DOCSLIB.ORG

This Month We Look at the Republic of Latvia

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
This Month We Look at the Republic of Latvia THE REPUBLIC OF BY Clifford J. Mugnier, CP, CMS, FASPRS LATVIA The Grids & Datums column has completed an exploration of every country on the Earth. For those who did not get to enjoy this world tour the first time,PE&RS is reprinting prior articles from the column. This month’s article on the Republic of Latvia was originally printed in 2002 but contains updates to their coordinate system since then. etween 2500 and 1500 BC, the Finno-Ugric and proto-Baltic tribes settled on Baltic Bshores. The closest ethnic relatives of the Latvians are the ancient Prussians, the Galinds, the Jatvings, and the Lithuanians. The first settlers in the territory of Latvia were the Livonians or “Libiesi.” The Livonians were once concentrated in the northern part of Latvia, but today only about Delivered by Ingenta 100 individuals speak theirIP: ancient 192.168.39.151 language On: Thu, 23 Sep 2021 19:59:43 which nevertheless hasCopyright: contributed American to a Societyprominent for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Latvian dialect. By the 12th century, the natives network of 1820-32 in Semgallen and Courland, and were were split into a number of tribal groups, all published by Czarist Russia in 1843 and 1847. Tenner later practicing nature religions. The Knights of the supplemented his primary net with lower-order stations. The Tenner chains were originally computed on the Walbeck 1819 Sword (Livonian Order) were crusaders that ellipsoid where the semi-major axis (a) = 6,376,895 m and forcibly converted Latvia to Christianity in the 1/ = 302.7821565; they were later recomputed on the Bessel th f 13 century. For centuries, Latvia has been under 1841 ellipsoid. Between 1878 and 1884, Schulgin further in- Swedish, Polish, German, and Russian rule. In creased the density of lower-order stations in the area origi- 1918, Latvia proclaimed independence from Czarist nally surveyed by Tenner. However, the majority of these lat- Russia. By 1940, Latvia was occupied by the Soviet ter station monuments did not survive into the 20th century, Union and was soon overrun by Nazi Germany. and they were ignored by the Russians. The Tenner net in the Soviet forces reoccupied the country in 1944-45, east did not extend further north than the Sestukalns-Gaiz- and Latvia remained under Soviet rule until 1991 inkalns side, and the Struve primary net extended north from this side through Yuryev and over the Gulf of Finland. when it was admitted into the United Nations. In The Russian Western Frontier surveys were executed mainly May 1994, the Latvian National Independence by Yemel’yanov and Nikifirov between 1904 and 1912. These Movement finished first in Latvia’s first post-Soviet chains formed a major part of the modern (early) 20th century local elections; the excommunists fared the worst. network of Eastern Latvia with some of the first-order sta- Latvia shares borders with Estonia to the north (343 km), tions being old Tenner or Struve stations. This Russian sur- Russia to the east (246 km), Belarus to the southeast (161 km), Lithuania to the south (588 km), and the Baltic Sea Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing and Gulf of Riga to the west comprises a coastline of 498 km. Vol. 86, No. 10, October 2020, pp. 599–602. Slightly larger than West Virginia, the country is mostly low 0099-1112/20/599–602 coastal plain with the highest point being Gaizinkalns at 312 © 2020 American Society for Photogrammetry meters. and Remote Sensing Survey activities in Latvia began with Tenner’s first-order doi: 10.14358/PERS.86.10.599 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING October 2020 599 October 2020 Layout.indd 599 9/17/2020 11:46:08 AM vey covered much of western and central Deflections of the Vertical in Latvia Livonia in 1904-05, and eastern Livonia and Lettgallen were covered with the 1906 Because of the ground- and 1912 nets. Lower-order nets to fourth breaking work the order supplemented the primary chains. University of Latvia’s These Czarist Russian surveys were com- Institute of Geodesy puted on the Pulkovo 1904 Datum or the and Geoinformatics Yuryev II Datum, both of which are refer- published on their re- enced to the Bessel 1841 ellipsoid where a 1 search to develop a = 6,377,397.155 m and /f = 299.1528128. one-centimeter geoid After Latvia achieved Republic status, model and the inven- the new Latvian Survey Office began to tion of a relatively unify these various nets in stages, before inexpensive Digital commencing with their own survey activi- Zenith Camera (DZC) ties in 1924. The results of this program of by Dr. Ansis Zarins, unification are published inLatvijas Valsts I traveled to Riga a Trigonometriskais. The Pulkovo 1904 Da- couple summers ago. tum points were recomputed into Yuryev LSU’s Center for II Datum based on 14 available first-order GeoInformatics had Scharmhorst points, and this was then acquired an absolute put into the Senks Soldner Grid. The 1905 gravity meter along Russian net had already been computed with a couple relative on the Yuryev II Datum, and was accept- gravity meters and ed into the Old Gaizinkalns Soldner Grid various related instru- where jo = 56º 52´ 15.184˝ N and lo = 25º ments and vehicles 57´ 34.720˝ East of Greenwich. No false with the same objective for the State of Louisiana. DeliveredSince their by DZC Ingenta only origin was used. Similarly, the 1906 and IP: 192.168.39.151 On: Thu, 23 Sep 2021 19:59:431912 nets were already on the Yuryev II works at night with clear skiesCopyright: for star American