incomplete combustion which is dangerous to their health. Irrespective of socioeconomic status of residents, they should be encouraged to seek medical attention at nearest health facility to them in case of exposure to diseases from indoor air pollution even when it seems minor. Efforts should be made government, philanthropists, communities and individuals to contribute to the provision and maintenance of health care facilities in their environment. Consequently, it is highly

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recommended that more awareness has to be created on the detrimental effects of emissions or discharges from building materials, household equipments, fuel and lightening materials as regards indoor air pollution.

Contribution(s) to Knowledge

Like many others, this study had shown that the menace of indoor air pollution is on the increase but, have added the spatial dimension for the effects which skewed towards the high and medium residential densities. This was obvious due to the nature of economic activities of residents, available inhouse materials and facilities, accessibility and affordability of modern household equipments and health care services. It was also clear from the study that the majority and working population were worst hit by the incidences of indoor air related diseases (IARDs) owing to exposure to pollution sources in the service areas of indoor environment where they spend most of their lives.

The research develops residents’ awareness index (IIEA) of associated impacts on indoor environment; Residents’

Usage of household materials Index (RUI); and Residents Agreement Index (RAg I) of exposure to indoor air pollution for the purpose of evaluation of residents’ awareness of pollutants and their vulnerability to the same. It was brought to the fore that though, records of density of residence for majority of patients were not kept, the more of the incidence of indoor air related diseases is traceable to high and medium residential densities. Most of the buildings in the high and medium residential densities reflect the traditional culture of the core and intermediate places which lack adequate facilities, good ventilation and aeration; window openings are poor sized and inadequate, whereas dampness has aided the retention of most gaseous pollutants released in the indoor environment.

Exposure to indoor air related diseases expectedly will get reduced over time if patronage of health institution is encouraged among residents. The sustenance of health care service delivery is hinged on publicprivate partnership initiative.

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One important area of contribution is the aspect of intra urban comparison of phenomenon. This is vital because it established the variation in residents vulnerability to IARDs within the city and level of awareness on use of household materials responsible for IARDs, the differentiation will help to provide adequate attention as well as insight on measures to ameliorate its impacts in different residential quarters.

More importantly is the comparison of empirical evidences particularly perception of residents on the subject, indoor measurement of pollutants and records of indoor related diseases from recognizable hospitals in the study area. These findings further enhance validation of the impacts of the subjects. Consequently, this study has contributed to past and emerging literature on the subject in developing countries especially in Nigeria and supply solid empirical evidences for policy formulations and programme on healthy and conducive environment and more importantly sustainable environment.

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Adeboyejo A. T. and Abolade Olajoke (2006), “Analysis of Changes in Ogbomoso City”: Journal of Nigerian Institute of Town Planners: Vol. XIX No 1, Nov. 2006, pp. 35 48.

Adeboyejo, A. T; Adejumobi, D. O and Kehinde, O. J (2011) Perception of Climate Change Issues and Household Response Patterns in Periurban Areas of Ibadan, Nigeria in the International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses. Vol. 2 No. 4 pp 6787 http://www.ClimateJournal.com

Adeboyejo and Onyeneroru (2002):“Urban Residential Density and Adolescent Sexuality and Reproductive Health in Oyo State, Nigeria. A Report Submitted to the Union of African Poulation Studies (UAPS) Dakar, Senegal (June 2002)

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Adigun ,F.O, Abolade, O and Akeju ,E (2011): Death by Breath: Case of Indoor Pollution in Akure Nigeria.inAfon O.A. and Aina,O.O (eds.)Issues in the Built Environment of Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo University Press Ile Ife Nigeria pp 81100

Afon A.O. (2005) Solid Waste Management in Selected Cities Of Oyo State, Nigeria An Unpublished PhD Thesis Submitted to the Department Of Urban and Regional Planning OAU Ile Ife.

Akande, T.M. and Owoyemi, J.O. (2008): Awareness and Attitude to Social and Health Hazards from Generator Use in Ayigba, Nigeria. Medwell Journal. Research Journal of Medical Sciences: Vol. 2. No. 4 pp. 185 – 189.

Ayars, G. H. (1997), Biological Agent and Indoor Air Pollution in Badana, E.J. and Montanaro, A.(eds.) Indoor Air Pollution and Health. Marcel Dekker. New York. pp 1160.

ASHRAE (2010) ‘ASHRAE Standards Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.12007’.American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers, Atlanta, USA.

Bruce N, PerezPadilla R, and Albalak, R (2000) Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 78 :1078–1092.

CampbellLendrum, D and Corvalan, C. (2007), Climate Change and Developing Country Cities: Implications for Environmental Health and Equity: Journal of Urban Health: Vol. 84 No. 1, pp 109117.

Carmin, J. And Zhang, Y. (2009) Achieving Urban Climate Adaptation in Europe and World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 5088, World Bank, Washington, D. C.

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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2003): An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality (IQA) www.epagov/iaqfolmade.html

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Huang, H., Cao, J.J., Lee, S.C.,Zou, C.W., Chen, X.G., and Fan, S.J. (2007). Spatial Variation and relationship of indoor/outdoor PM2.5 at residential homes in Guangzhou city, China. Aerosol Air Quality Research, 7, 518 – 530.

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Mac (2009), Indoor Air Pollution Create Problems for Rural Areas. http://www.lifeofearth.org

Massey, D. Kulshrestha,A., Masih, J.,and Taneja, A. (2012). Seasonal Trends of PM1 0, PM 5.0, PM 2.5 and PM 1.0 in indoor and outdoor environments of residential homes located in North –Central India. Building and Environment, 47, 223 231.

Menzies, R., Temblyn, R., et al. (1993), “The Effect of Varying Levels of Outdoorair Supply on the Symptoms of Sick Building Syndrome”, New England Journal Medicine, Vol. 328 No. 12, pp. 821827

Mishra, V. (2003): Effect of Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Combustion on Prevalence of Asthma in the Elderly Environ Health Perspective 111 pp7178

Oguntoke, O.; Opeolu B O. and Babatunde N (2010) Indoor Air Pollution and Health Risks among Rural Dwellers in Odeda Area, SouthWestern Nigeria in Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol.3 No.2 2010

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Singleton, .R (1989):Approaches to Social Research. New York Oxford University Press: pp 145147.

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Smith,K.R (2002): Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries: Recommendations for Research. Indoor Air 12 pp 198207

Sonibare, J.A., Akeredolu, F.A., Osibanjo, O. and Latinwo, I. (2005). EDXRF Analysis of TotalSuspended Particulates from Enamelware Manufacturing Industry, American Journal ofApplied Science,2(2), 573578.

Tawari, C. C and Abowei, J.F.N. (2012) Air Pollution in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria in International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1(2): 94117, 2012

Theuri, D. (2009), Rural Energy, Stove and Indoor Air Quality: The Kenya Experience http://www.itdg.org

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New Equipment Purchased by Researcher : NIL

Numbers of Published Articles: 3

Abolade Olajoke Odunjo Oluronke Omotola, Kehinde Olamiju John (2014:) Analysis of Residents’ Usage of Household Materials and Vulnerability to Indoor Pollution in Ogbomoso, Nigeria Global Journal Of Human Social Science. Geography Geo Sciences ,Environmental Disaster Management Volume 14 Issue 5 Version 1.0 pp3748 www.globaljournals.org/www.socialscienceresearch.org

Abolade Olajoke Odunjo Oluronke Omotola, Kehinde Olamiju John (2014:) Building Characteristics and Residents’ Awareness on Indoor Pollution in Ogbomoso Nigeria. La Pensee Paris, France Multidisciplinary Journal. Volume 76 No. 7 pp93104 [email protected]

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Abolade Olajoke Odunjo Oluronke Omotola, Kehinde Olamiju John (2014:) Socioeconomic Correlates and Indoor Related Diseases in Ogbomoso Nigeria IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science. Volume 19 Issue 8 Version IV pp4651 www.iosrjournals.org

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Grant Reference Number: LAU/SRG/13/035

Project Title: Characterizing Road Transport Systems in PeriUrban Areas of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Name of Principal Investigator: Dr. A. B. Muili

Name of Research Team members:Dr. E. A. Toyobo and Tpl. J. O. Ige

Executive Summary:

Introduction:

Many transportation problems are prevalent in developing countries, particularly Nigeria, and they vary in degree from one area to another because of peoples’ socio economic status and topographical conditions vary from city to city.

Along the problem experienced in periurban areas of Ibadan are poor condition of road network, on street parking, vehicular traffic conflict, street trading, lack of kerbs, violation of traffic rule and regulations and lack of pedestrian walkways among others.

Periurban transportation involves movement both within and outside the periurban interface. Transportation itself has little meaning. It is a means to fulfill certain needs such as employment, education, health, social relation, entertainment, administrative services, legal services, banking and financial services, political activity, marketing of local produces, getting inputs for local production and consumption system, energy, water, waste disposal from industry and household, warehousing, construction materials. Periurban transportation is the backbone of the development of a village economy

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and the development of its transport assumes special importance from the point of view of economic integration of the rural areas with the administrative, marketing and servicing centers.

Geospatial analysis is an approach to applying statistical analysis and other informational techniques to data which has a geographical or geospatial aspect. Such analysis would typically employ software capable of geospatial representation and processing, and apply analytical methods to terrestrial or geographic datasets, including the use of geographic information systems and geomatics .

This study was conceived owing to the concern to appreciate the spatial distribution of road transportation facilities in the six local governments that constitute periurban areas of Ibadan with a view to suggesting framework for effective road management without holding down the development. This study therefore, examines existing road transportation facilities in the periurban areas of Ibadan using geospatial techniques. It evaluates Road transport infrastructures and facilities in the study area; identify different agencies responsible for the improvement of transport facilities; and ascertain constraints affecting the existing transport facilities.

Methodology

Multilevel research methodology was adopted for the study. Geospatial techniques which consist of Global

Positioning System (GPS) and Remotely Sensed Images were used to analyze different types of roads in peri urban areas of

Ibadan. Base maps were used as the field tools to characterize roads. The data processing techniques adopted include, data evaluation, georeferencing and mosaicking, data subsetting, feature extraction, terrain modeling, road maps update from

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satellites images and integration. Road maintenance survey was used to determine the need for improvement of existing roads. The data will be obtained from relevant agencies responsible for the maintenance of roads in the study area.

Household survey was used to obtained information from the residents of the study area in order to establish availability of transport infrastructure. The data collected were analyzed using geospatial techniques, descriptive and inferential statistics.

Result Presentation

Findings from this study show that Federal Roads in the study area were observed to have characterized with high volume of traffic. The high traffic congestion is a feature of daily occurrence in these areas. The reason for this might not be unconnected with the fact that, these roads carries traffic to and from the city of Ibadan. Similar to the above analysis is the

Oyo state roads which were also found out to have generated high volume of traffic and thereby causing traffic congestion.

These roads are also wreaking a lot of havoc to the road users in the periurban areas of the city.

It is disheartening to find Federal Roads in the periurban areas without drainage system. Likewise State roads, many of them were existing without drainage system. The road that is characterized with poor drainage system has serious implication for effective road transport system and quality of life. It is pathetic that access roads are in deplorable condition.

Motor parks are not evenly distributed in the study area. Parking constantly demands valuable space in the city and its distribution is not properly planned, and thereby constituting negative impacts on the traffic flow and order of the city.

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Conclusion and Recommendation

The study characterized road transport system and described road transport infrastructure. Ibadan which is fast growing as a major city in Nigeria needs to put up the appearance that befits status among its counterparts and having a clutter free and appealing landscape is one of the ways to achieve this, hence it is necessary that appropriate planning strategies should be put in place for the improvement of existing road transport facilities in the suburb.

Contribution(s) to knowledge:

Geospatial technology offers a wide range of innovative and cost effective solutions for environmental sustainability; hence, many countries now appreciate the relevance of geospatial technology in the sustenance of our environment. It is observed that study on periurban transportation has been cursory in nature, particularly in Nigeria. This study therefore fill the perceived gap by delve into characterizing road transportation in the periurban areas of Ibadan using geospatial techniques.

Number of published/accepted articles: one (1)

Authors: A. B. Muili, E. A. Toyobo, J. O. Ige and R. B. Ibrahim

Date: 22nd September, 2014

Title of Article: Geospatial Analysis of Road Transport System in Peri Urban Areas of Ibadan, Nigeria

Name of Journal: Asian Journal of Science and Technology

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Pages of article: 508515

Location: India

Website: http://www.journalajst.com

Number of articles under review: one (1)

Authors: A. B. Muili, E. A. Toyobo, J. O. Ige and R. B. Ibrahim

Title of Article: Appraisal of Road Transport Facilities in the PeriUrban areas of Ibadan

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GRANT REFERENCE NUMBER: LAU/SRG/13/039

PROJECT TITLE:Regeneration of Physical and Chemical Properties ofDegraded Alfisol using Legume Species and Tillage.

Name of Principal Investigator: E.A. Ewetola

Name of Research Team member: Y.B. Oyeyiola, G.O. Kolawole

Executive Summary:

Generally, soil is an important medium on which crop is grown. Soil productivity depends on the management used. The continuous cultivation,deforestation and inappropriate farming practice can lead to physical, chemical or biological degradation. Soil degradation has been identified as one of the major constraint to crop production.The challenge in sustainable croppingsystemsis to optimize shortterm productivity while maintaininglongterm soil fertility.The need to sustain crop production on a degraded soil using legumes is well known but specific legumes species and tillage practice that are well adapted to the Derived Savanna Agroecology of Nigeria are not available.

The project was based on evaluating two legumes ( Mucuna pruriens and Carnavaliagladiata) as sole and mixed cropping with maize with two tillage practices (Till and No till) in LAUTECH Teaching and Research Farm, Ogbomoso situated in the Southern Guinea Savanna Agroecology of Nigeria. The research work was carried out over two growing seasons in 2013 and 2014. Soil physical properties that were improved by the legumes and tillage practice were identified over the two years that this project was executed.

INTRODUCTION

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Nigerian soils are being degraded at an alarming rate through continuous cultivation, deforestation and in appropriate farming practices. Consequently, the potential of the soil to support growth and yield of crop in order to meet demand of ever increasing human populating is impaired. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has disclosed that more than 20 per cent of all cultivated land, 30 per cent of forests and 10 per cent of grasslands are degraded. Moreover, up to 60 per cent of all the land in the world may soon become degraded unless urgent steps are taken to ensure sustainable management of land across the world. The United Nations(UN) agency stressedthat land users around the world must understand that this resource is vital for the continued support of flora, fauna and human life and as must treat it as a finite material.

