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Chad

Tashād; French: Tchad ﺗﺸﺎد : (/tʃæd/ ( listen); Arabic Republic of Chad pronou nced [tʃad]), officially the Republic of Chad (Jumhūrīyat Tshād; French: République République du Tchad (French ﺟﻤﮭﻮرﯾﺔ ﺗﺸﺎد :Arabic) (Arabic) ﺟﻣﮫورﻳﺔ ﺗﺷﺎد du Tchad lit. "Republic of the Chad"), is a landlocked country in Central . It is bordered by to the Jumhūrīyat Tashād north, to the east, the to the south, and to the southwest, and Niger to the west. It is the fifth largest country in Africa and the second-largest in in terms of area. Coat of arms Chad has several : a desert zone in the north, an arid Flag Sahelian belt in the centre and a more fertile Sudanian Motto: Savanna zone in the south. , after which the "Unité, Travail, Progrès" (French) country is named, is the largest wetland in Chad and the "Unity, Work, Progress" (Arabic) "اﻻﺗﺣﺎد، اﻟﻌﻣل، اﻟﺗﻘدم" second-largest in Africa. The capital N'Djamena is the largest city. Chad's official languages are Arabic and French. Anthem: Chad is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic La Tchadienne (French) groups. The most popular of Chad is (at 55%), (Arabic) ﻧﺷﻳد ﺗﺷﺎد اﻟوطﻧﻲ followed by (at 40%). The Chadian Hymn Beginning in the 7 th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium AD, a series of states and empires had risen and fallen in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the . France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French . In 1960, Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lasting civil war in 1965. In 197 9 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the south's hegemony. However, the rebel commanders fought Location of Chad (dark blue) amongst themselves until Hissène Habré defeated his rivals. He was overthrown in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby. Since 2003 the crisis in Sudan has spilt over the border and destabilised the nation, with hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees living in and around camps in eastern Chad. An uneven inclusion into the global political economy as a site for colonial resource extraction (primarily cotton and crude oil), a global economic system that does not promote nor encourage the development of Chadian industrialization,[8] and the failure to support local agricultural production has meant that the majority of Chadians live in daily uncertainty and hunger.[9][10]

While many political parties are active, power lies firmly in the hands of President Déby and his political party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement. Chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted coups d'état. Since 2003 crude oil has become the country's primary source of export earnings, superseding the traditional cotton industry.

Capital N'Djamena Contents and largest city 12°06′N 16°02′E History Official languages Geography, climate and environment Arabic Climate French Wildlife Ethnic groups 24.7% Sara Demographics (2010) 15.3% Afro-Arab Ethnic groups Languages 10.5% Toubou Religion 9.5% Kpelle Government and politics 9.0% -Bornou Legal system 8.7% Bassa Parliament 6.7% Hadjarai Political parties 6.5% Tandjilé Internal opposition and foreign relations 4.7% Bilala Corruption Administrative divisions 6.4% Mandinka Military 0.3% Fang Rebel groups Demonym Chadian Law enforcement Human rights Government Unitary dominant- Land conflicts party presidential Economy republic (de jure) Humanitarian situation under totalitarian dictatorship (de Infrastructure facto)[1] Transport Air transport • President Idriss Deby Railways • President of the Haroun Kabadi Energy National Telecommunications Assembly Mobile phones Legislature Media Independence Education • from France 11 August 1960 Culture Music Area Cuisine • Total 1,284,000 km2 Literature (496,000 sq mi)[2] Film (20th) Sports • Water (%) 1.9 See also Population Notes • 2015 estimate 13,670,084[3] [4] References • 2009 census 11,039,873 2 External links • Density 8.6/km (22.3/sq mi) GDP (PPP) 2017 estimate History • Total $31.768 billion[5] (123rd) In the 7 th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the • Per capita $2,607[5] (150th) northern half of Chadian territory favored human GDP (nominal) 2017 estimate settlement, and the region experienced a strong population • Total $11.579 billion[5] increase. Some of the most important African (130th) [5] archaeological sites are found in Chad, mainly in the • Per capita $950 (151st) --; some date to earlier than Gini (2011) 43.3[6] 2000 BC.[11][12] medium HDI (2015) 0.426[7] low · 186th Currency Central African CFA franc (XAF) Time zone WAT (UTC+1) Drives on the right Calling code +235