shots, days Society were openfor Photogrammetry for the staff and Remote Sensing to take me around Riga and environs. A major point of interest for me was Datum, and those form the Old Vitoleieki the origin of the Yuryev II Datum and the General Latvian Triangulation Soldner Grid where jo = 56º 40´ 08.64˝ N , Net Datum Origin is Riga St. Peter’s Church (top of the Riga Church spire). lo = 27º 15´ 11.79˝ East of Greenwich, and no false origin was used. Tenner’s survey The Latvian Geodesists then took me inside of the church, and a plaque had been calculated on the Walbeck 1819 in the floor of the vestibule, directly under the plumb line of the spire dis- ellipsoid and was now recomputed on the played the actual Datum Origin: Bessel 1841 ellipsoid and controlled by the Yemel’yanov-Nikifirov survey of the Puci-Sarmes side. This had the effect of introducing a slight swing to the orienta- tion of the Tenner triangulation. The Lat- vian Kulkigan and Puci systems cover this net. For most of eastern Latvia, the earlier Russian surveys could be used to form the basis of the Latvian triangulation as the station centers could be found. In Courland and Semgallen the original triangulation dated back to 1820 and few of the old sta- tions could be recovered. This necessitated a complete new survey, which was started in 1924 from the Liepaja-Paplaka base and By the way, their DZC worked flawlessly, and LSU purchased one for extended in stages to the Puci-Sarmes side €100K, including training. Our DZC is currently kept busy here in Loui- and thence to Riga and Jelgava. The origin siana observing the deflection of the vertical at all of our GPS CORS sites. of this system is the Yuryev II Datum val- ue of Riga St Peter’s Church “tower ball” which is the same station as the Tenner first-order point. The Yuryev II Datum azi- 600 October 2020 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING October 2020 Layout.indd 600 9/17/2020 11:28:39 AM muth to Jelgava Church was adopted for the orientation of the Provisional Courland System geographics and the General net. Although the Riga Church and Courland values are the Latvian Triangulation Net. However, care is taken in the Lat- same as Scharnhorst value and the azimuth is identical, the vian “Trig” Lists to show from which geodetic system the Riga coordinates of Jelgava Church vary slightly by 0.002˝ in each Cassini-Soldner coordinates are computed. axis. This was due to the scales of the Liepaja and Jelgava bas- During these inter-war years, the Russians were also ac- es, which were adopted for the Courland System in preference tively recomputing their survey information in the Baltic to the less reliable Scharnhorst scale. This became known as states. Prior to 1932 the Russian horizontal control of the the “Provisional Courland System (datum).” The Provisional Baltic States was always referenced to Dorpat Observatory Courland System was divided into two Cassini-Soldner Grids: at Tartu in Estonia. In 1932 the Russians set up Pulkovo Ob- The “Riga System” with its origin at Riga St. Peter’s Church servatory 1932 as their horizontal datum and origin reference where jo = 56º 56´ 53.919˝ N and lo = 24º 06´ 31.898˝ East to the Bessel 1841 ellipsoid, and later revised this to Pulkovo of Greenwich, and the “Vardupe System” with its origin at 1942, now properly termed “System 42” (datum) referenced to the Provisional Courland station Vardupe where jo = 56º 51´ the Krassovsky 1940 ellipsoid. 32.961˝ N and lo = 21º 52´ 03.462˝ East of Greenwich. No false Thanks to E.A. Early of the U.S. Army Map Service, “In origin was used for either grid. The Provisional Courland 1942 the German Army undertook the conversion of the Lat- System was immediately adjusted and computed before the vian Soldner coordinates to DHG Pulkovo.” (Deutches Heeres triangulation of central and east Latvia was completed. This Gitter – German Army Grid) “The first phase of the conver- Provisional Courland System was first adjusted within itself sion embodied the change of projection from Soldner to Gauss- and then adjusted to the Latvian part of the Baltic Ring.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • ECFG-Latvia-2021R.Pdf
    About this Guide This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The fundamental information contained within will help you understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location and gain skills necessary for success (Photo: A Latvian musician plays a popular folk instrument - the dūdas (bagpipe), photo courtesy of Culture Grams, ProQuest). The guide consists of 2 parts: ECFG Part 1 “Culture General” provides the foundational knowledge you need to operate effectively in any global environment with a focus on the Baltic States. Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of Latvia Latvian society. It applies culture-general concepts to help increase your knowledge of your deployment location. This section is designed to complement other pre-deployment training (Photo: A US jumpmaster inspects a Latvian paratrooper during International Jump Week hosted by Special Operations Command Europe). For further information, visit the Air Force Culture and Language Center (AFCLC) website at www.airuniversity.af.edu/AFCLC/ or contact the AFCLC Region Team at [email protected]. Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be reproduced in its current format with the express permission of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US government, Wikimedia, and other sources. GENERAL CULTURE PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL What is Culture? Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to adapt to our social and physical environments.