Continuous cultivation of crops on the same piece of land is practiced in Africa due to rapid growth in population coupled with urbanization and industrialization (Isokari, 1995). This practice results in low organic matter content that makes the fragile soils collapse readily under the impact of raindrops leaving the soil more prone to compaction and erosion (Nottidge et al., 2005).

Intensive and repetitive tillage practices causes rapid degradation of soil physical, chemical and biological qualities especially in the case of Alfisol located in the Southern guinea savanna areas of Nigeria. Reducing soil disturbance by implementing conservation tillage practices can improve the situation. Limiting soil disturbance has been shown to improve the soil’s tilth and fertility, increase water infiltration,organic matter storage and reduce erosion(Holland, 2004; Uri et al., 1998).

The role of cover crops especially legumes cannot be overemphasized in the regeneration of degraded soil. Cover crops protect the soil from splash effects of rains, reduce rain drop impact thereby causes reduction in surface runoffs. In addition, they protect the soil from excess solar radiation and reduce surface crusting and high fluctuation of soil temperature and moisture. Cover crops improve soil physical, chemical, biological and economic properties (Triomphe and San, 2004) thus improving the soil structure. Legumes covers also contribute nitrogen to succeeding crops thus reducing the

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need for supplemental inorganic fertilizers (Hudgens, 1996). Legumes covers, with its good quality can be envisioned to be used in regenerating degraded soil under conservation tillage as they can break the soil crust to emerge.

JUSTIFICATION

In Southern guinea savanna Agroecology, the continuous cultivation of a piece of land due to population pressure and urbanization has led to land degradation. Consequently, this has resulted to impoverish of the poor resource farmer due to low crop yield on their farms. In order to sustain crop production o the same piece of land for several years, there is need to introduce a sustainable management strategy that will improve soil properties and eventually yield of crop.

AIM:

This is directed towards improving degraded soil of Southern Guinea savanna by introducing legume species under tillage that should sustain crop productivity under continuous cropping.

OBJECTIVES:

Specific Objectives of the Project; i. To evaluate the effect of legumes covers in improving soil properties. ii. To determine crop yield under sole/mixed/maize cover.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY i. Field Evaluation

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The field trials were carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of LAUTECH, Ogbomoso in the main seasons of 2013 and 2014. Experiments were conducted between May and November each year. The experiment was a split plot fitted into a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates. Main treatment was tillage (Till and No till), while the subplot treatment was cropping systems with sole/mixed/maize cover. The tilled plots were prepared with disc ploughed once and ridged while herbicide (Paraquat at 5.0 L ha 1) was applied to Notill plots after slashing by cutlass. Two legumes planted in 2013 were,Mucuna pruriens and Purariae phaseloides. However,in 2014 growing season,Carnavalia gladiatawas used to replacePurariae phaseoloides because of its slow growth and ground cover.

Each year, experimental plot was a 5m by 4m (20m2 ) with spacing of 1m between the plots. Sole maize and sole legumes were sown with three seeds per hill and later thinned to one seedling two weeks after planting. Maize in legume mixture was sown two weeks after legumes were sown. Weeding was done manually. ii.Data Collection

(a) Agronomy data Data were collected on maize height (cm) at 2 weeks interval, maize cobs were harvested at maturity and grain yield was converted to kgha 1. weed biomass and legumes ground cover.

(b) Soil Sampling and Laboratory Analyses A pre soil (bulk and core) samples were collected randomly from the field to determine the base line properties.Soil physical properties determined were bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity, microporosity, macroporosity, total porosity,available water content, aggregate stability and infiltration of soil. Chemical properties determined were pH, organic carbon,total nitrogen,available phosphorus, exchangeable K.Microbial count was also determined in the laboratory.

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Postplanting samples were collected at the end of each growing season in 2013 and 2014 respectively, to determine the physical and chemical propertiesof the soil as earlier mentioned by IITA (1982) procedure. iii. Statistical Analysis

Analysis of Variance was computed separately for each year for the agronomic and soil data. Least Significant Difference was used to separate the means. All analyses was conducted using SAS software (SAS, 2009)

RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

In 2013, result of the analyses conducted revealed that maize growth and yield were not significantly affected by neither tillage nor cropping systems (data not shown). However, some soil chemical properties were significantly affected by tillage and cropping systems (Table 1). Sole Mucuna pruriens significantly increased nitrogen content of the soil from 0.035 to 0.041 %.This could be attributed to the fact that leguminous plants are capable of fixing nitrogen through the formation of root nodules and can provide the required quantity for crop production as reported by Martens et al., (2005). The result also showed that there was significant increase in organic carbon content of the tilled plot than No till plot which could be as of the contribution of root biomass from legumes such as M.pruriens to the nutrient and organic matter of the soil. Data on soil chemical properties in 2014 growing season is not included because the laboratory analysis is ongoing.

Generally, soil physical properties were not affected by tillage and cropping systems at the end of 2013 growing season (Table 2). The observations show that it may take a long period of time before an improvement in soil physical properties could occur. However, in 2014 growing season, there was a significant increase in water stable aggregate under sole

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Canavalia g . and maize/Canavalia g. mixture. This could be as a result of increased soil aggregation from decomposition of legume leaves that contributed to the organic matter content of the soil because organic matter play an important role in soil aggregation.Saturated hydraulic conductivity(ksat) was significantly higher under notill compared with tilled plot. The higher value of ksat could be associated with continuity of pores which confer higher water movement under notill.

Maize grain yield was not affected by either tillage or cropping systems. However, maize grain yield was greater with notill in both year. In addition, sole maize had higher than maize/legume mixture though the yields were statistically similar in 2013 and 2014 growing seasons.

Table 1: Eﬀect of Tillage and cropping systems on selected soil chemical properes in 2013 growing season.

Cropping Total Nitrogen Organic Carbon system (%) (g kg 1)

Till No Till Mean Till No Till Mean

Sole maize 0.030 0.034 0.032 0.596 0.523 0.610

Sole 0.047 0.036 0.041 0.677 0.570 0.623 Mucuna pruriens

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Maize 0.037 0.038 0.038 0.596 0.420 0.508 +M ucuna pruriens

Mean 0.037 0.036 0.645 0.531

Tillage LSD(0.05) * Ns

Cropping Ns * systems LSD(0.05)

Interaction * Ns

*‐signiﬁcance and ns‐ non signiﬁcance at 5% probability level

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Table2: Eﬀect of Tillage and cropping systems on selected soil physical properes in 2013 growing season.

Cropping Macroporosity Volumetric moisture content system (%) (M3 M 3)

Till No Till Mean Till No Till Mean

Sole maize 18.9 21.2 20.1 0.09 0.17 0.13

Sole Mucuna pruriens 20.8 28.7 24.7 0.11 0.10 0.10

Maize 22.3 23.6 22.9 0.16 0.18 0.17 &M ucuna pruriens

Mean 20.6 24.5 0.13 0.22

LSD(0.05) Ns Ns

Tillage

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LSD(0.05) Ns Ns Cropping system

Interaction Ns Ns

Ns‐ Non signiﬁcance at 5% probability level

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Table 3: Eﬀect of Tillage and Cropping systems on selected Soil Physical Properes in 2014 growing season.

Cropping Macroporosity Water stable Ksat Soil Available water systems aggregates (%) (%) (cm hr‐ 1) (M3 M ‐ 3)

Till No Till Mean Till No ll Mean Till No ll Mean Till No ll Mean

Sole maize 34.10 39.37 36.73 60.63 52.06 56.35 21.55 58.1439.85 0.124 0.144 0.134

Sole 32.97 32.63 32.80 58.40 58.63 58.62 23.62 28.38 25.99 0.106 0.133 0.119 Mucuna pruriens.

Sole 33.53 33.13 33.33 64.73 60.03 62.38 10.60 20.05 15.33 0.103 0.113 0.101 Canavalia gladiata

Maize + 34.50 32.06 33.28 67.73 54.53 61.13 10.59 44.97 27.99 0.112 0.113 0.113 Mucuna pruriens

Maize+ 33.87 35.63 34.75 65.90 58.93 62 42 14.06 23.15 18.60 0.110 0.136 0.123 Canavalia gladiata

Mean 33.79 34.57 63.48 56.84 16.08 34.94 0.121 0.125

LSD(0.05) NS 1.98 1.69 0.101 Tillage

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LSD(0.05) 3.11 2.89 5.38 0.029 Cropping systems

LSD‐ Least Signiﬁcant Diﬀerence

RECOMMENDATION

The adoption of legumes species in regenerating soil fertility specifically Mucuna pruriens should be used as pure fallow because of its aggressive growth pattern in order to avoid competition with crop growth and yield while Canavalia gladiata can be used for intercropping.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE

1. Mucuna pruriens has been discovered not to be grown as mixed crop but can only be used as fallow crop. 2. The use of legumes to regenerate degraded soil will take more than two years in order to get appreciable improvement in soil properties.

NEW EQUIPMENT PURCHASED

1. Infiltrometer 2. Soil thermometer 3. Set of sieves (5) 316

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Project Reference number:LAU/SRG/13/040 Project Title:Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery at Simulated Subsurface Petroleum Reservoir Conditions

Name and address of Principal Investigator: S.E. Agarry,

Name and address of Research Team member: K.K. Salam, A.O. Arinkoola and M.O. Aremu Executive summary

The objective of this work was to study the biosurfactant production of two indigenous organisms isolated from automechanic polluted soil environment and to evaluate their oil recovery efficiency. In this study, six bacteria were isolated from automechanic polluted soil environment. Isolated strains were identified by morphological, biochemical, and physiologicalcharacterization. Among these, two isolates (Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp.) were further selected and used for the production of biosurfactant. Bacillus and Pseudomonas species were grown in mineral salt medium (MSM) with addition of 3% (w/v) glucose. In the growth kinetic study, the maximum biosurfactant production occurred at 120 h of incubation and maximum biomass was observed at 120 h for Bacillus isolate. While for Pseudomonas isolate, the maximum biosurfactant production occurred at 96 h of incubation and maximum biomasses at 72 h. Different nitrogen sources as well as the effect of salinity and temperature are evaluated for their effect on biosurfactant production.Yeast extract and sodium nitrate was the best nitrogen source for the production of biosurfactant by Bacillus and Pseudomonas isolates, respectively. The environmental factors such as temperature 30 oC and salinity (0.2% w/v) were found to be optimum for the biosurfactant production. The stability of the biosurfactant was investigated at different salinities and temperature. The biosurfactant was effective at very low concentrations over a wide range of temperature and salt concentration. The biosurfactant was effective at very low concentrations over a wide range of temperature and salt concentration. The results obtained showed that the biosurfactants have a good oil recovery efficiency thus being more attractive to be applied in microbial enhanced oil recovery.

Introduction

At present oil productions have been experiencing decline in many parts of the world due to oilfields maturity. Because of this and also due to increase in energy demand associated with the global population growth and continued industrialization, petroleum companies are looking for oil in a very remote areas; like deep waters, areas where the

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temperature is below zero and to develop new oilfields in areas like these is very costly. Therefore, there is a need to find alternative technologies to improve and increase oil recovery from existing, decline and abandoned oilfields around the world and Nigeria in particular through introducing the microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR) techniques.

The main objective of the work was to study the biosurfactant production from two indigenous organisms isolated from automechanic polluted soil environment for MEOR. The significant objectives include: i. Isolation ofbiosurfactant producing bacteria from automechanic polluted soil environment ii. Investigation of the growth and metabolic products potential of isolated organisms for enhanced oil recovery at elevated temperature and salinity. iii. Optimization through proper manipulation, of carbon and nitrogen sources the biosurfactant production by the isolated biosurfactantproducing organisms.

Research Methodology

Materials and method Isolation and enrichment of biosurfactant producing microorganisms Soil samples were collected at subsurface level at five different points, pooled together and stored in closed containers at 4°C prior to use. The spread plate technique (APHA, 2005) using nutrient agar (Oxoid) was employed for their isolation. One (1)gramme of soil sample was taken and serially diluted in 0.85% sterile saline water. All dilutions were performed in triplicates and then the samples were spread on nutrient agar plates The plates were incubated at room temperature for 1 to 2 days. After incubation, plates were enumerated and morphologically different pure bacterial isolates were characterized and identified using various criteria, as described by Krieg et al. (1994). Pure isolates were transferred into nutrient agar slants stored at 4 oC and served as the stock cultures for subsequent tests. Six predominant bacterial genera were identified, which include Alcaligenes, Aeromonas, Bacillus, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas and Serratia. Colonies of Bacillus and Pseudomonas species which possessed biosurfactantproducing activity as reported in the literature (Aparna et al., 2012; Pereira et al., 2013; AnnaJoice et al., 2014) were chosen for further experimentation.

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Biosurfactant Production

The inoculums were prepared using Luria Bertani (LB) broth and incubated overnight at 37◦C with 100 rpm agitation.

Production was carried out using production medium composed of Glucose – 1(g/l) KH2 PO 4 0.5 (g/l), K2 HPO 4 1(g/l), KCl

0.1(g/l), MgSO4 0.5(g/l), FeSO4 – 8 (mg/l), CaCl2 – 50 (mg/l) ,Urea – 6 (mg/l) with the addition of 1ml/l trace elements solution (ZnSO4 4.4 mg/l, MnSO 4 3.3 mg/l, CuSO 4 0.1 mg/l) at pH 7. The production medium was seeded with 3% inoculum and incubated at 37°C for 48 hours with 150 rpm agitation. The cell free supernatant was used as crude surfactant.

Effect of nitrogen sources on biosurfactant production The effect of nitrogen sources on biosurfactant production were determined under submerged conditions. The nitrogen sources evaluated in the study were yeast extract, meat extract, urea, sodium nitrate and ammonium nitrate (0.3%). A control flask without nitrogen source was also maintained. The flasks were maintained at 30ºC in an incubator shaker at 150 rpm

Extraction and biochemical analysis of biosurfactant

The production culture was sampled and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant fluid was decanted and filtered immediately through whatman No. 1 filter paper. The cell free supernatant was acidified to pH 2 using HCl (6 M) and left overnight in a refrigerator for complete precipitation of biosurfactant. The acidified precipitate was then separated and distilled water added. The biosurfactants were extracted from cellfree supernatants using the Folch extraction method that is commonly used to extract lipids from biomolecules (Folch, 1957). The biosurfactant was extracted by adding chloroform/methanol (2:1, v/v) mixture at room temperature and was then concentrated using a rotary evaporator (Liu et al., 2011) and finally freeze dried. Lipid content of the crude biosurfactant was determined according to the method of Folch (1957). Total sugars of the crude biosurfactant were determined by the phenolsulphuric acid method (Dubois et al., 1956).