Group of Kanem-Bu warriors. The ISO 3166 code TD Kanem-Bornu Empire controlled Internet TLD .td almost all of what is today Chad. For more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people. The region became a crossroads of civilizations. The earliest of these were the legendary Sao, descendants of the Hyksos who conquered Ancient known for skills in designing weapons and artifacts, they are also known for their oral histories. After a century of rule, the Sao fell to the Kanem Empire,[13][14] the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. Two other states in the region, Sultanate of Bagirmi and Wadai Empire emerged in the 16th and 17 th centuries. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region.[12] These states, at least tacitly Muslim, never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves.[15] In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves.[16]

French colonial expansion led to the creation of the Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa.[18] French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies.[19]

The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the Sara of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal. The educational system was affected by this neglect.[12][19]

After World War II, France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the National Assembly and a Chadian assembly. The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT's leader, Sara François Tombalbaye, as its first president.[12][20][21]

Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and A Chadian soldier fighting for Free France during World War II. The Free established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule French Forces included 15,000 and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter-ethnic soldiers from Chad.[17] tensions. In 1965, Muslims in the north, led by the National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT), began a civil war. Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 197 5,[22] but the insurgency continued. In 197 9 the rebel factions led by Hissène Habré took the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power.[23][24]

The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad's civil war.[25] Libya's adventure ended in disaster in 1987 ; the French-supported president, Hissène Habré, evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before[26] and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil.[27]

Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule.[28][29] The president favoured his own Toubou ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the Zaghawa. His general, Idriss Déby, overthrew him in 1990.[30] Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest in Senegal in 2005; in 2013, Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule.[31] In May 2016, he was found guilty of human-rights abuses, including rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people, and sentenced to life in prison.[32]

Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum, and in 1996, Déby easily won a competitive presidential election. He won a second term five years later.[33] Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a new civil war broke out. Déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.[34]

In 2006 Déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad.[35] In 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces have attempted to take the capital by force, but have on both occasions failed.[36] An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war.[37] The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against President Idriss Deby that had been in preparation for several months.[38]

Chad is currently one of the leading partners in a West African coalition in the fight against Boko Haram.[39] Chad has also been included on Presidential Proclamation 9645, the expanded version of United States president Donald Trump's Executive Order 137 80, which restricts entry by nationals from 8 countries, including Chad, into the US. This move has angered the Chadian government.[39]

Geography, climate and environment Despite internal political opposition, At 1,284,000 square kilometres (496,000 sq mi),[2] Chad is the coup attempts, and a civil war, Idriss Déby has continuously ruled Chad world's 22nd-largest country. It is slightly smaller than Peru and since 1990. slightly larger than South Africa.[40][41] Chad is in north central Africa, lying between latitudes 7 ° and 24°N, and 13° and 24°E.[42]

Chad is bounded to the north by Libya, to the east by Sudan, to the west by Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon, and to the south by the Central African Republic. The country's capital Ennedi Plateau in northeastern Chad is 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) from the nearest seaport, Douala, Cameroon.[42][43] Because of this distance from the sea and the country's largely desert [44] climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa". Chad is divided into three distinct zones, the Sudanian The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north Savanna in the south, the and east by the Ennedi Plateau and , which include Emi Desert in the north, Koussi, a dormant volcano that reaches 3,414 metres (11,201 ft) above and the Sahelian belt in the sea level. Lake Chad, after which the country is named (and which in center. turn takes its name from the Kanuri word for "lake"[45]), is the remains of an immense lake that occupied 330,000 square kilometres (130,000 sq mi) of the 7 ,000 years ago.[42] Although in the 21st century it covers only 17 ,806 square kilometres (6,87 5 sq mi), and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations,[46] the lake is Africa's second largest wetland.[47]