    [Show full text]
  • Politics and Government in Baltic States
    Introduction – Historical and cultural background Part II Lecturer: Tõnis Saarts Institute of Political Science and Public Administration Spring 2009 Baltic region in the 17th century • Despite Swedish and Polish rule, Baltic German nobility retained their privileges. • In the 15th century serfdom was introduced, in the 17- 18th century serfdom became even harsher (Elbe-line). • Positive influence of Swedish rule – education village schools literacy, Tartu University 1632. Oldest university in the region Vilnius University 1579 • After the 16th century main trade routes moved to Atlantic turning point for the CEE. The region began to lag behind from Western Europe. • 16th century heydays of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. 17th century decline. • Declining of Tallinn and Riga as trade centres Swedish domain Russian conquest • Russian interest: Baltics as a window to Europe – trade and communication with Western Europe. • 1700-1721 Great Nordic War between Russia and Sweden. Peter The Great conquered all Swedish possessions (Estonia, Northern Latvia to Daugava +Riga; Latgale+Courland remained to Polish hands). • Nordic War as a big economic and social catastrophe plague, economic decline intensified even more. • “Special Baltic Order”: – Baltic German nobility retained its political power. – Russian Empire was not allowed to settle here immigrants – Should accepted protestantism and German cultural domination • 3 partitions of Poland (1772, 1792, 1795) - with third partition Russia got Courland+Lithuania. Russian Conquest 1721 Partition of Poland The region with a common destiny! • Only since the end of the 18th century we can speak about the Baltic region as a region what has a common destiny. • Before there was little common in the history of Lithuania and Estonia/Latvia! • Before the 18th century quite few contacts with Russian culture and Ortodox civilization.
    [Show full text]
  • Balodis LU 100 Prezentācija 2019
    A Small Nation with a Big Vision: Bringing the Livonians into the Digital Space Dr. phil. Uldis Balodis University of Latvia Livonian Institute The Livonians The Livonian The University of Latvia Livonian Institute Institute: Our first year A Force for Challenges faced by smaller nations Innovation Digital solutions offered by the UL Livonian Institute The Future Livonian is a Finnic language historically spoken in northern Courland/Kurzeme and along both sides of the Gulf of Rīga coast In the early 20th century, the Livonians lived in a string small villages in northern Courland (Kurzeme) With the onset of the Soviet occupation, this area was designated a border zone, which denied the Livonians access to their The Livonians traditional form of livelihood (fishing). As a result of WWII and the border zone, the Livonians were scattered across Latvia and the world ~30 people can communicate in Livonian ~250 individuals consider themselves Livonian according to the last Latvian national census in 2011 The Livonians Latvia in the 12th century (Livonians in purple). Source: laaj.org.au Livonian villages in northern Courland (late 19th-mid-2oth century). Source: virtuallivonia.info The UL Livonian Institute was established in September 2018 and UL Livonian is one of the newest institutes at the University of Latvia. Institute The only research institution – not just in Latvia but in the entire world – devoted to the study of topics pertaining to Latvia’s other indigenous nation: the Livonians. Background Established as part of
    [Show full text]
  • The Courlander Experience in Tobago
    THE COURLANDER EXPERIENCE IN TOBAGO THE REPUBLIC OF LATVIA: A maritime nation on the Baltic sea with excellent ports, 64.589km2 in area and a population of nearly 2.000.000 inhabitants. There are apx. 1.500.000 Latvians living in Latvia and the rest of the world. 2018 marks the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Latvia. COURLANDERS: Latvians from the province of Courland (Kurzeme). In the days of the Duchy of Courland and Semgallia, a “Courlander” could also be an inhabitant of the province of Semgallia. “Courlander” is a literal translation of the Latvian kurzemnieks. The academic word for anything pertaining to Courland is Couronian. THE DUCHY OF COURLAND AND SEMGALLIA: A de facto independent nation formed in 1561 and existing until 1795, comprised of 2 modern day provinces of Latvia, and ruled by the German-Baltic dukes of Courland, although officially a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The flags of Courland consisted of a red and white 2 band flag and the red and black “crab” flag which originated in Tobago, as there are no crabs of this type in Latvia. As such, it can be considered the first flag of Tobago. CHRONOLOGY 1639 Sent by Duke Jacob, probably involuntarily, 212 Courlanders arrive in Tobago. Unprepared for tropical conditions, they eventually perish. 