Characterization of the produced biosurfactant

Oil spreading test

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This test involves measuring diameters of clear zones caused when a drop of a biosurfactantcontaining solution is placed on an oilwater surface.Fifty milli litre (50 ml) of distilled was poured into a large Petri dish (15 cm diameter) and 20 μl of gasoline + kerosene + diesel oil mixture and 10 μl of culture broth supernatant was added to the water surface. A clear halo was visible under light. The area of the cycle was measured and calculated for oil displacement area (ODA) using the following equation:

(1)

Surface tension measurement

A sample of either the effluent or the mixed liquor taken from the bioreactors was centrifuged at 4 oC and 8500 rpm for 20 min in order to remove the microbial cells. The surface tension of the obtained supernatant was measured by using a drop shape analysis system (Krüss, DSA10 Mk2) and was carried out at room temperature using the pendant drop method. (For the calibration of the instrument, the surface tension of pure water was first measured.) The measurement was repeated at least 3 times, and an average was used to express the surface tension of the sample. The percentage reduction of surface tension is calculated by the following equation:

%surface tension reduction = (2) where is the surface tension of the feed solution and is the surface tension of the centrifuged sample.

Emulsification index (E2 4) determination The emulsification activity (or index) of the biosurfactant was measured as described by Cooper and Goldenberg (1987). Three (3) ml of different oil samples was added to 2 ml of the biosurfactant solution in a graduated test tube and vortexed at high speed for 2 min. at room temperature and was subsequently allowed to stand for 24 h. The emulsification index (E2 4) was then calculated by dividing the measured height of emulsion layer by the mixture’s total height and multiplying by 100. All emulsification indexes were performed in triplicate.

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Biomass estimation Bacterial cell growth was monitored by measuring the dry cell weight method. It was determined by centrifugation (10,000 rpm for 30 minutes) of a 1 ml culture broth; the cell pellet was washed with distilled water twice and dried by heating at 50 oC until constant weight was attained.

Biosurfactant stability characterization

To determine the thermal stability of the biosurfactant, cellfree supernatant of Bacillus and Pseudomonas species were maintained at a constant temperature range of 25 100 oC for 15 min, followed by cooling at room temperature (28 ± 2 oC). To study the effect of different concentration of NaCl on the activity of the biosurfactant, the biosurfactant was redissolved after purification with distilled water containing the specific concentration of sodium chloride (1 to 16 per cent, w/v).

Application of biosurfactants in removal of crude oil from sand

The applicability of biosurfactants produced by Bacillus and Pseudomonas species, respectively, in oil recovery was evaluated using artificially contaminated sand containing 10% (w/w) of gasoline + kerosene + diesel oil mixture. Soil samples of 40 g were mixed with 4 g of gasoline + kerosene + diesel oil mixture in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks by shaking and allowed to age for 24 h. Thereafter, 40 ml of biosurfactants and commercial surfactants solutions at a concentration of 1 g/l were added to each flask. The flasks were incubated at 150 rpm and 40 oC for 24 h. After which, the oil removed was recovered from the surface and its volume was measured. The control experiments were performed using deionized water at the same conditions. All the experiments were carried out in triplicate.

Result Presentation and Discussion Effect of nitrogen sources on growth and biosurfactant production The type of nitrogen present in growth medium influences the biosurfactant produced by microbial cells (Desai et al., 1994). Table 1 shows the effect of nitrogen sources on microbial cell growth and biosurfactant production. The highest biomass production was obtained using yeast extract as the sole nitrogen source for Bacillus isolate, while for Pseudomonas isolate 322

sodium nitrate gave the highest biomass production. The lowest surface tension value (37mN/m) which corresponded to the highest biosurfactant production (2.56 g/l) was obtained with yeast extract for Bacillus isolate. The lowest surface tension value (35.8 mN/m) which corresponded to the highest biosurfactant production (2.20 g/l) was obtained with sodium nitrate for Pseudomonas isolate. Other authors have reported crude biosurfactant productions between 720 and 2288 mg/l (Makkar and Cameotra, 1997 ; AbdelMawgoud et al., 2008; Pereira et al., 2013). Robert et al. (1989) and AbdelMawgoud et al. (2008)havereported the use of sodium nitrate and ammonium nitrate as nitrogen sources for the highest biosurfactant production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pereira et al. (2013) reported the use of yeast extract for Bacillus isolate #309; ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate for Bacillus isolate #573 and ammonium sulphate and yeast for Bacillus isolate #311; as sources of nitrogen for their highest biosurfactant production, respectively. Other authors have reported the highest biosurfactant production by Bacillus subtilis using urea (Makkarand Cameotra, 1997; Ghribi and EllouzeChaabouni, 2011). Khopade et al. (2012) reported the use of yeast extract followed by tryptone and urea, respectively, for highest biosurfactant production by Streptomyces species B3. The highest emulsifying index (E2 4) was obtained with sodium nitrate for Pseudomonas isolate (65.2%) while for Bacillus isolate, the highest emulsifying index was obtained with yeast extract (60.8). Similar observation has been reported (Pereira et al., 2013). Dastgheib et al. (2008)reported that sodium nitrate was the best substrate for emulsifier production, followed by urea, yeast extract and peptone. Taking into account the amounts of biosurfactant produced with the different nitrogen sources, and in order to standardize the medium for all isolates, sodium nitrate was selected for the production of biosurfactants to be further used in the other experiments. Moreover, the use of sodium nitrate represents a good compromise between biosurfactant yields and the costs associated with their production. More complex nitrogen sources provide higher emulsification indexes; however their cost is also higher which makes a potential application in MEOR economically unfeasible (Pereira et al., 2013). Also, nitrate is crucial for microbial growth under the low oxygen concentrations present in reservoirs.

Table 1: Surface tension values (mN/m), emulsifying indexes (%), biomass concentrations (g dry weight/l) and biomass concentrations (g/l) obtained for Bacillus and Pseudomonas isolates grown in glucose (1 g/l) with different nitrogen sources (2 g/l) at 30 oC for 120 h. Results represent the average of three independent experiments ± standard deviation

Nitrogen source Biomass Biosurfactant Emulsification Surface

Concentration Concentration Index (E2 4) (%) Tension (g/l) (g/l) (mN/m)

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Bacillus isolate

Control 0.30 ± 0.09 0.11 ± 0.07 10.0 ± 0.11 65.0 ± 0.20

Yeast extract 3.20 ± 0.15 2.56 ± 0.11 60.8 ± 0.17 37.0 ± 0.10

Meat extract 2.00 ± 0.08 1.52 ± 0.13 50.0 ± 0.15 44.6 ± 0.11

NH4 N O3 2.40 ± 0.12 2.00 ± 0.15 54.5 ± 0.13 41.5 ± 0.14

NaNO3 2.60 ± 0.16 2.42 ± 0.10 59.7 ± 0.12 39.5 ± 0.15

Urea 1.45 ± 0.10 1.19 ± 0.12 45.4 ± 0.14 46.2 ± 0.09

Pseudomonas isolate

Control 0.45 ± 0.04 0.14 ± 0.11 12.0 ± 0.09 68.0 ± 0.17

Yeast extract 1.70 ± 0.12 1.24 ± 0.13 55.2 ± 0.10 43.2 ± 0.12

Meat extract 1.25 ± 0.10 0.84 ± 0.12 52.0 ± 0.13 46.7 ± 0.10

NH4 N O3 2.00 ± 0.13 1.65 ± 0.14 60.6 ± 0.15 40.0 ± 0.13

NaNO3 2.40 ± 0.15 2.20 ± 0.13 65.2 ± 0.17 35.8 ± 0.15

Urea 1.10 ± 0.11 0.72 ± 0.15 50.4 ± 0.11 48.5 ± 0.09

Kinetics of biosurfactant production

The biosurfactant production and surface tension was dependent on growth of culture in the fermentation medium. The surface tension dropped rapidly after inoculation, reaching its lowest value

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of 25 mN/m for Bacillus species during exponential growth phase after about 120 h of growth ( Fig. 1a ) and 40 mN/m for

Pseudomonas species after about 72 h of growth (Fig. 1b). On the 24 h of growth, biosurfactant concentration starts to increase, reaching its maximum after about 120 h (day 5) (Fig. 1a) and 72 h (day 3) (Fig. 1b) for Bacillus species and

Pseudomonas species, respectively. The increase in surface tension and the decrease in E2 4 after 120 h and 72 h of incubation respectively for Bacillus and Pseudomonas species showed that biosurfactant synthesis has been stopped and may probably be due to the production of secondary metabolites that could interfere with emulsion formation and the adsorption of surfactant molecules at the oil–water interface (Khopade et al., 2012). These results revealed that the biosurfactant biosynthesis occurred predominantly during the exponential growth phase, which suggests that the biosurfactant is produced as primary metabolite accompanying cellular biomass formation (growthassociated kinetics) (Khopade et al.,

2012).

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Fig. 1: (a) Time course profile of biosurfactant synthesis, cell growth and surface tension reduction by Bacillus species in 3% glucose (w/v) (b)Time course profile of biosurfactant synthesis, cell growth and surface tension reduction by Pseudomonas species in 3% glucose (w/v)

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Effect of temperature and salinity on biosurfactant production The temperature and salinity of the medium were important characteristics for cell growth of organism and production of secondary metabolites. Temperature was one of the critical parameters that have been controlled in bioprocess. The Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains showed good growth between the temperature range of 25 – 45 oC. The results in the present study showed that the biosurfactant activity reached the highest when the Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains were respectively o grown at 30 C (E2 4 = 70% for Bacillus strain and 79% for Pseudomonas strain) (Fig. 2a and 2b), and this clearly indicates moderately thermo stable nature of biosurfactant. A similar observation has been reported for Streptomyces bacteria strain (Khopade et al., 2012). However, Youssef et al. (2004) and Bento et al. (2005) have both reported that a change in temperature caused alterations in the composition of the biosurfactant produced by Pseudomonas species and Arthrobacterparaffineus, respectively. The Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains were able to show good growth between the NaCl concentration range of

0.2 to 2% w/v. Fig. 2c and 2d showed that maximum biosurfactant production by Bacillus (E2 4 = 70%) and Pseudomonas (E2 4 = 79%) strains respectively was obtained in the presence of 0.2% (w/v) of NaCl and remained the same up till 0.8% (w/v) of

NaCl. Nevertheless, Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains showed an emulsification activity (E2 4) of 52% and 55%, respectively, in the presence of 2% (w/v) of NaCl (Fig. 2c and 2d).

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Fig. 2: (a) Effect of temperature on biosurfactant production by Bacillus species (b) Effect of sodium chloride (NaCl) on biosurfactant production by Bacillus species (c) Effect of temperature on biosurfactant production by Pseudomonas species (d) Effect of sodium chloride (NaCl) on biosurfactant production by Pseudomonas species.

Effect of temperature and salinity on biosurfactant stability The applicability of biosurfactants in several fields depends on their stability at different temperatures. The stability of biosurfactant was tested over a wide range of temperatures. The biosurfactant produced by Bacillus and Pseudomonas species respectively was shown to be thermo stable as indicated by the stability in the surface tension values and the oil displacement area (Fig. 3a and 3b). Thus, heating of the biosurfactant to 100 oC caused no significant effect on the biosurfactant performance. Abouseoudet al. (2008), Techaoei et al. (2011), Khopade et al. (2012) and AnnaJoice and Parthasarathi (2014) hve reported similar observations for biosurfactants produced by Pseudomonas fluoresens , Pseudomonas aeruginosa SCMU106, Streptomyces sp. and BacillusaureumMSA13, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that these biosurfactants maintains their surface properties unaffected in the range of temperatures between 30 and 100 o C.

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Fig. 3: Effect of temperature on biosurfactant stability for (a) Bacillus species

(b) Pseudomonas species

The effect of sodium chloride addition on biosurfactant produced from Bacillus and Pseudomonas species was studied. Maximum stability of biosurfactant was observed at 16% (w/v) of NaCl concentration as indicated by the lower surface tension value (Fig. 4a and 4b). Its oil displacement area decreased at high NaCl concentration (above 8%). Techaoei et al. (2011) and Khopade et al. (2012) have reported the stability of biosurfactant produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa at NaCl concentration range of 2 – 20% (w/v) and biosurfactant produced by Streptomyces sp. at NaCl concentration range of 1 – 9% (w/v), respectively. Biosurfactants that has stability at high salinity may be useful for bioremediation of spills in marine environment because of its stability in the presence of salt (Prieto et al., 2008) as well as in the enhancement of oil recovery from petroleum reservoirs.

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Fig. 4: Effect of salinity on biosurfactant stability for (a) Bacillus species

(b) Pseudomonas species

Application of biosurfactants in removal of oil from sand The performance of biosurfactants and chemical surfactants in oil recovery was studied using crude oil contaminated sand. As can be seen from the results obtained (Table 2), the differentbiosurfactants at a concentration of 1 g/l recovered between 45% and 40% of oil.

Table 2: Percentages of oil recovered by different biosurfactants at a concentration of 1 g/l

Biosurfactant Percentage of Oil Recovered

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Bacillus isolate 45

Pseudomonas isolate 40

Conclusion and major findings of the study

Highest biomass production was obtained using yeast extract as the sole nitrogen source for Bacillus isolate, while for Pseudomonas isolate sodium nitrate gave the highest biomass production.However, in order to standardize the medium for all isolates at minimum cost, sodium nitrate was selected for the optimum production of biosurfactants which occurred predominantly during the exponential growth phase.The biosurfactant activity reached the highest when the Bacillus and o Pseudomonas strains were respectively grown at 30 C (E2 4 = 70% for Bacillus strain and 79% for Pseudomonas strain) and suggested clearly that the produced biosurfactant are moderately stable thermally and their surface properties for MEOR applicability was found unaffected in the range of temperatures between 30 and 100 oC.The recovery factor using the Bacillus and Pseudomonas isolates were 45% and 40% respectively.

Recommendation

The followings are some of recommendations for future study:

(i). Application of the isolated organisms using reservoir core samples saturated with heavy crude oil

(ii). Designing of simple laboratory flow loop to investigate the dynamic performance of various organisms for MEOR under different conditions

Contributions to knowledge

This study was able to:

(i). Identify the feasibility of introduction of biosurfactant produced from two different microorganisms for purpose of releasing oil from sand pores.