The region's tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds, reptiles, and large mammals. Chad's major rivers—the Chari, Logone and their tributaries—flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad.[42][48]

Climate Each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a wet season that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the .[49] Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. The Sahara lies in the country's northern third. Y early precipitations throughout this belt are under 50 millimetres (2.0 in); only the occasional spontaneous palm grove survives, and the only ones to do so are south of the Tropic of Cancer.[43]

The Sahara gives way to a Sahelian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from 300 to 600 mm (11.8 to 23.6 in) per year. In the Sahel, a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly Lake Chad in a 2001 satellite image. acacias) gradually gives way to the south to East Sudanian On the top, the changes from 1973 to savanna in Chad's Sudanese zone. Y early rainfall in this belt is 1997 are shown, with the lake shrinking. over 900 mm (35.4 in).[43]

Wildlife

Chad's animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones. In the Saharan region, the only flora is the date-palm groves of the oasis. Palms and acacia trees grow in the Sahelian region. The southern, or Sudanic, zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing. As of 2002, there were at least 134 species of mammals, 509 species of birds (354 This astronaut photograph features species of residents and 155 migrants), and over 1,600 species one of the largest of a series of ten of plants throughout the country.[50][51] mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Elephants, , buffalo, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. giraffes, antelopes, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and many species of snakes are found here, although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century.[50][52] Elephant poaching, particularly in the south of the country in areas such as Zakouma National Park, is a severe problem. The small group of surviving West African crocodiles in the Ennedi Plateau represents one of the last colonies known in the Sahara today.[53]

Extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as An African bush elephant. acacias, baobab, dates and palm trees. This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals; one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements. Populations of animals like lions, leopards and rhino have fallen significantly.[54]

Efforts have been made by the Food and Agricultural Organization to improve relations between farmers, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park (ZNP), Siniaka-Minia, and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development.[55] As part of the national conservation effort, more than 1.2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert, which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees, which produce gum arabic, and also from fruit trees.[54]

Poaching is a serious problem in the country, particularly of elephants for the profitable ivory industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks such as Zakouma. Elephants are often massacred in herds in and around the parks by organized poaching.[56] The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers.[57]

Demographics

Chad's national statistical agency projected the country's 2015 population [58] between 13,630,252 and 13,67 9,203, with 13,67 0,084 as its medium Population in Chad projection; based on the medium projection, 3,212,47 0 people lived in urban Year Million [3] areas and 10,457 ,614 people lived in rural areas. The country's population 1950 2.6 is young: an estimated 47 .3% is under 15. The birth rate is estimated at 42.35 2000 7.9 births per 1,000 people, the mortality rate at 16.69. The life expectancy is 52 2015 12.4 years.[59]

Chad's population is unevenly distributed. Density is 0.1/km2 (0.26/sq mi) in the Saharan Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region but 52.4/km2 (136/sq mi) in the Logone Occidental Region. In the capital, it is even higher.[43] About half of the nation's population lives in the southern fifth of its territory, making this the most densely populated region.[60]

Urban life is concentrated in the capital, whose population is mostly engaged in commerce. The other major towns are , , Abéché and Doba, which are considerably smaller but growing rapidly in population and economic activity.[42] Since 2003, 230,000 An Ouaddaian girl - Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war-ridden Darfur. Photographer Ramses Tamdji With the 17 2,600 Chadians displaced by the civil war in the east, this has generated increased tensions among the region's communities.[61][62]

Polygamy is common, with 39% of women living in such unions. This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage.[63] Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common. Female genital mutilation is also prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates among Arabs, Hadjarai, and Ouaddaians (90% or more). Lower percentages were reported among the Sara (38%) and the Toubou (2%). Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs. Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice.[64]

Ethnic groups Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups,[65] which create diverse social structures. The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society, but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family. Nevertheless, Chad's people may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live.[12][42]

In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara, the nation's main ethnic group, whose essential social unit is the lineage. In A tribal delegation the Sahel sedentary peoples live side-by-side with nomadic ones, such as the Arabs, the country's second major ethnic group. The north is inhabited by nomads, mostly Toubous.[12][42]