1642 (possibly 1640) Duke Jacob engages a Brazilian, capt. Cornelis Caroon (later, Caron) to lead a colony comprised basically of Dutch Zealanders, that probably establishes itself in the flat, southwestern portion of the island. Under attack by the Caribs, 70 remaining members of the original 310 colonists are evacuated to Pomeron, Guyana, by the Arawaks.
    [Show full text]
  • The German Fear of Russia Russia and Its Place Within German History
    The German Fear of Russia Russia and its place within German History By Rob Dumont An Honours Thesis submitted to the History Department of the University of Lethbridge in partial fulfillment of the requirements for History 4995 The University of Lethbridge April 2013 Table of Contents Introduction 1-7 Chapter 1 8-26 Chapter 2 27-37 Chapter 3 38-51 Chapter 4 39- 68 Conclusion 69-70 Bibliography 71-75 Introduction In Mein Kampf, Hitler reflects upon the perceived failure of German foreign policy regarding Russia before 1918. He argues that Germany ultimately had to prepare for a final all- out war of extermination against Russia if Germany was to survive as a nation. Hitler claimed that German survival depended on its ability to resist the massive faceless hordes against Germany that had been created and projected by Frederick the Great and his successors.1 He contends that Russia was Germany’s chief rival in Europe and that there had to be a final showdown between them if Germany was to become a great power.2 Hitler claimed that this showdown had to take place as Russia was becoming the center of Marxism due to the October Revolution and the founding of the Soviet Union. He stated that Russia was seeking to destroy the German state by launching a general attack on it and German culture through the introduction of Leninist principles to the German population. Hitler declared that this infiltration of Leninist principles from Russia was a disease and form of decay. Due to these principles, the German people had abandoned the wisdom and actions of Frederick the Great, which was slowly destroying German art and culture.3 Finally, beyond this expression of fear, Hitler advocated that Russia represented the only area in Europe open to German expansion.4 This would later form the basis for Operation Barbarossa and the German invasion of Russia in 1941 in which Germany entered into its final conflict with Russia, conquering most of European 1 Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1943, originally published 1926), 197.
    [Show full text]
  • Country Walkers Itinerary
    countrywalkers.com 800.234.6900 Lithuania & Latvia: Vilnius to Riga Flight + Tour Combo Itinerary Sea, sky, and sand: the universe is reduced to three elements as you survey the Bay of Amber and the 60-mile sweep of dunes at Curonian Spit. Whistling winds, waving grasses, and a boardwalk that leads to what feels like the world’s edge—a landscape you never imagined. Then again, you’re learning to expect the unexpected in Lithuania. Fascinating folk traditions and indelible sights fill each day’s walk, from the legend-inspired woodcarvings on Witches’ Hill to Trakai’s red-sandstone island castle. Yesterday a farm-to-table lunch near a Bronze Age hillfort, today the chance to craft your own amulet from native amber at a local jeweler’s gallery. Across the border, Latvia awaits: scenic wetlands, country palaces, and Saturday’s chef-led tour through the converted zeppelin hangars of Riga’s food market. When you’re hiking in the Baltics, every step reveals new horizons. Highlights Take in sights straight out of the pages of a fairy-tale as you visit magnificent Baltic castles and grand, historic palaces, nestled in beautiful settings Follow scenic trails into the national parks of Trakai, Curonian Spit, Žemaitija, Gauja, and Kemeri Pay a visit to an amber museum to learn about the traditions surrounding this treasured gem and craft your own keepsake in the workshop Tour one of Europe’s largest markets guided by a Latvian chef, sampling fresh bread, cheese, and more, treating your senses as you explore 1 / 12 countrywalkers.com 800.234.6900 Activity Level This tour is one of our Guided Walking Adventures, rated easy, with an average of 3 to 6 miles per day.