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(ii). Identify the concentration at which biosurfactant can be effective for oil recovery

The identified factors above will guide during implementation of this principle in field operation.

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Authors: S. E. Agarry, K. K. Salam, A.O. Arinkoola, M. O. Aremu

Title: Biosurfactant Production by indigenous Pseudomonas and Bacillus Species isolated from AutoMechanic Soil

Environment towards Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery.

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PROJECT REFERENCE Number: LAU/SRG/13/044

PROJECT TITLE: EFFECT OF ORGANIC TURMERIC (Curcuma longa) ON SELECTED PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RABBITS ACUTELY IRRADIATED WITH ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

Name and address of Principal Investigator: V.A. Togun,

Name and address of Research Team member: J.I. Okwusidi, G.O. Farinu, O.A. Amao, J.A. Adebisi. B.S.A Oseni

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:

The study investigated the various effects of organic Turmeric (Curcuma longa), incorporated into rabbit feed at 2% inclusion level, on selected physiological characteristics of rabbits, acutely irradiated with ultraviolet rays. Irradiation was through a wholebody exposure in an ultraviolet radiation chamber. Sixty acclimatized, unsexed prepubertal rabbits were involved in the eighty fiveday (d), three (3) phased study periods: 40d preirradiation, 5d, irradiation and 40d postirradiation. The rabbits were weight balanced into five (5) groups of twelve rabbits each randomly allocated to five (5) treatment groups as follows: Group 1, served as control and were fed unsupplemented diet and forage ( Tridax procumbens) basal diet (BD) for the entire study period without any treatment. Group 2 rabbits were fed BD supplemented with 2% crude pulverized turmeric (T) during periods 1, 2 and 3, but were not irradiated. Group 3 rabbits were fed unsupplemented BD at periods 1, 2 and 3 and irradiated. Group 4 rabbits were fed supplemented BD during periods 1and 2 only and irradiated. Group 5rabbits were fed BD in periods 1 and 2, irradiated at period 2 and served supplemented BD at period 3. Blood was collected on the 86th day from 09.00h. Feed and water were available ad libitum. The experimental design was completely randomised block design. Data were analysed by ANOVA with graphic posthoc test of significance.

The study results suggest that UV irradiation significantly suppressed White Blood cells and absolute lymphocytic count, attenuated spermatogenic cell development without a chance for spontaneous recovery, resulted in damage to liver cells as shown by portal triad infiltration by lymphocytes. The exposure to UV irradiation did not however seem to significantly

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(P>0.05) affect the epididymal milieu to cause a suppression of sperm concentration, motility and live to dead sperm ratio. Feeding 2% organic turmeric supplemented diet significantly (P<0.05) ameliorated the potential deleterious UV effects on the White blood cells and the liver. It was able to enhance epididymal sperm characteristics at the phase three of the experiment. It was concluded that the 2% turmeric supplemented diet demonstrated prophylactic and therapeutic effects with noticeable antioxidant properties in the rabbits exposed to whole body ultraviolet radiation.

INTRODUCTION:

Problem Statement and Specific Objectives of the Project:

The world ordinarily exists in a balanced form but human activities have tilted this balance with such consequences as climate change, linked with the increase in concentration of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere. UV rays are found in sunlight, emitted by electric arcs and specialized lights such as mercury lamps and black light. Though invisible to human eye, suntan or sunburn is a consequent effect on the skin.The existence of the ozone layer allows the existence of life on land outside the deep oceans because it blocks the penetration of UV rays, thus preventing a great damage to living organisms (Kurts et al., 2000).

Turmeric ( Curcuma longa) is a rhizomatous, herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family Zingiberaceae (Chanet et al., 2009), routinely consumed as food and exploited for its other medicinal values. Its consumption has been associated with various beneficial effects on human health through protection against inflammatory, apoptotic and oxidative processes (Ammon and Wahl, 1991). Various phytochemical studies have now confirmed curcumin, a lipophilic polyphenol that is nearly insoluble in water (Modasiya and Patel, 2012) but quite soluble in the acidic pit of the stomach to be the principal active ingredient in Turmeric.The addition of different levels of Turmeric as feed additives was found to enhance the overall performance of broiler chicks (Durrani, 2006).

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Rabbits are herbivores, which feed by grazing on grass and leafy weeds. Their diets consequently contains large amount of cellulose. The effect of UV rays on rabbits is insidious and subtle as it takes time to manifest.

In this study, rabbits were subjected to UV irradiation at 20 minuteexposure daily for a period of 5 days. These being a dose replica of real life situation to further evaluate the efficacy of Turmeric consumption in rabbits.

Specific Objectives:

The aim of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of organic turmeric in alleviating the deleterious effect of ultraviolet rays on selected organs of rabbits acutely exposed to UV radiation.

Specifically, the objectives of the study are to evaluate the following:

1. Haematological parameters 2. Histological studies of selected organs/system:

i) Liver ii) Kidney iii) Testes

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

1. Location:

The study was conducted at the rabbit unit of the Teaching and Research Farm, Ladoke Akintola University of technology, (LAUTECH), Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria.

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2 Materials:

i) Rabbit Cages:

Some existing 2tiered rabbit cages (made of wood, wire mesh and expanded metal gauze), were repaired for groups (rabbits at their young ages) and individuals (for rabbits at fourteen weeks of age). The individual hutches each offered a space of 3 1 1 ⅟ x 2 x 1 2 per rabbit. Such space will house six young rabbits during the growing period.

ii) Irradiation Chamber:

Radiation chamber was designed as indicated by Togun et al. (2014) to consist of wooden panel on the top, bottom and three sides. The fourth side was covered with thick glass panel for focal sampling of the animals during the irradiation process. The UV tubes were fixed inside of the top panel of the chamber. The chamber was raised from the floor on wooden stands. The five wooden sides of the chamber were further shielded with asbestos sheets and covered with black polythene to prevent possible leakage of radiation during exposure.

The feeders were made of concrete and drinkers were made of earthen material,

1. Animal handling:

Sixty (60) weaned rabbits of six (6) to eight (8) weeks of age were purchased from Onile Ola commercial rabbit farm at Ede. They were acclimatized for a period of one week on arrival, during which they received honey as antistress. At the start of the experiment, the rabbit were exposed to a progressive feed change from the feed brought along with them at purchase. Feeds and water were available ad libitum.

2. Diets:

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Two experimental diets I and II were involved in the study

Diet 1: Experimental diet without Turmeric Basal Diet (BD); Diet II: Experimental diet with 2% Turmeric Supplemented diet.

3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN, DATA HANDLING AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

At the commencement of the study, the rabbits were weighed and randomly assigned to five (5) treatment groups 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 as shown in Table 1.

Group 1 (Co) served as the control. The rabbits in this group were not fed organic Turmeric supplemented diet and were not irradiated.

Group 2 (T) were fed organic Turmeric supplemented diet without irradiation.

Group 3 (R) were not fed organic Turmeric supplemented diet but were irradiated.

Group 4 (T+R) were fed organic Turmeric supplemented diet, followed by UV irradiation. This group served as a prophylactic model to test whether apriori organic Turmeric feeding will protect the rabbits from the deleterious effect of UV irradiation.

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Group 5 (R+T) were not be fed organic Turmeric supplemented diet initially, but after irradiation

Weekly morphometric determinations were made on the rabbits from the start of the experiment and during the exposure to the UV regimen. Irradiation of the rabbits took place in the irradiation chamber, in groups and in the morning hours. Care was taken to prevent the direct exposure of all individuals involved in the study to the UV radiation by evacuating the room when the bulb was switched on. The reactions of the rabbits were focally sampled.

The rabbits were sacrificed on the sixth (6 th) day of irradiation and some of the following parameters were evaluated: Morphometric characteristics; Haematological parameters; Histological studies of selected organs/system: Liver and Testes. The experimental design of this study is a split plot factorial (SPF) design. In the design, the factors (1) UV irradiation and organic Turmeric feeding (T) and (2) UV irradiation (R) are assessed at four (4) levels (see Table 2): SPF 2 4

All values were expressed as mean ± standard error of mean (SEM).

Statistical analysis will be by SPF 2 4 Anova. A p< 0.05 will appropriate posthoc test of significance.

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TABLE 1

ANIMAL GROUPINGS AND TREATMENT REGIMEN: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

S/ Grou TREATMENTS

N p

T R T+R T+R R+T R+R

1 Co 8

2 T 8 +

3 R 8 +

4 T+R 8 +

5 R+T 8 +

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*n = number of animals per group; Co, control (organic food); T= Tumeric; R= irradiation; Cc = control: (conventional commercial feed)

6. RESULT PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

a) Histopathology of the liver: histological studies revealed portal triad infiltrated by lymphocytes, with less vacuolar degeneration in the rabbits exposed to UV irradiation without Turmeric supplemented diet before or after irradiation. The damages observed in the liver of rabbits that received basal diet supplemented before or after irradiation were mild, indicating the fact that supplementation of the diet by 2% organic turmeric inclusion demonstrated both prophylactic and therapeutic effects on the deleterious effect of UV irradiation on the liver of rabbits. Note: the abstract of this study has been published in the Programme and Book of Abstracts of the 10 th National Conference of Organic Agriculture in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria – LAUTECH 2014 OAPTIN/2014/40 pp40 b) Histopathology of the testes: histological studies revealed that only the cells in the initial stages of spermatogenesis were found in the seminiferous tubules at slaughter immediately after irradiation. The testes did not show any significant recovery four weeks (phase3) after exposure to UV irradiation. However, some rabbits in this group that received supplemented diet post irradiation demonstrated significant recovery in phase 3 while those that received supplemented diet before exposure showed all the stages of spermatogenic cell development at slaughter immediately after irradiation. The abstract of this study has been published in the Programme and Book of Abstracts of the 10 th National Conference of Organic Agriculture in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria – LAUTECH 2014 OAPTIN/2014/29 pp. 29. c) Epididymal sperm characteristics: the whole body exposure of rabbits to UV irradiation did not significantly suppress sperm concentration, motility and live : dead sperm ratio as shown at slaughter immediately after the 5day irradiation. However, phase 3 of the study revealed some deleterious effect of the irradiation which was slightly

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lower in the group that received supplemented diet before irradiation. The apparent nonsignificant effect of irradiation on the epididymal spermatozoa at slaughter immediately after irradiation. This result can be explained by the fact that the epididymal milieu which the sperm cells reside is a protective medium and it might take some time before they are affected by the deleterious effect of the irradiation. That the group that received supplemented diet showed less damage when compared with the other groups at phase 3 indicated a protection from the 2% organic turmeric supplementation in their diet. The abstract of this study has been published in the Programme and Book of Abstracts of the 10 th National Conference of Organic Agriculture in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria – LAUTECH 2014 OAPTIN/2014/20 pp. 20. d) White Blood Cells (WBC): The UV irradiation on the group fed the basal diet without supplementation with 2% organic turmeric pre and postradiation significantly lowered the WBC count as well as the lymphocyte differential count, compared to the control and the groups that received supplemented feed before and after irradiation. This is an indication of the reduction in the peripheral leucocytes consequent upon exposure to UV irradiation. The significantly higher values recorded for the groups supplemented pre and post irradiation suggests that the supplementation with organic turmeric potentially conferred both prophylactic and therapeutic effects on the rabbits. The full length article has been published in Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Management Vol. 3(ii) pp. 593598. Available online at http://www.apexjournal.org

(e) Peripheral Leucocytic Response: Extended feeding of Basic Diet Supplemented (BDS) with 2% Turmeric (Curcuma longa) to neat prophylactic group further into period 3 significantly (p<0.05) augmented Peripheral Leucocytic Response (PLR) in these rabbits (R). These results suggest that continued postirradiative Tprophylaxis very potently ameliorated UV induced suppression of PLR in prepubertal rabbits.

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TABLE 2

Table of Results

PARAMETERS

S/ GROUP n WBC (103 ) LYM (%) ABS LYM COUNT

1 CONTROL 6.00 +1.01 † 69.12 +6.0 3954 +722.65

2 T + T + T 5.88 +0.80 ns 77.72 +4.60 *,** 4651 +830.72 *,**

3 + R + 4.53 +1.18 * 71.93 +3.34 ns 3183 +662.50 *

4 T + TR + 6.85 +1.09 **,ns 68.87 +6.27 ns 4526 +667.66 *

5 +R + T 5.78 +0.91 **, ns 70.64 +5.96 ns 4080 +750.69 ns

n, number of animals =12; †mean + SEM; *p<0.05 vs control; **p<0.05 vs UV irradiation; not significant (ns) vs control. T, Turmeric;

R, UV irradiation; LYM, Lymphocyte; ABS, Absolute lym count.

7. CONCLUSION AND MAJOR FINDINGS

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UV irradiation has significant deleterious effects on White Blood cell count, liver and testicular tissue integrity as well

mild effect on epididymal sperm cells characteristics. Supplementation with 2% organic turmeric, with curcumin as

its main active ingredient with its access to higher level of micronutrients due to its organic nature of production,

demonstrated the ability to ameliorate these potentially deleterious effects. The prophylactic and therapeutic

properties of crude, pulverized organic Turmeric were elucidated.

8. RECOMMENDATIONS

This study has demonstrated the efficacy of crude, pulverized organic turmeric in alleviating deleterious impact of

ultraviolet radiation on rabbits. It has removed any stress of sophisticated and expensive processing methods, which

could discourage local farmers from showing interest in the process. That the organic turmeric is this useful, it is

recommended that every household should plant, harvest, dry and pulverize to add to their menu in order to protect

themselves from deleterious effect of sunlight, especially in the tropics, where we are exposed to long time sunlight.

9. CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

Organic turmeric, without any sophisticated processing, can be used to protect against deleterious effect of ultraviolet

rays to which every human is always exposed during our daily routine. Turmeric can be included in various diets

without reducing its efficacy and the quantity required is very small.

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10. No new equipment was purchased from the project fund.

11. Number of published articles: Five (5) . Three (3) Conference abstracts and Two (2) Journal articles.

Conference abstracts:

a.) B. S. A. Oseni, G. O. Farinu, J. A. Adebisi, B. D. Kehinde, O. I. Baki, E. O. Kolawole. S. O. Adekanye and K. O.