Languages

Chad's official languages are Arabic and French, but over 100 languages and dialects are spoken. Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities, Chadian Arabic has become a lingua franca.[12] A Toubou man near rocky lands in north Chad Chad submitted an application to join the Arab League as a member state on 25 March 2014, which is still pending.[66]

Religion

Chad is a religiously diverse country. Estimates from Pew Research Center in 2010 found that 55.7 % of the population was Muslim, while 22.5% was Catholic and a further 17 .6% was Protestant.[67][68] Among Muslims, 48% professed to be Sunni, 21% Shia, 4% Ahmadi and 23% just Muslim.[69] A small proportion of the population continues to practice indigenous . Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific. Islam is expressed in diverse ways; for example, 55% of Muslim Chadians belong to Sufi orders.[69] Christianity arrived in Chad with the French and American missionaries; as with Chadian Islam, it syncretises aspects of pre-Christian religious beliefs.[12] Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad, and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and Guéra.[42] The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom; different religious communities generally co-exist without problems.[70]

The majority of Muslims in the country are adherents (Pew Research)[40][71] of a moderate branch of mystical Islam (Sufism). Its religion percent most common expression is the Tijaniyah, an order Muslim 55% followed by the 35% of Chadian Muslims which Christianity 41% None 2% incorporates some local African religious Folk 1% elements.[69] A small minority of the country's Other 1% Muslims hold more fundamentalist practices, which, in some cases, may be associated with Saudi-oriented Salafi movements.[70] Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country. Most Protestants, including the Nigeria-based "Winners' Chapel", are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups. Members of the Bahá'í and Jehovah's Witnesses religious communities also are present in the country. Both faiths were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be "new" religions in the country.[70]

Chad is home to foreign missionaries representing both Christian and Islamic groups. Itinerant Muslim preachers, primarily from Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan, also visit. Saudi Arabian funding generally supports social and educational projects and extensive construction.[70]

Government and politics

Chad's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the cabinet, and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad's para-statal firms.[72] In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly, may declare a state of emergency. The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term; in 2005 constitutional term limits were removed,[73] allowing a president to remain in power beyond the previous two-term limit.[73] Most of Déby's key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group, although southern and opposition personalities are represented in government.[65][74]

Legal system

Chad's legal system is based on French civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality. Despite the constitution's guarantee of judicial independence, the president names most key judicial officials. The legal system's highest jurisdictions, the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council, have become fully operational since 2000. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councillors, appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly. The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine-year terms. It has the power to review legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption.[65][74]

Parliament

The National Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 155 members elected for four-year terms who meet three times per year. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years. The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister's plan of government and may Embassy of Chad in Washington, D.C. force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch's programme twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS), which holds a large majority.[65] Political parties

Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992, Déby's MPS was the sole legal party in Chad.[65] Since then, 7 8 registered political parties have become active.[64] In 2005, opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re- election for a third term[75] amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign.[76] Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality, as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted them.[77]

Internal opposition and foreign relations

Déby faces armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but united in their intention to overthrow him.[78] These forces stormed the capital on 13 April 2006, but were ultimately repelled. Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 soldiers in the country. Déby relies on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives the Chadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability.[79] Nevertheless, Franco- Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American Exxon company in 1999.[80]

Corruption

Chad is listed as a failed state by the Fund for Peace (FFP). In 2007 Chad had the seventh highest score on the failed state index. Since then the trend has been upwards each year. Chad had the fourth highest score (behind Sudan) on the Failed State Index of 2012 and as of 2013, is ranked fifth.[81]

Corruption is rife at all levels; Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2005 named Chad (tied with Bangladesh) as the most corrupt country in the world.[82] Chad's ranking on the index has improved only marginally in recent years. Since its first inclusion on the index in 2004, Chad's best score has been 2/10 for 2011.[83] Critics of President Déby have accused him of cronyism and tribalism.[84]