    [Show full text]
  • Richter Revised
    University of Birmingham 'A mass which you could form into whatever you wanted' Richter, Klaus License: None: All rights reserved Document Version Peer reviewed version Citation for published version (Harvard): Richter, K 2017, 'A mass which you could form into whatever you wanted': Refugees and state building in Lithuania and Courland, 1914–21. in Europe on the move: Refugees in the era of the Great War. Cultural History of Modern War. Link to publication on Research at Birmingham portal Publisher Rights Statement: Checked for eligibility: 03/05/2019 General rights Unless a licence is specified above, all rights (including copyright and moral rights) in this document are retained by the authors and/or the copyright holders. The express permission of the copyright holder must be obtained for any use of this material other than for purposes permitted by law. •Users may freely distribute the URL that is used to identify this publication. •Users may download and/or print one copy of the publication from the University of Birmingham research portal for the purpose of private study or non-commercial research. •User may use extracts from the document in line with the concept of ‘fair dealing’ under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (?) •Users may not further distribute the material nor use it for the purposes of commercial gain. Where a licence is displayed above, please note the terms and conditions of the licence govern your use of this document. When citing, please reference the published version. Take down policy While the University of Birmingham exercises care and attention in making items available there are rare occasions when an item has been uploaded in error or has been deemed to be commercially or otherwise sensitive.
    [Show full text]
  • The Reforming of the Southern Finnic Language Area
    Karl PAJUSALU (Tartu) The reforming of the Southern Finnic language area This article focuses on recent changes in the southern group of Finnic languages. The present state of these languages, the establishment of written standards, and ways to modernise the languages are observed. The Southern Finnic group comprises Livonian, Vote, and Estonian, including South Estonian. Historically these languages share a number of common features and mutual influences. However, the destiny of these languages has been rather different over the past centuries. Standard Estonian, which evolved on the basis of the North Estonian dialects, became the state language of the Republic of Estonia. The South Es- tonian or Tartu written language fell into disuse at the end of the 19th century. Present-day Estonia is witnessing the emergence of some new regional stand- ards, especially in South Estonia. The Livonian language became extinct in Old Livonia, that is, in North Latvia, as early as the middle of the 19th century and has by now ceased to exist as an everyday language even in the coastal villages of Courland. Nevertheless, there now exists a written standard for Livonian, and modern ways to use Livonian have been created. Also, the traditional area of Vote on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland is declining, and the last bilin- gual Vote-Russian speakers are to be found only in a few villages in the Lenin- grad oblast in Russia. At the same time there are young people with Vote roots who try to use the language of their ancestors in modern situations. At present the historical diversity of the language group under discussion is severely threat- ened, although some endeavours and also possible methods for protecting and developing these small languages are to be observed nowadays.
    [Show full text]
  • To Go Or Not to Go? Baltic German Resettlement 1939-1940
    To Go or Not to Go? Baltic German Resettlement 1939-1940 During the Second World war the Baltic states lost not only a big part of their population; two of the ethnic groups living there before were destroyed entirely. Vast majority of Jews were killed during the Holocaust. The Baltic German minority ceased to exist in Estonia and Latvia after Nazi Germany called them to resettle to the territory of the German Reich. Legally each individual had a right to choose, but in the circumstances of 1939 the options were very limited. This unit offers a variety of sources to provide an insight into the complicated choice of the Baltic Germans. Teaching ideas We offer to use a simulation as an introduction, then look for arguments in personal accounts of the contemporaries and to conclude with several lifestories in a documentary. Teachers can adjust these proposals to the actual situation in their classrooms or only analyse some of the historical sources in their lessons. Introduction: Simulation Provide each student with a role description and background information (prepared for printing in the attachment). There are 10 roles prepared; recurrence of a role in your classroom will allow you to compare the decisions of your students and to discuss the importance of historical circumstances versus personal decision. 1) Ask your students to read the hand-out and to construct their roles in two minutes • Give a name to your character • Add at least 2 features to the description Construct the role • Try to imagine his/her view on life 2) Meet & greet – ask your students to walk around the room, shake hands and introduce yourself shortly to your partner.