Olatinwo (2014). Organic Agriculture Project in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria. LAUTECH 2014 Programme and

Book of Abstracts. OAPTIN/2014/40 pp40

b.) J. I. Okwusidi, V. A. Togun, A. O. Amao, O. O. Olaoye, S. O. Manthe and T. Konigbagbe (2014). Organic

turmericsupplementeddiet demonstrates both prophylactic and therapeutic effects on the histopathology of the

testes in rabbits acutely exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Organic Agriculture Project in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria.

LAUTECH 2014 Programme and Book of abstracts: OAPTIN/2014 29 pp29.

c.) Amao, O. A., Okwusidi, J. I., Oyewopo, A. O., Oseni, B. S., Ariyibi, S. A., and Hammed O. O. (2014). Organic turmeric

demonstrates prophylactic effect on the epididymal sperm characteristics in rabbits acutely exposed to ultraviolet

radiation. Organic Agriculture Project in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria. LAUTECH 2014 Programme and Book of

abstracts OAPTIN/2014/20 pp20

Journal articles:

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V. A. Togun, J. A. Adebisi., O. A. Amao, J. I Okwusidi, G. O. Farinu., B. S. A. Oseni, J. A. Ogunniran (2014). Peripheral

leucocytic responses to ultraviolet radiation in prepubertal rabbits fed organic turmeric supplemented diet. Research

Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Management Vol 3(11) pp. 593598. Available online at

http://www.apexjournal.org

Okwusidi J.I. Adebisi J.A. Amao A.O. Togun V.A.(2015) Prophylactic efficacy of turmeric (Curcuma longa)

supplementation on the peripheral leukocytic response of prepubertal rabbits acutely irradiated with ultraviolet rays.

Research Journal on Agriculture and Environmental Management. Vol.4(1) pp. 039045. Available online at

http://www.apexjournal.org

12. Number of articles under review: One (1) Journal article:

O. A Amao, V. A Togun, J. A. Adebisi, O. S Williams, S. T Oladipo and J. I. Okwusidi (2014). Effect of organic turmeric

( Curcuma longa) feeding on testicular histology of rabbit exposed to ultraviolet radiation. African Journal of

Agricultural Research (AJAR). Under review process.

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PROJECT REFERENCE NUMBER: LAU/SRG/13/045

PROJECT TITLE: Integration of Host plant Resistance with botanical essential oils for the protection of stored cowpea against cowpea storage beetle

Name and address of Principal Investigator: S.A. Babarinde,

Name and address of Research Team member: G.O. Adesina. S.O. Oladoye and M.A. Adebayo EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:

Despite the highrated successes of chemical control of pests at postharvest level, its negative ecological consequences have necessitated the search for alternatives to overdependence on the synthetic insecticides in postharvest technology of cowpea. A promising alternative is integration of botanicals with host plant resistance. This study was designed with the following objectives: (i) To evaluate the comparative susceptibility of selected cowpea cultivars to infestation by cowpea seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus (ii) To determine the bioactive compounds in the essential oils of two selected botanicals using Gas ChromatographyMass spectrometry (iii) To evaluate the potential of combining cowpea varietal resistance with the essential oils in the management of Callosobruchus maculatus.

In the first experiment, four lines (IT99K4946, IT97K3902, IT84S22464 and IT06K141) obtained from the Genetic Resources Unit, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, one cultivar (Ife Brown) obtained from Institute of Agricultural Research and Training , Obafemi Awolowo University, Ibadan and two cultivars (Drum and Oloyin) obtained from Wazobia Market Ogbomoso were screened for comparative susceptibility to the infestation of seed bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus. The number of eggs laid on IT99K4946 (20.05) was significantly (p<0.05) lower than the number laid on all the local cultivars (26.3378.83). First filial progeny emergence (0.71) observed in IT99K4946 was

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significantly (p<0.05) lower than 2.06 and 1.65 observed in Ife Brown and Drum cowpea cultivars respectively. The number of grains with exit holes was not significant with the value of IT99K4946 being the lowest. Percentage seed damage for 1T99k496 (10.14) was significantly lower than the value obtained in 1T06K141 (49.93) and Drum (47.74).

Alkaloids content was significantly higher in IT06K–141 (31.67) than what was observed in other line/cultivars. Oloyin had the highest flavonoid (51.67), tannins (43.33), with 1T84S22464 having highest saponins (61.67), Drum had highest terpenoid (33.33). Steroid was highest in Oloyin and 1T84S22464 (11.67). Reducing sugar was highest in Oloyin (5.33) followed by (4.27 and 4.03) in 1T84S2246–4 and IT06K–141 respectively.

The results of the correlation of the secondary metabolites with biological parameters of C. maculatus in the cowpea lines/cultivars showed that there was a positive relationship (r = 0.46 p = 0.04) between saponins content of the cowpeas and the number of grains without exit holes, which suggests that high saponins was contributory to cowpea host plant resistance to C. maculatus.

CONSTRAINTS

The study could not be completed at the due time as anticipated due to problems faced in the acquisition of the major equipment required for the research. Moreover, when some of the equipment was acquired, their performance was below the standard and this now led us to taking our samples to different laboratories for possible assistance. Up till now, the botanicals have not been extracted and the GCMS analysis could not be done.

INTRODUCTION:

In most developing countries, effective control of storage insect pests centres mainly on the use of synthetic pesticides (Jackai and Daoust, 1986), because of its efficiency in times of emergency. Unfortunately, several attendant problems like food poisoning (Adegbola et al., 2012), pesticide resistance (Odeyemi et al. , 2006) ecological toxicity (Adedire, 2002) and

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emergence of secondary pests have been highlited. In Nigeria, which is Africa’s major producer of cowpea with 1.5 million tons annually, the net gains from not using chemicals have been estimated to be about US $ 500 million (Bafana, 2010). Although these net gains include the gains of not using pesticides on the field and at postharvest, it is an index of high cost implication of pesticide usage in cowpea production in Nigeria. Singh et al. (1983) valued cowpea loss to cowpea seed bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus at over US $ 30 million in Nigeria alone. Under traditional storage conditions, 100% infestation of cowpea occurring within 3 to 5 months of storage is common.

This study attempts to reduce the imput of synthetic pesticides in cowpea postharvest handling. This is necessary in order to reduce high risks of overdependence on synthetic pesticides. Therefore the trust of the research is finding economical and ecofriendly alternatives as major components of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Scheme of C. maculatus on stored cowpea.

The use of botanicals has the advantages of availability, cost implication and ecological safety, while host plant resistance is favoured by low cost, ease of adaptability by local farmers and its compatibility with other control strategies. Therefore this research was designed with the aim of evaluating the potential of combining cowpea varietal resistance with the essential oils of Lippia species and Chromoalena odoratain the control of cowpea seed bruchid, C. maculatus.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

Experiment I: Screening of cowpea cultivars/lines for relative susceptibility to Callosobruchus maculatus

Three pairs (1:1 sex ratio) C. maculatus were added to 30 g of each cowpea line/cultivars inside kilner Jars covered with netted lids as described by Babarinde et al . (2015). Data on the number of eggs were collected to 3 days post infestation (DPI)

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and the experimental set up was kept for 28 days inside experimental cupboard in Crop and Environmental Protection Laboratory, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso after which the following data were collected.

(i) Number of grains with exit holes (GWH)

(ii) Number of grains without exist holes (GW0 H)

(iii) Percentage Seed Damage (PSD) was determined using the formular

= X 100

(iv) Reproductive efficiency was calculated as RE =

Experiment II: Evaluation of secondary metabolites and reducing sugars in cowpea lines/cultivars

The abundance of the following secondary metabolites will be determined according to the methods described by Trease and Evans (1976) and Babarinde (2013) (i)Tannins (ii) Saponins (iii) Steroids (iv) terpenoids (v) alkaloids (vi) Flavonoids (vii) Reducing sugars

Statistical analysis:

Cost data were square root transformed while percentage data were arcsine transformed prior to analysis. Thereafter, all data were subjected to Analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significant means were separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test at 5% level of probability level. The secondary metabolites and reducing sugar values were correlated with the biological parameter of C. maculatus in the cowpea line/cultivars.

RESULT PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION:

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The results so far are presented in the attached Tables 14.

CONCLUSION AND MAJOR FINDINGS:

Of the seven lines/cultivars screened, IT99K4946 was more resistant to the infestation of C. maculatus than others. High saponins content was contributory to cowpea host plant resistance to C. maculatus.

RECOMMNEDATIONS: The research is not yet concluded

CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE: We were able to identify a resistant line and the basis of resistance was biochemical being high level of saponin content.

NEW EQUIPMENT PURCHASED BY THE SENATE RESEARCH GRANT:

(i) Clevenger apparatus (ii) 5 Litre capacity round bottom flask (iii) 5 Litre capacity heating mantle (iv) Glass jars for entomological bioassays

NUMBER OF PUBLISHED ARTICLES: nil

NUMBER OF ARTICLES UNDER REVIEW: One

Table 1: Oviposion and ﬁrst ﬁlial progeny emergence of Callosobruchus maculatus in selected cowpea variees

Cowpea variees Number of eggs F 1 adult emer gence

IT99K‐494‐6 20.05 ± 6.9 c 0.71 ±0.0 c

IT97K‐390‐2 67.12 ± 14.0 a 1.26 ± 0.2 b c

IT84S‐2246‐4 29.17 ± 8.1 b c 0.79 ± 0.1 c

IT06K‐141 77.33 ± 14.1 a 0.71 ± 0.0 c

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Ife Brown 56.33 ± 9.7 a b 2.06 ± 0.5 a

Oloyin 59.00 ± 7.5 a b 0.71 ± 0.0 a

Drum 78.83 ± 13.6 a 1.65 ±0.2 a b

ANOVA Result df = 6, 41; p = 0.0057 df = 6, 41; p = 0.008

Means with the same leers along the column are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent using DMRT at 5% probability level.

Table 2: Damage parameters of selected cowpea variees due to infestaon of Callosobruchus maculatus

Cowpea GWEH GWoEH PSD RE variees

IT99K‐494‐6 6.17 ± 2.9 53.67 ± 3.4 a 10.14 ± 4.6 b 47.37 ± 13.0

IT97K‐390‐2 18.50 ± 7.4 42.50 ± 7.2 a b 26.71 ± 9.2 a b 61.03 ± 4.8

IT84S‐2246‐4 12.00 ± 4.4 55.5 ± 2.4 a 16.77 ± 5.9 b 38.80 ± 14.0

IT06K‐141 22.00 ± 7.2 21.33 ± 6.8 c 49.93 ± 15.5 a 44.40 ± 4.7

Ife Brown 24.00 ± 6.6 41.00 ± 6.5 a b 36.80 ± 10.1 a b 55.03 ± 10.6

Oloyin 13.50 ± 2.4 29.67 ± 1.9 b c 29.02 ± 5.4 a b 37.71 ± 8.1

Drum 20.50 ± 3.6 22.00 ±2.9 c 47.74 ± 7.8 a 52.13 ± 4.6

ANOVA Result df = 6, 41; p = df = 6, 41; p < df = 6, 41; p = df = 6, 41; p = 0.28 0.0001 0.05 0.54

GWEH= Grain with exit holes; GWoEH= Grain without exit holes; PSD= Percentage seed damage; RE= Reproducve efficiency Means with the same leers along the column are not significantly different using DMRT at 5% probability level.

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Table 3: Secondary metabolites and reducing sugar contents of selected cowpea variees

Cowpea Alkaloid Flavonoid Tannins Saponins Terpenoids Steroids Reducing Sugar variees (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g)

IT99K‐494‐6 21.69 ± 1.7 b 30.33 ± 2.9 c 5.00 ± 0.0 d 41.67 ± 1.7 b 16.67 ± 1.7 c d 5.00 ± 0.0 b 3.17 ± 0.1 e

IT97K‐390‐2 5.00 ± 0.0 d 13.33 ± 1.7 d 28.33 ± 1.7 c 26.67 ± 1.7 c d 13.67 ± 0.9 d 6.67 ± 1.7 b 3.47 ± 0.1 d

IT84S‐2246‐4 11.67 ± 1.7 c 28.33 ± 1.7 c 5.00 ± 0.0 d 61.67 ± 1.7 a 23.33 ± 1.7 b 11.67 ± 1.7 a 4.27 ± 0.1 b

IT06K‐141 31.67 ±3.3 a 31.67 ± 1.7 c 38.33 ± 1.7 b 16.67 ± 1.7 e 25.00 ± 2.9 b 5.00 ± 0.0 b 4.03 ± 0.0 b

Ife Brown 21.67 ± 1.7 b 33.33 ± 1.7 c 5.00 ± 0.0 d 25.00 ± 2.9 d 23.33 ± 1.7 b 8.33 ± 1.7 a b 2.83 ± 0.1 f

Oloyin 8.33 ± 1.7 c d 51.67 ± 1.7 a 43.33 ± 1.7 a 38.33 ± 1.7 b 21. 67 ± 1.7 bc 11.67 ± 1.7 a 5.33 ± 0.1 a

Drum 13.33 ± 1.7 d 41.67 ± 1.7 b 5.00 ± 0.0 d 31.67 1.7 d 33.33 ± 1.7 a 6.67 ± 1.7 b 3.77 ± 0.1 c

ANOVA Result df = 6,20; df = 6,20; df = 6,20; df = 6,20; df = 6,20; df = 6,20; df = 6,20; p<0.0001 p<0.0001 p<0.0001 p<0.0001 p<0.0002 p<0.0235 p<0.0001

Means with the same leers along the column are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent using DMRT at 5% probability level.