Administrative divisions

Since 2012 Chad has been divided into 23 regions.[85] The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous 14 prefectures. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the 61 departments within the regions.[86] The departments are divided into 200 sub-prefectures, which are in turn composed of 446 cantons.[87][88]

The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by communautés rurales, but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed.[89] The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development.[90] To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivisions be governed by elected local assemblies,[91] but no local elections have taken place,[92] and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.[64] Region Pop. Capital Departments (2009)

اﻟﺒﻄﺤﺔ) Est Batha ,(اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ Batha (آﺗﻲ) Ati 488,458 اﻟﺒﻄﺤﺔ) Ouest (اﻟﺒﻄﺤﺔ) (ﻓﯿﺘﺮي) Fitri ,(اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ Chari- Baguirmi ( ), ﺑﺎﻗﺮﻣﻲ Baguirmi Massenya 578,425 Chari ( ), Loug ﺷﺎري (ﻣﺎﺳﯿﻨﯿﺎ) ﺷﺎري) (ﻟﻮق ﺷﺎري) Chari (ﺑﺎﻗﺮﻣﻲ Hadjer- ( ), Dagana دﺑﺎﺑﺎ Lamis 566,858 ( ), داﻗﺎﻧﺎ (ﻣﺎﺳﺎﻛﻮري) ﺣﺠﺮ) (ﺣﺮاز اﻟﺒﯿﺎر) (ﻟﻤﯿﺲ ( ), Dar ﺑﯿﻠﺘﯿﻦ Biltine 508,383 Tama ( ), دار ﺗﺎﻣﺎ (ﺑﯿﻠﺘﯿﻦ) (وادي ﻓﯿﺮا) (ﻛﻮﺑﻲ)

Bahr el Barh El Gazel Nord Moussoro ( ), ﺑﺤﺮ اﻟﻐﺰال اﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻲ 257,267 ﺑﺤﺮ) Gazel Barh El Gazel Sud (ﻣﻮﺳﻮرو) (اﻟﻐﺰال (ﺑﺤﺮ اﻟﻌﺰال اﻟﺠﻨﻮﺑﻲ) Borkou ( ), Administrative Since 2012 ﺑﻮرﻛﻮ -Borkou Faya 93,584 Largeau ( ﺑﻮرﻛﻮ (ﺑﻮرﻛﻮ) (ﻳﺎﻻ (ﻓﺎﻳﺎ ﻻرﺟﻮ)

ام) Ennedi- Am- Am-Djarass ,(ﺟﺮس Djarass 107,302 إﻧﯿﺪي) Est (وادي ھﻮار) (ام ﺟﺮس) (اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ Ennedi- Ouest Fada Fada ( ), Mourtcha ﻓﺎدا 60,617 (ﻣﻮرﺗﺸﺎ) (ﻓﺎدا) إﻧﯿﺪي) (اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ

,(أﺑﻮ ﺗﻮﻳﻮر) Guéra Mongo ( ﺑﺤﺮ 538,359 ,(ﻗﯿﺮا) Guéra ,(ﺳﯿﻨﯿﺎﻛﺎ (ﻣﻨﻘﻮ) (ﻗﯿﺮا) (ﻣﺎﻧﻘﺎﻟﻤﻲ) Mangalmé

Nord ,(ﻛﺎﻧﻢ) Kanem ,(ﺷﻤﺎل ﻛﺎﻧﻢ) Kanem Kanem (ﻣﺎو) Mao 333,387 وادي) (ﻛﺎﻧﻢ) (ﺑﯿﺴﺎم

Wayi ,(ﻣﺎﻣﺪي) Mamdi (ﺑﻮل) Bol 433,790 (واﻳﻲ) (اﻟﺒﺤﯿﺮة) Dodjé ( ), Guéni دوﺟﻲ Logone Lac Wey ,(ﻗﯿﻨﻲ) Occidental Moundou 689,044 ,(ﺑﺤﯿﺮة واي) (ﻣﻮﻧﺪو) ﻟﻮﻗﻮن) (اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ (إﻧﻘﻮرﻛﻮﺳﻮ)