    [Show full text]
  • Germany's “Neuland” in the Baltic? Efforts to Colonize and Germanize
    Ron Hellfritzsch Universität Greifswald Germany’s “Neuland” in the Baltic? Efforts to Colonize and Germanize Courland. 1914–1919 Since the well-known works of Aba Stražas and Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius, the German “Ober Ost” military administration in the Baltic during the First World War is often characterized as a kind of “colonial regime”. Liulevicius especially tried to picture “Ober Ost” as a link between the First World and in some parts even the overseas colonial activities of the German Empire on one side and the Nazi aims to conquer “space” in Eastern Europe. The main thesis of Liulevicius is that the experience of German soldiers here in the occupied Baltic led to a fundamental change of how the Germans viewed Eastern Europe in general. Furthermore, Liulevicus points out that “Ober Ost” didn’t have any elaborated concepts as to how to rule the occupied territory and what its future should be, thus the leaders of the German military administration had to improvise and finally developed their own “military utopia”. In current research Liulevicius’ theses have gained support, but a lot of criticism as well. For example, a recently published dissertation shows that a German “colonial view toward the East” had already been established in the 19th century. A different study about space in Germany history regards the occupation policy of “Ober Ost” as a transfer of colonial thinking, which had been originally developed for overseas territories, to Europe. The dissertation project presented here follows an approach which connects the arguments of both sides. An analysis of documents of German civilian and military planners engaged in Easter European affairs during the First World War reveals that the Baltic was imagined as the ideal “space” for future German colonization.
    [Show full text]
  • Reign of the Sovereign Emperor Nicholas I
    Pg. 241 REIGN OF THE SOVEREIGN EMPEROR NICHOLAS I 1829 yr. 190. -- May 24th. The Senate Decree, with the explanation of the Highest approved Provision of the Committee of the Ministers. About the means of reducing the number of Jews in Courland and Livonia The Governing Senate listened to the report of Mr. Minister of Internal Affairs, that after the report/presentation of Mr. Minister of Finance on behalf of the loyal subjects’ – merchantry and craftsmen of the city of Mitau (Mitava)1 – who plead to limit in this city the number of Jews who in 1797 were assigned to this city together with their families and by the December-27 th- 1827 Journal (of documents) which received the Highest vouchsafe by His Imperial Majesty, the Committee of Messrs. Ministers entrusted (instructed): to delegate to Marquis Paulucci2, General-Governor of Livonia, Estland,3 Kurland and Pskov to present his plan for reduction of the number of Jews in Kurland and Livonia, which could be examined by the Jewish Committee. At the same time, about such provision of the Committee of the Messrs. Ministers, the Head of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs informed Mr. General-Governor Marquis Paulucci, who, in this case, reported back to him: A) about Jews in the Livonia Governorate, In Livonia Jews live only in Riga and in the miasteczko Schlock.4 Otherwise than Schlock they cannot be recorded in any other place, and cannot be reassigned from any other Guberniya-a (Regions, Governorates). According to this situation, the number of Jews in Livonia can be increased only by newborns from the locals; thus Mr.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Germanization, Polonization and Russification in the Partitioned
    Germanization, Polonization and Russification in the Partitioned Lands of Poland-Lithuania: Myths and Reality1 Tomasz Kamusella Trinity College Dublin Abstract Two main myths constitute the founding basis of popular Polish ethnic nationalism. First, that Poland-Lithuania was an early Poland, and second, that the partitioning powers at all times unwaveringly pursued policies of Germanization and Russification. In the former case, the myth appropriates a common past today shared by Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine. In the latter case, Polonization is written out of the picture entirely, as also are variations and changes in the polices of Germanization and Russification. Taken together, the two myths to a large degree obscure (and even falsify) the past, making comprehension of it difficult, if not impossible. This article seeks to disentangle the knots of anachronisms that underlie the Polish national master narrative, in order to present a clearer picture of the interplay between the policies of Germanization, Polonization and Russification as they unfolded in the lands of the partitioned Poland- Lithuania during the long 19th century. Key words: Germanization, nationalism, partitioned lands of Poland- Lithuania, Poland-Lithuania, Polonization, Russification Introduction Between 2007 and 2010, I taught Irish students who, in the framework of their European studies track, specialized in Polish language and culture in Trinity College, Dublin. In the third year of their studies they went to Poland to attend Polish-language courses at the Jagiellonian University in Cracow. On their return to Ireland for the final year of their studies, I lectured to them on the partitioned lands of the Commonwealth of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the long 19th century.
    [Show full text]