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Table 4: Correlaon between selected biological properes and damage potenals of Callosobruchus maculatus and secondary metabolites of selected cowpea variees

EMGAD GRW GRWO PSD TAN TER STE EGGN T H H D RE ALK FLA N SAP P R REDSG EGGN 1

EMGAD T 0.27 1 0.08 ADTOT 0.65 0.45 <.01 0.003 GRWH 0.58 0.48 1 <.01 0.001 GRWOH ‐0.66 ‐0.27 ‐0.76 1 <.01 0.09 <.01 PSDD 0.65 0.34 0.93 ‐0.89 1 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 RE 0.28 0.45 0.45 ‐0.25 0.35 1 0.07 <0.01 <0.01 0.11 0.02 ‐0.0 ALK ‐0.23 ‐0.24 ‐0.42 0.18 ‐0.31 5 1 0.32 0.29 0.06 0.43 0.17 0.83 ‐0.1 0.0 FLA 0.17 ‐0.01 ‐0.32 ‐0.17 ‐0.04 3 5 1 0.8 0.46 0.97 0.16 0.47 0.85 0.59 3 ‐0.1 ‐0.0 TANN 0.32 ‐0.31 0.006 ‐0.43 0.02 1 3 0.18 1 0.16 0.17 0.98 0.05 0.93 0.63 0.9 0.44 ‐0.0 ‐0.4 SAP ‐0.29 ‐0.17 ‐0.14 0.46 ‐0.22 8 2 0.07 ‐0.41 1 0.0 0.2 0.45 0.55 0.04 0.35 0.75 6 0.76 0.07 359

‐0.0 0.1 TERP 0.41 0.51 ‐0.05 ‐0.28 0.22 9 5 0.47 ‐0.22 ‐0.05 1 0.5 0.07 0.02 0.83 0.21 0.35 0.7 2 0.03 0.34 0.81 ‐0.3 ‐0.4 STER ‐0.09 0.07 0.06 0.06 ‐0.07 2 8 0.29 0.05 0.45 0.12 1 0.0 0.68 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.77 0.18 3 0.19 0.82 0.04 0.59 ‐0.2 ‐0.3 REDSG 0.31 ‐0.19 ‐0.08 ‐0.28 0.02 1 1 0.56 0.63 0.29 0.15 0.47 1 0.1 0.17 0.39 0.73 0.22 0.94 0.36 7 0.01 0.002 0.19 0.52 0.03 EGGN = number of eggs; EMGADT = emerged adult; GRWH = grain with exit holes; GRWOH = grain without exit holes PSDD = percentage seed damage; RE = reproducve eﬃciency; ALK = alkaloids; FLA = ﬂavonoids; TANN= tannins SAP = saponins; TERP = terpenoids; STER = steroids; REDSG =reducing sugars

Appendix 2: Outstanding Results for LAU/SRG/13/045 as at March, 2015

S/ Outstanding activities Comments N

1 Chemical analyses of essential oils of the botanicals GCMS targeted for the using GCMS. analysis at the University of Ilorin developed fault and has just been repaired. 2 Bioactivities of the botanicals against Bioassays delayed due to Callosobruchusmaculatus and cowpea protectant problem encountered with ability of the oil against C. maculatus infestation. the acquired equipment.

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PR OJECT TITLE: REPORT OF RESEARCH ON STUDENTS‛ OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING IN LADOKE AKINTOLA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OGBOMOSO, NIGERIA

Name and address of Principal Investigator: Prof. A.T. Adeboyejo

Name and address of Research Team member: Dr. O.A. Akindele, Dr. (Mrs). F.O. Adigun, Mr. D.O. Adejumobi and Mr. D.V. Ogunkan INTRODUCTION

This report is in respect of a study mandated by the Management Committee as a follow up to the incessant complaints by the students and their sporadic vituperations which most often hamper academic and related activities on campus. The expanded management meeting held at the Vice Chancellor‛s lodge on 9th of March, 2013 mandated Professor A.T.Adeboyejo to carry out this research so as to provide information to parents, guardians and students of LAUTECH as to the type, nature and characteristics (including location, available facilities and services) of various accommodation options available for interested persons. Although mobilization for this study was effected via PV No 0005617 of Sept 4, 2013, the field work for the research could not commence because the University was not in session until early January, and so the students, the target population for the study were not in their hostels.The study commenced effectively in February 2014, a few weeks after resumption when we were sure all students had returned to their hostels. RESEARCH MODALITIES AND ACTIVITIES 1 The coordinates of hostels in the town were taken and geo-referenced. A total of 789 (Seven Hundred and Eighty-nine) hostels were encountered. The mapping of all hostels had been completed. Since large scale map initially produced to show all the hostel locations was found to conceal the details the report intends to show. Consequently, the whole city is divided into five areas for the purpose of showing hostel locations. The five small scale maps produced in Aosizes show clearly the hostel locations and labels. These sheets are attached. These maps can be linked with the University website. 2 Three sets of questionnaires were administered:

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(a) The first set of 789 (5 pages) to students in each of the hostels to collect information on available facilities and services. (b) The second set of 700 (also 5 pages) questionnaires were administered to Agents/Landlords of the hostels on typology, capacities, facilities and services in each hostel (c) The third set of 450 questionnaires (3 pages each) was administered to residents around hostels to analyze their perception of off-Campus Hostels. CLASSIFICATION OF THE HOSTELS In classifying the hostels, a total of 26 variables measuring different types of facilities and services in the hostels (as summarized in Table 1) were used to compute Facility Index. The mean score of each hostel on the index was computed. The obtained scores ranged from 0.00 to 1.67. Based on the mean scores, the hostels were grouped into five as shown in Table 2. The full list of all hostels in each class are shown in Table 3. A general observation is the poor urban legibility in Ogbomoso, which makes difficult the identification of locational address of houses including hostels, hence hostels are referred to by area where found e.gAdenike area. Some are found in new areas that have no known names. This will be updated in the nearest future with improved urban legibility in the City.

We are currently working on the mapping of the spatial pattern of the quality of the hostels, in addition to the small scale maps of the full list of hostels in the City. The spatial pattern of the hostel qualities in different parts of the city is the major output from this exercise. This can also be linked with the university website. It would however need to be reviewed since quality concern has temporal dimension.

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Table 1: Variable Components of Facility Index

S/N Variable Variable description Options Recoded/ Name Weighted

BUILDING COMPONENTS VARIABLES

1 Q28BB1 Kitchen Usage Private 2

Shared 1

2 Q28CC1 Kitchen location Within 2

Outside 1

3 Q28BB2 Toilet Usage Private 2

Shared 1

4 Q28CC3 Bathroom location Within 2

Outside 1

5 Q33AA3 Waste collection Yes 1 available No 0

6 Q28AA1 Kitchen availability Yes 1

No 0

7 Q28AA2 Toilet availability Yes 1

No 0

8 Q30AA Toilet Type Water closet 2

Pit latrine 1

Bush 0

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ACCESSIBILITY

9 Q33AA5 Hostel Accessible by Yes 1 road? No 0

SECURITY MEASURES

10 Q33AA6 Day Guard present Yes 1

No 0

11 Q33AA7 Night Guard present Yes 1

No 0

12 Q33AA9 Fencing of hostel Yes 1

No 0

IN-HOUSE FACILITIES VARIABLES

13 Q34AA Parking available Yes 1

No 0

14 Q28AA3 Bathroom availability Yes 1

No 0

15 Q28AA4 Laundry availability Yes 1

No 0

CONDITION OF BUILDING FACILITIES

16 Q29AA1 Roof condition Good 2

Fair 1

Bad 0

17 Q29AA4 Wall paint Good 2

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Fair 1

Bad 0

18 Q29AA7 Floor tiles Good 2

Fair 1

Bad 0

19 Q29AA25 Interlocking Good 2

Fair 1

Bad 0

20 Q29AA26 Concrete Good 2

Fair 1

Bad 0

21 Q29AA28 Carpet grass Good 2

Fair 1

Bad 0

22 WATER SUPPLY

Q27AA Deep well Yes 1

No 0

23 Q27BB Bore hole Yes 1

No 0

24 Q27a Pipe borne water Yes 1

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No 0

25 ENERGY SUPPLY

Q37AA Connected to PHCN? Yes 1

No 0

26 Q38AA Alternative energy Solar 3 source? Generator 2

Inverter 1

Table 2: Classificatory Schemes and Quality description of Hostels Mean Quality/Class of hostels Total number of scores hostels in each class

0.00 – 0.35 Very Poor 02

0.36 – 0.70 Poor 27

0.71 – 1.05 Fair 225

1.06 – 1.40 Good 276

1.41 – 1.67 Very Good 45

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TABLE 3: Classification of Students‛ Off-Campus Hostel in Ogbomoso

CLASS A: VERY GOOD HOSTELS

S/ V.GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS N

1 Adunola Hostel Adenike Area 2 Ajoke Hostel Adenike Area 3 Alao Hostel General Area 4 Anike Hostel Under G Area 5 Ayinke Hostel Under G Area 6 Ayoka Hostel Under G Area 7 Ayoni Hostel Stadium Area 8 Babalola Hostel Under G Area 9 BB hostel Stadium Area 10 Cannan Land Adenike Area 11 Covenant Student Under G Area 12 Corner store Hostel Under G Area 13 D&B Castle Under G Area 14 Divine Favour Adenike Area 15 Divine Mercy Hostel Under G Area 16 Gbemi Hostel YOACO Area

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17 GBP Under G Area 18 God is Able Under G Area 19 God‛s Heaven Hostel Under G Area 20 God‛s Pleasure Under G Area 21 Goshen Land Under G Area 22 Hamdalat Hostel Under G Area 23 Hephzibah Hostel Under G Area 24 His Grace Under G Area 25 Ile Adara General Area 26 King & Queens UBC Area 27 Madam Folashade Adenike Area 28 Mardel 3,4 Under G Area 29 Maria Bamidele hostel Behind Rubbie Petrol Station, Stadium Area S/ V.GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS N 30 Niketal Hostel Under G Area 31 New generation Under G Area 32 Nikital Hostel Under G Area 33 OkeAafin OkeAafin Area 34 Olajumoke Under G Area 35 Olaoye Castle Adenike Area 36 Omolola Hostel Adenike Area 37 Peace Under G Area 38 Peace and Love Under G Area 39 Peace Villa Stadium Area 40 Red Roof YOACO Area 41 Red Stone Hostel Stadium Area

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42 Residential Building Hostel Stadium Area 43 Royal Annex YOACO Area 44 Simah OkeAafin Area 45 Success villa Under G Area

CLASS B: GOOD HOSTELS S/NO GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS 1 Royal 2 OkeAfin area 2 A plus Under G area 3 A square Under G area 4 Abibi hostel General Area 5 Abimbola hostel Under G Area 6 ABJ Hostel Under G area 7 Abode of grace Under G area 8 Abundance grace 1 Under G area 9 Abundance grace 2 Under G area 10 Adebola hostel Under G area 11 Adefunke hostel General area 12 Adegbolagra YOACO area 13 Adegboyega hostel Under G 14 Adekola hostel Adenike Area 15 Adeniran Adenike area

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16 Adeom‛s hostel Under G area 17 Adunola Adenike area 18 Africa Stadium Area 19 Aishat hostel Under G Area 20 Ajike Adenike area 21 Ajoke hostel Under G area 22 Ajoke Hostel Adenike area 23 Akanke hostel Under G area 24 Akanke hostel Adenike Area 25 Akanmu Adenike area 26 Akanmu Hostel Adenike area 27 Alade hostel Under G 28 AlhajaAjike Adenike area 29 Alpha base YOACO Area 30 Alpha base hostel 31 Amazing Grace Under G area 32 Arafat Hostel Under G Area 33 Arubusola hostel General Area 34 Asande hostel Under G S/NO GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS 35 Asande Hostel Under G area 36 Asegun Hostel 1 Adenike area 37 Asegun Hostel 2 Adenike area 38 Aso Villa Hostel Stadium Area 39 Atayese Hostel Under G area 40 Atayese Hostel Under G area 41 Ayanfe Hostel Adenike area 42 Ayinke Hostel Under G area 43 AyinkeIsokan Under G area

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44 Ayoka hostel Under G Area 45 Baba OnifadeHostel Stadium Area 46 Babalola Hostel Under G Area 47 Barrack Hostel Under G Area 48 Bethel Hostel Under G area 49 BMW Hostel Under G Area 50 Bombay Hostel Under G Area 51 By His Grace Hostel Under G area 52 By His Grace Hostel Adenike Area 53 Canaan land Hostel Adenike Area 54 Canaan Hostel Under G area 55 Casino Royale Hostel Under G area 56 Charlet Hostel Adenike area 57 Chicago hostel YOACO Area 58 Chocolate City General Area 59 Christ heritage hostel Adenike area 60 Comfort Hostel Under G Area 61 Comfort Estate Hostel Under G Area 62 Comfort Hostel Under G area 63 Cone House Hostel Under G area 64 Corner stone Hostel Under G Area 65 Country Side Hostel YOACO area 66 CTU lodge Hostel General Olukoko area 67 D block Hostel YOACO Area 68 D one Hostel YOACO area 69 D&B Castle Hostel Under G Area 70 Desola villa Hostel Behind General S/NO GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS 71 David Hostel Adenike Area

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72 David annex Hostel Adenike area 73 David Hostel Adenike area 74 Deborah Hostel Ogbomoso North 75 Destiny hostel Under G area 76 Diamond Hostel 77 Divine Consolation Under G Area 78 Divine Favour Hostel Adenike Area 79 Divine Grace Hostel Under G Area 80 Divine Rose Hostel General 81 D & B Hostel Under G Area 82 Ebony Hostel YOACO Area 83 Ejire Hostel Adenike area 84 Eliat hostel Under G Area 85 Elizabeth1 Hostel Rubbie area 86 Elizabeth 11 hostel Under G area (Pastor Bode) 87 Elizabeth court Adenike area 88 Emman Hostel YOACO Area 89 Eni-afe Hostel YOACO Area 90 Envic Hostel Adenike area 91 Evergreen Hostel Under G area 92 Excel Hostel Under G Area 93 Fagad Hostel Adenike Area 94 Faith Real Hostel Adenike Area 95 Faraday Hostel Stadium Area 96 Folorunsho Hostel Adenike Area 97 Folorunsho hostel Under G Area 98 Fountain treasures Wetland side Area Hostel

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99 Free Style Hostel Under G area 100 G and G hostel Under G Area 101 God glory hostel Under G Area 102 God is able hostel Under G Area 103 God Mercy Adenike Adenike area S/NO GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS 104 God‛s Citadel Under G area 105 God‛s Citadel 1 Under G area 106 God‛s Citadel 2 Under G area 107 God‛s Grace Hostel Adenike area 108 God‛s Pleasure hostel Under G Area 109 God‛s will hostel Isale General 110 God‛s Will Hostel General Area 111 God‛s Mercy Hostel Under G Area 112 God‛s Paradise Hostel General 113 Goshen Suite Hostel Under G Area 114 Grace Hostel Oke ado Area 115 Green House Under G Area 116 Green Pastures YOACO Area 117 Green Top Hostel 118 Greenville Hostel General 119 G.P hostel General 120 Habiba Female Hostel Under G Area 121 Habiba Hostel YOACO Area 122 Hall Mark Adenike Area 123 Helleluyah Under G Area 124 Hamadiyah Stadium Area 125 Hamdallat Under G 126 Hannan Hostel YOACO Area 374

127 Hephzibah Hostel Under G Area 128 Heritage Hostel YOACO 129 Highly Favour Hostel Adenike area 130 His Mercy Under G area 131 Hosanna Hostel Under G 132 Hosanna Hostel Under G 133 Igwe Hostel Adenike area 134 Ile Alayo Katangoa Area 135 Ile Lalore General Area 136 Ile Olorun Oke ado area 137 Intercontinental Under G Area 138 Iyabeji Hostel YOACO S/NO GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS 139 IyaEgbe Hostel YOACO 140 Iyamileko YOACO Area 141 Jagun compound John Amoo street 142 Jagun‛s hostel General 143 JBJ hostel Adenike area 144 Jesutofunmi hostel Under G Area 145 JimohAdegoke Under G 146 Jodeb Hostel Under G Area 147 Jokodolu hostel Stadium area 148 Keji Hostel 2 Under G area 149 Keji 1 Hostel 2 Under G area 150 Keji hostel Under G Area 151 Kemid hostel Under G Area 152 King daughter Adenike Area 153 King David Hostel Stadium 154 King David Villa Under G Area 375

155 King David Hostel Under G 156 King & Queen Adenike Area 157 King Hall General Area 158 Lah- dey YOACO 159 Lake Side Hostel Stadium Area 160 Lamill Stadium area 161 Lesbora Adenike area 162 Liberty Stadium Area 163 Living Spring Hostel VC lodge Area 164 Oluwaseun hostel Under G Area 165 Mabel‛s House Under G Area 166 Mabel‛s Place Under G Area 167 Mac Under G Area 168 Mac hostel Under G 169 Madel 3 Hostel Under G area 170 Magnolia Under G area 171 Marbel place Under G Area 172 Marbel1 Under G area 173 Marbel 2 Under G area 174 Marbel hostel Under G Area S/NO GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS 175 Maria Bamidele YOACO Area 176 Maria Olapeju Hostel YOACO Area 177 May Hostel Lawyer Hammed 178 Mercy Villa Hostel Under G Area 179 MJJ Hostel Adenike area 180 Mobolanle memorial Sabo Area 181 Mopelola Hostel Under G Area 182 Mojisola Hostel Under G Area 376

183 Mount zion Hostel YOACO area 184 MrOyeyode Hostel Adenike area 185 Nest Hostel Opposite Adebayo 186 New joy Hostel Under G 187 Nikita Hostel Under G Area 188 Nimotaillah Hostel Under G Area 189 Nissi Estate Hostel Under G 190 No network Hostel Stadium Area 191 Nollywood Hostel Under G 192 OkeAafin Area Okeaafin area 193 OkikiOlu Hostel Isale General 194 Ola olokun Hostel Adenike Area 195 Oladapo Hostel YOACO Area 196 Oladele Hostel YOACO 197 Olagbemiro Hostel Isale General 198 Olayode Castle Adenike Area 199 Olayode Hostel Adenike Area 200 Olorire Hostel Adenike area 201 Oluwaseun Hostel Under G Area 202 Oluwaseun Hostel Under G Area 203 Oluwatobi Hostel Adenike area 204 Oluwatosin Hostel Adenike area 205 Omoshola Hostel Under G 206 Oniifade Hostel YOACO 207 Ooreofe Hostel YOACO Area 208 Ore ofe Hostel Stadium area 209 Oyebamji Hostel YOACO Area 210 Oyekanmi Hostel Adenike area S/NO GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS

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211 Oyepeju Hostel YOACO Area 212 OyewusiAdeleke Adenike area 213 OyewusiAdeleke hostel Adenike area 214 Peace and love Under G 215 Peace and love hostel Adenike Area 216 Peace lodge YOACO 217 Pink hostel Under G Area 218 Precious hostel Under G Area 219 Premier Hostel Stadium area 220 Prestige Hostel Under G area 221 Prince Remi hostel Under G area 222 Queen Hostel Kuye area 223 Queen Elizabeth YOACO Area 224 R.S.T. Hostel Adenike area 225 Rabbit hostel Adenike area 226 Rabi Hostel YOACO area 227 Rabi Hostel Under G area 228 Rabiat Hostel General area 229 Rehoboth Hostel Under G Area 230 Hostel Under G Area 231 Rizzo Hostel YOACO Area 232 Romeo & Juliet Under G area 233 Royal 2 Hostel YOACO area 234 Rutaad Hostel YOACO area 235 Ruth Amope Hostel Under G Area 236 Ruth Amope Hostel Under G 237 Shalom Hostel Under G Area 238 ShinningStar hostel Adenike 239 Shinning Star Adenike Area 378

240 Shinning stars Adenike Area 241 Sigma hostel Stadium 242 Sigma Hostel General Area 243 Sip up Hostel Phoenix (Stadium Road) 244 Skeg Hostel Under G Area S/NO GOOD HOSTEL ADDRESS 245 SodokHostel Under G Area 246 Spry charlet Under G Area 247 Stephine hostel Under G 248 Demola Hostel Sabo 249 Strong tower 1 Adenike Area 250 Strong tower hostel 2 Adenike Area 251 Sukura hostel Stadium Area 252 Taofeek Hostel Under G Area 253 The Lord is good Under G Area 254 The Nest hostel General Area 255 Ti Jesu ni Hostel Under G Area 256 TjRamaan Hostel Under G Area 257 Tolulope Hostel Adenike 258 Tolulope Hostel Aba Area 259 Tom & Jerry Adenike 260 Toyosi Hostel Under G Area 261 Twins Logde Under G Area 262 Twins Villa Isale general 263 Unique hostel Stadium Area 264 Unique world hostel General 265 VC Lodge OkeAfin 266 Victory hostel Starlight/victory supermarket

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267 Victory villa Under G Area 268 White Balm Hostel Under G Area 269 Winner hostel Adenike 270 Wisdom Base Hostel Under G Area 271 With God hostel Adenike 272 Wonderful God Hostel Adenike 273 Wuraola hostel Under g 274 Yasalam hostel YOACO 275 Zenith Adenike 276 Zion hostel Under G Area

CLASS C: FAIR HOSTELS S/ FAIR HOSTELS ADDRESS N 1 2go Hostel YOACO Area 2 2go Hostel Ire Akari Area 3 6 Flat Hostel Stadium Area 4 Anuoluwa Hostel 5 Abeke hostel Adenike Area 6 Abese Hostel General 7 Abimbola hostel Under G Area 8 Aboderin Hostel 9 Aboe Compound Hostel 10 Adebimpe Hostel Under G Area 11 Adegboyega Hostel 12 Agboro Hostel YOACO 13 Agboro Hostel 14 Agogo Ayo Hostel Igbo Agboin Area 15 Ahmadiya Embassy Stadium Area 380

16 Aishatu hostel Stadium Area 17 Ajibade Hostel Under G Area 18 Ajike Hostel Adenike Area 19 AjikeAlagbe Hostel Under G Area 20 Ajike Hostel Under G Area 21 AkintundeHostel Under G Area 22 Alabede power villa stadium Stadium 23 Aludundun Hostel Lawyer Hammed 24 Alingo Hostel YOACO 25 Alubarika Hostel Adenike Area 26 Aluta hall Hostel Stadium 27 Ancestor Hostel Adenike 28 AnikeBajsHostel Under G Area 29 Anonymous Hostel Stadium 30 Aremo Hostel Under g 31 Arewa hostel Under G Area 32 Asegun hostel Adenike 33 Aston Villa Under G Area 34 Ayo Oluwa Under G Area 35 B.B hostel Ire Akari Area 36 Bachelor lodge Stadium 37 Balogun hostel Stadium 38 Bam okunlola Under G Area 39 BAM Okunlola Hostel Under G Area 40 Bamidele Hostel Under G Area 41 Bamuda Hostel AlhajaIsiawa road 42 Bondoro Hostel Kuye Area 43 Bethany Under G Area 381

44 BJ hostel Adenike 45 Blessing Hostel Under G Area 46 Bloom hall YOACO 47 Blue house Adenike Area 48 Blue House 120 Under G Area 49 Bolanle hostel YOACO Area 50 Bony camp Olukoko, General Area 51 Bunker hostel General Area 52 Bunker Hostel General Area 53 Cedar tree hostel Under G Area 54 Chicago hostel YOACO Area 55 Christ the Shepherd hostel Stadium Area 56 Citadel YOACO Area 57 Comfort zone Under G Area 58 Confidence hostel Under G Area 59 Daniel Under G Area 60 Darusaalam Ire Akari Area 61 Day spring hostel Adenike Area 62 De Villa Adenike 63 De Ville YOACO Area 64 Destiny Hostel Under G Area 65 Divine Comfort Adenike Area 66 Divine Favour Adenike Area 67 Divine Rose Hostel Under G Area 68 Dura-Dom Under G Area 69 Dynamic Hall Stadium 70 Eagle Villa Hall 71 Ejire Under G Area 382

72 Embassy Isale General 73 Emir Hostel Lawyer Hammed 74 Emman Hostel YOACO 75 Envic Adenike 76 Envic Hostel Adenike 77 Esmeradal Under g 78 Estimo hostel Adenike Area 79 Ever Joy Adenike 80 Evergreen Hostel Under g 81 Exceeding Grace Under G Area 82 Exceeding Grace Hostel Under G Area 83 Excel Under g 84 Excel Hostel Under g 85 Fajogun Villa 86 Fatoyin Hostel Isale General 87 FBI Lodge General 88 First Class Adenike Area 89 First Fruit Adenike 90 Florence Hostel Under G Area 91 Floridal Hostel Under G Area 92 Folashade Hostel Adenike Area 93 Fortune Hostel Under G Area 94 Fortune Villa Under G Area 95 Fortune Hostel Under G Area 96 Freestyle Hostel Under G Area 97 Gallery Hostel Town Planning Area 98 Gbemi Hostel Yoaco YOACO 99 God is Able General Area 383

100 God‛s Citadel Under G Area 101 God‛s Grace Hostel Adenike 102 God‛s Heritage Hostel Adenike 103 God‛s Mercy Adenike 104 God‛s Will Villa Under G Area 105 God‛s Power Under g 106 Good Luck Hostel Stadium 107 Great Shalom Under g 108 Green Hostel Adenike 109 Habiba Under G Area 110 Habiba Female Hostel YOACO 111 Halleluyah Under G Area 112 Hamzat Under G Area 113 Hannah Hostel Under G Area 114 Heritage Hostel Adenike 115 Honey Adenike 116 Hope of Glory Hostel Under G Area 117 Ile Adeyemi Kuye Area 118 Ile Aladi 119 Ile Alagbon General Olukoko area 120 Ile Balogun General 121 Ile BalogunAlasa Soun street 122 Ile Guniyan Ire Akari Area 123 Ile Ikolaba General Area 124 Ile Olorun Lawyer Hammed 125 Ile Sekengbede OkeAanu Area 126 Iranlowo Hostel Adenike 127 IretiOgoOmobola Hostel Under G Area 384

128 IseOluwa Adenike 129 IyaAlaso Villa Lawyer Hammed 130 Jokodolu Lawyer Hammed 131 King and Queen UBC, YOACO area 132 King and Queen Villa YOACO Area 133 King Hostel Isale General 134 King‛s Villa Isale General 135 Lala Hostel Adenike area 136 Larek Hostel Adenike area 137 Lather Side 138 Lawal Stadium area 139 Lawil Hostel Stadium Area 140 Lawore Compound Stadium Area 141 Lawyer Hammed Stadium Area 142 Lekki Phase 1 143 Liberty Stadium Area 144 Love and Peace Under G Area 145 Mariam Hall Under G Area 146 Maryland Hostel Under G Area 147 MCN Cathedral Under G Area 148 Mercy Land Adenike Area 149 Mercy Land Hostel Adenike Area 150 Mercy of God Under G Area 151 Miami Under G Area 152 Miami Hostel YOACO Area 153 MJJ 2 Adenike 154 MJJ 1 Adenike 155 Mopelola Hostel Under g 385

156 Mount Zion YOACO Area 157 NUT Plaza Under g 158 Ola Oluwa Hostel Adenike Area 159 Ola Oluwa Hostel Under G Area 160 Oladokun Under g 161 Old Trafford Stadium Area 162 Oluwaseun Hostel General 163 Oluwatobi Adenike 164 Oluwatobi Annex Adenike Area 165 One Love Castle Olukoko, General 166 Onifila‛s Hostel 167 Ore-Ofe Hostel Under g 168 Osmos Hostel 169 Omowumi Hostel Adenike Area 170 Oyebamji Hostel Adenike 171 Oyekemi Hostel Adenike 172 Oyewunmi Stadium 173 Oyewusi Adenike 174 Pa Oladipupo Hostel Yoaco 175 Pafab YOACO Area 176 Pafab Hostel Yoaco 177 Palace Hostel Yoaco 178 Paragon Hostel Under G Area 179 Peace Harbour 180 Peace Hostel Adenike 181 Peace Hostel Isale general 182 Peace Lodge Under G Area 183 Pink Hostel Under G Area 386

184 Premier Hostel Adenike Area 185 Priest Hostel Under G Area 186 Prince and Princess Hostel Adenike 187 Prince Lodge Yoaco 188 Prince Lodge Hostel Olorunsogo area, stadium 189 Providence Villa Under G Area 190 Queens Villa YOACO Area 191 Red House YOACO Area 192 Rehoboth Stadium area 193 Riverside Hostel Under G Area 194 Rizzo Hostel YOACO Area 195 Rock Age Stadium area 196 Romeo & Juliet Stadium Area 197 RST Hostel Adenike area 198 Ruth Amope Under g 199 Scotland Hostel Stadium Area 200 Shalom Hall Olorunsogo 201 Shekinah Hostel Ire Akari Area 202 Shukura Hostel Lawyer hammed 203 Sigma Hostel Okeafin 204 Singapore Hostel 205 Staff House Olukoko, General Area 206 Strong Tower Hostel Adenike hostel 207 Temple of Wisdom Under G Area 208 Ti Jesu Ni Hostel Under g 209 Toyosi Hostel Under g 210 Treasure Land Adenike 211 Triple H Under G Area 387

212 Unique General Area 213 United Villa Lawyer hammed 214 Uptown Hostel YOACO Area 215 Usman Hostel General Area 216 Valentino Under G Area 217 Virgin Cottage Adenike Area 218 White House Stadium Area 219 Wisdom Villa Stadium 220 With God Under G 221 With God Adenike 222 With God Hostel Adenike 223 With God Hostel Adenike Area 224 YBNC YOACO Area 225 Zenith YOACO Area

CLASS D: POOR HOSTELS S/N POOR HOSTELS ADDRESS 1. Agbeyangi Hostel Stadium 2. Alpha Lodge YOACO Area 3. Aminrin Hostel 4. Ayooluwa Hostel Adenike 5. BJ Adenike 6. Chalet Adenike Area 7. Chicago Hall Under G Area 8. David Highness Adenike area 9. Dayspring Hostel Under G Area 10. Dublin Stadium Area 11. Dynamic Hostel Under G Area

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12. Fruit Hostel Adenike 13. Gbana Villa Olukoko/general 14. Grace Hostel Isale general 15. His Grace Hostel Under G 16. Istijabah Hostel Under G Area 17. King David Hostel Under G Area 18. Larek Hostel Adenike Area 19. Manchester Hostel Stadium Area 20. Miami Hostel Under G Area 21. Oluronke Hostel Isale general 22. One Love Hostel General Area 23. Prestige Villa Stadium Area 24. Success Hostel Under G Area 25. Treasure Island Adenike 26. United Villa Hostel Lawyer hammed 27. Unity Lawyer hammed

CLASS E: VERY POOR HOSTELS S/N VERY HOSTEL ADDRESS 1. Lekki Phase II General 2. Olayode Hostel Adenike Area

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LIST OF RESEARCH ARTICLES PUBLISHER FROM 2012/2013 SENATE RESEARCH GRANTS

SN AUTHORS TITLE OF RESEARCH PROJECT PAPER RESEARCH ARTICLES JOURNALS/CONFERENCE PROCEEDING PUBLSIHED

1. Dr. Akindele O. Akin Analysis of Generator Use and ‑ Migang the use of electric Under review LAU/SRG/13/026 Residents Liability in Ogbomoso, generaons: an operave Nigeria model of green distance buffers and space standard Under review ‑ An Esmaon of the Environmental impacts of Generator use in Ogbomoso Nigeria. Under review ‑ An analysis of generator use and residents livability in Ogbomoso, Nigeria 2. Omidiora E.O., Ibrahim A., Development of a Neural Network ‐ Performance Evaluaon of ‐ Proceedings of the Third Fenwa, O.D. and Based character Recognion System support vector madunes and Internaonal Conference on Adeyanju I.A. for online and offline Handwrien mullayer Percepon for Engineering and Technology LAU/SRG/13/025) Words Recognion of Handwrien Digits Research, August 5‐7, 2014, ISBN, 978‐2902‐586 volume 3. ‐ Comparison of Machine Learning Classifiers for Recognion ‐ Computer Engineering and of online and offline Handwrien Intelligent Systems ISSN 2222‐1719 Digits (paper) ISSN 2222‐2863 (online) Vol 4, No 13 2013 ‐ Effect of Non‐image features on recognion of ‐ Internaonal Journal of computers Handwrien Alpha‐Numeric and Technology vol.13 No. 11 Characters September 23, 2014.

3. Dr. M. Abdul‐Hammed Assessment of Nutrional, Assessment of Nutrional, Research Journal of Pharmaceucal, M.A. Azeez, M.O. Bello Anoxidant and pro‐vitamin A Anoxidant and pro‐vitamin A Biological and Chemical Sciences ISSN and G.E. Oghenekevwe indices of Tomatoes under ﬁeld and indices of Tomatoes under ﬁeld and 0975‐8585 July‐August 2014 RJPBCS LAU/SRG/13/010 postharvest Ripening condions. postharvest Ripening condions 5(4) page No 649.

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4. Oyadeyi A.S. Immunohistochemical Localizaon

Ajao F.O., of angiotensin converng enzyme Owolabi G.O. (ace) and pepde transporter (pep (LAU/SRG/13/009) T2) in a rat model of inflammatory bowel disease 5. Akinwande B.A. Babarinde Value addion to underulized Producon and Evaluaon of Internaonal Journal Food Science 72 G.O. AND Ajeigbe, O.P. legumes for reducon of Ready‐to‐Eat Breakfast Cereals from (2014) 25625‐25628 Elixir ISSN LAU/SRG/13/018 protein‐energy malnutrion and Blends of whole maize and African 2229‐712x micronutrient deficiency at rural Yam Bean (Sphenostylis Stenocarpa). levels. 6. M.A Adebayo, A.O. Development of High‐yielding Assessment of new generaon of internaonal network for natural Kolawole, T.A. Adebayo Drought Tolerant Maize (Zeamays l.) drough‐tolerant maize (Zea mays l.) sciences (innspub) (yet to be LAU/SRG/13/008 Hybrids in the Derived Savanna hybrids for agronomic potenal and published) Agro‐Ecology of Nigeria adaptaon in the derived savanna agro‐ecology of Nigeria 7. Amuda O.S, Alade A.O. Applicaon of Agricultural wastes for and Olayiwola A.O. the treatment of water and LAU/SRG/13/007 wastewater 8. I. A. Bello, Effect of modificaon on the Kinec, Effect of Modifying agents on Australian Journal of Basic and O.A. Peters, A.A. Giwa, M. Thermo dynamic and Computaonal percentage Equilibrium Exhauson Applied Sciences, 8(1) January 2014, Abdul‐Hammed and D.O. Structural properes of Dyes on of an acid dye on Nylon Fabric. pages 552‐559 Adeoye LAU/SRG/13/033 fibres 9. O.M. Oni, O.O. Oladapo Health risk assessment of exposure Cancer Risks from Radon in Drinking Nigeria journal of physics vol.25 June D.B. Amuda and E.A.Oni to random in drinking water in water in South western Nigeria 2014 LAU/SRG/13/003 Southwestern Nigeria. 10 Arulogun O.T. and Adigun Wireless Sensor Network Based Real Design and Development of a Internaonal Journal of Innovave A.A., Okediran O.O. and Time Security Surveillance System security surveillance system based Science, Engineering & Technology Ganiyu R.A. on wireless sensor network Vol. Issue 4, June 2014 ISSN LAU/SRG/13/002 2343‐7968

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11. Akintunde A.A., A.A. Paern of Cardiovascular risk factors ‑ Prevalence and determinants Nigeria Medical journal Vol.56 Issue 2 Salamu and Opadijo O.G. and diseases among staﬀ of Lautech of electrocardiographic March‐April 2015 LAU/SRG/13/001 Ogbomoso Nigeria. abnormalies among staﬀ of a Nigerian Journal of clinical pracce terary instuon in Vol, 1 7, Issue 6, southwest, Nigeria.

‑ Assessment of snoring and Nov.‐Dec. 2014 ISSN 1119‐3077 obstrucve sleep apnoea in a Nigeria Medical Journal vol.55 Nov‐Dec Nigerian University: Associaon 2014 page 469. Issue 6. with Cardiovascular risk factors.

‑ Knowledge of heart disease risk factors among workers in a Nigerian University: A call for concern. 12. A.T.J. Ogunkunle M.A. Azeez, Biosystemacs Studies on Capsicum L. M.O. Liasu and A.O. and Solanum L. in Nigeria Adepoju LAU/SRG/13/0011 13. Oladoye, S.O., E.T. Ayodele Isolaon Characterizaon and Characterizaon and Idenficaon of Pak.j. Sci.ind.res.ser.A. Phys.sci. 2015 LAU/SRG/13/0014 Biological acvity studies of chemical Taraxerol and Taraxer‐14‐en‐3‐one 58(1) Feb. 12, 2014 constuents of leaf extracts of jatropha from Jatropha tanjorensis (Ellis and tanjorensis Saroja) Leaves 14. O.S. Olorunnisola, A. Evaluaon of An‐oxidant potenal of An inventory of plants commonly used Journal of Ethnopharmacology 161 Adetutu and A.J. Afolayan medicinal plants use in the in the treatment of some disease (2015) 60‐68 LAU/SRG/13/019 management of cardiovascular and condions in Ogbomoso, South West inflammatory diseases in Ogbomoso. Nigeria. 15. J.O. Komolafe, and Intrauterine invivo ferlizaon low A.M. Tijani LAU/SRG/13/024 cost, low tech. Management of tubal factor inferlity. 16. Salawudeen T.O. Akinwande A suitability Assessment of Alkali Effect of Acvaon on clays and Published by. Science Domin B. A. Arinkoola A.O. Acvaon of Nigeria clays for Carbonaceous materials in vegetable Internaonal. LAU/SRG/13/028 oil Bleaching.

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reﬁning of vegetable oils (A case study Art Review Brish Journal of Applied of Nigeria shea Bier) Science and Technology 5(2) pp 130‐141

Internaonal Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology Studies pg 1‐2 published by European centre for Research Training and

Development UK. 17. Abolade O, Odunjo O.O. and Analysis of Infra‐urban variaons in ‑ Socio‐economic correlates and ‑ IOSR Journal of Humanies and Kehinde O.O. pollutants concentraon and Residents indoor Air Related disease in social science (IOSR‐JHSS) volume LAU/SRG/13/032 Vulnerability to indoor Air polluon in selected Hospital in Ogbomoso 19, issue 8, ver.iv (Aug. 2014) Ogbomoso Nigeria. ‑ Analysis of Residents usage of PP46‐51 e‐ISSN: 2279‐0837, Household materials and P‐1SSN 2279‐0845 vulnerability to indoor polluon ‑ Global Journal of Human Social in Ogbomoso, Nigeria Science & Geography Geo‐Sciences ‑ Building Characteriscs and Environmental disaster Residents Awareness on indoor management volume 14 issue 5 polluon in version 10 year 2014 one line ISSN Ogbomoso Nigeria 2249‐460X and print ISSN 0975 ‐ 587X ‑ Pen see mul disciplinary Journal ISSN:003 4773 Vol. 76, Issue 7. 18. O.A. Ojo, T.A. Odunsi, A.O. Effect of different saw dust substrates ‑ Bioconversion of Agro waste into Australian journal of medicinal plants Olaniran and O.A. Adebayo on the Growth and yield of Oyster Edible protein rich Mushroom by and Natural products (in press) LAU/SRG/13/034 mushroom (pleurotus ostreatus) pleurotus florida ‑ Evaluaon of pleurotus plumunarus Nutrional characteriscs when different saw American Journal of Innovave dust. Agricultural Research (in press) ‑ Effect of different saw dust substrates on the growth and Internaonal journal of Applied yield of oyster mushroom (plenrotus ostreatus) ‑ Agricultural and Apicultural 393

Research (in press) 19. A.B. Muili, E.A. Toyobo, Geospaal Analysis of Road Transport ‑ Asian journal of sciences and system in peri‐urban Areas of Ibadan, Technology vol.5, issue 9, pp. 508‐515, J.O. Ige and R.B. Ibrahim Nigeria. Sept. 2014 LAU/SRG/13/035

20. E.A. Ewetola, Regeneraon of physical and chemical ‐ Eﬀects of llage and leguminous Journal of Biology, Agriculture and properes of Degraded species on Health. Y.B. Oyeyiola,

G.O. Kolawole Alﬁsol using legume species and Tillage selected soil physicalproperes and Publisher: The Internaonal Instutefor LAU/SRG/13/039 maize Science Technology andEducaon (IISTE) Tillage eﬀects on selectedsoil chemical On‐going properes in amaize legume (Submied for publicaon) intercroppingsystem.

21. S.E. Agarry, Microbial Enhanced oil Recovery at Biosurfaetant producon by Under review K.K. Salam, Simulated Subsurface petroleum indigenous pseudomonas and A.O. Arinkoola and ' Reserviour condions. Bacillus species isolated from Auto‐ M.O. Aremu Mechanic microbial Enhanced oil LAU/SRG/13/040 Recovery 22. V.A. Togun, Effect of organic Turmec(Curcuma ‑ Organic Agriculture projecn LAUTECH ‐ 2014 Programme andbook of J.I. Okwusidi, longa) on selectedphyshological Terary instuon inNigeria. Abstracts OAPTIN2014/40pp40 G.O. Farinu, characteriscs ofrabbits acutely ‑ Organic turmeric ‐ supplemented ‑ Organic Agriculture projecn O.A. Amao, irradiated withultraviolet rays. – dietdemonstrates terary instuon in J.A. Adebisi. bothprophylacc andtherapeuc NigeriaLAUTECH 2014 B.S.A Oseni effects on thehistopathology of Programmeand Book of LAU/SRG/13/044 the testesin rabbits acutely abstractsOAPTIN/2014 29pp 29. exposed toultraviolet radiaon. ‑ Organic Agriculture projecn ‑ Organic turmericdemonstrates terary Instuon inNigeria. prophylacceffect on the LAUTECH 2014,Programme and 394

epididymalsperm characteriscs Book ofabstracts inrabbits acutely exposed OAPTIN/2014/20 pp 20. toultraviolet radiaon. ‑ Research Journal ofAgriculture ‑ Peripheral leucocycresponses to and EnvironmentalManagement ultravioletradiaon in Vol 3(11)pp.593‐598. prepubertalrabbits fed organic ‑ Akailable online turmericsupplemented diet. ath p://wwwapexjournal.orq ‑ Prophylacc eﬃcacy ourmetric ‑ Reseaich Journal onAgriculture curcuma longa] and

‑ Supplementaon on the ‑ Environmental Management. Vol.4 peripheral leukocyc response of 91) pp. 039‐045 prepubertal rabbits acutely ‑ African Journal of Agricultural irradiated with ultraviolet rays Research (AJAR) under review ‑ Eﬀect of organic turmeric [curcum process longa] feedng on tescular histology of rabbit exposed to ultraviolet radiaon. 23. S.A. Babarinde, G.O. Integraon of Host plant resistance ‐ Evaluaon of selected cowpea lines ‐ Journal of Natural Science Adesina. S.O. Oladoye and with botanical essenal oils for the and culvar for inherent resistance Research: Publisher: The Internaonal M.A. Adebayo protecon of stored cowpea against against cowpea seed beetle, Instute for Science, Technology and LAU/SRG/13/045 cowpea storage beetle. callosobruchus maculates fabricius Educaon (IISTE), U.S.A. May 31, 2016 [coleopteran: Chrysome lidae: Bruchinae] ‐ Journal of North East Agricultural University Publisher: Elsevier Netherlands on Behalf of North

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‐ Chemical Composion and bioacvity East Agricultural University china (Under of Lippia adoensis hochst ex.walp Review) (Verneneaceae) leaf essenal oil against callosobruchus maculates Fabricius [coleopteran: chrysome lidae]

24. A.T. Adeboyejo O.A. Students oﬀ campus Housing in Ladoke Akindele F.O. Adigun D.O. Akintola University of Technology Adejumobi D.V. Ogunkan Ogbomoso Nigeria.

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