La Nya ,(ﻧﯿﺎ) La Nya La ,(ﻧﯿﺎ ﺑﯿﻨﺪي) Pendé Logone -Kouh ,(ﺑﯿﻨﺪي) Oriental Pendé 779,339 ,(ﻛﻮح اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ) Est (دوﺑﺎ) Doba ﻟﻮﻗﻮن) ﻛﻮح) Kouh-Ouest (اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ Monts de ,(اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ (ﺟﺒﺎل اﻟﻼم) Lam ,(ﺑﺤﺮ ﺳﺎرا) Barh Sara Mandoul Koumra 628,065 ,(ﻣﺎﻧﺪول اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ) (ﻛﻮرﻣﺎ) (ﻣﺎﻧﺪول) (ﻣﺎﻧﺪول اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ)

-Mayo ,(ﻛﺎﺑﯿﺎ) Mayo- Boneye ( ), ﻣﺎﻳﻮ ﺑﻮﻧﺎي Kebbi Est Bongor 774,782 Mayo-Lémié ( ﻣﺎﻳﻮ (ﺑﻮﻧﻘﻮر) ﻣﺎﻳﻮ ﻛﯿﺒﻲ) Mont d'Illi ,(ﻟﯿﻤﻲ (اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ (ﺟﺒﻞ إﻟﻲ) Mayo- ﺑﺤﯿﺮة) Kebbi Lac Léré Mayo-Dallah ,(ﻟﯿﺮي (ﺑﺎﻻ) Ouest 564,470 Pala (ﻣﺎﻳﻮ داﻟﺔ) ﻣﺎﻳﻮ ﻛﯿﺒﻲ) (اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ

,(ﺑﺤﺮ ﻛﻮه) Moyen- Barh Köh Chari Sarh ( ﺳﯿﺪو 588,008 ﺑﺤﯿﺮة) Lac Iro ,(اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮ (ﺳﺎرة) ﺷﺎري) (إﻳﺮو (اﻷوﺳﻂ Abdi ( ), أﺑﺪي Ouaddaï Abéché 721,166 Assoungha ( ), أﺳﻮﻧﻐﺎ (أﺑﺘﺸﻲ) (واداي) (وارا) Ouara

,(أﺑﻮ دﻳﺎ) Aboudeïa ( ﺑﺤﺮ Am Timan 302,301 ), Haraze- أزوم (أم ﺗﯿﻤﺎن) (ﺳﻼﻣﺎت) ﺣﺮاز) Mangueigne (ﻣﺎﻧﻘﯿﻦ Djourf Al Ahmar ( ﺟﺮف Sila Goz Beïda 387,461 ), اﻷﺣﻤﺮ (ﻗﻮز ﺑﯿﺪا) (ﺳﯿﻼ) (ﻛﯿﻤﯿﺘﻲ)

ﺗﺎﻧﺠﻠﻲ) Tandjilé Est Tandjilé ,(اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ Tandjilé (ﻻدي) Laï 661,906 ﺗﺎﻧﺠﻠﻲ) Ouest (ﺗﺎﻧﺠﻠﻲ) (اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ

ﺗﺒﺴﺘﻲ) Tibesti Bardaï ), Tibesti اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ 25,483 ﺗﺒﺴﺘﻲ) {Ouest (ﺑﺮادي) (ﺗﺒﺴﺘﻲ) (اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ N'Djamena N'Djamena 10 dawā ir or ( ) 951,418 ʾ arrondissements (اﻧﺠﻤﯿﻨﺎ) اﻧﺠﻤﯿﻨﺎ (capital) Key on Region Capital map

(آﺗﻲ) Ati (اﻟﺒﻄﺤﺔ) Batha 1 Chari-Baguirmi ( Massenya ﺷﺎري 2 (ﻣﺎﺳﯿﻨﯿﺎ) (ﺑﺎﻗﺮﻣﻲ Massakory (ﺣﺠﺮ ﻟﻤﯿﺲ) Hadjer-Lamis 3 (ﻣﺎﺳﺎﻛﻮري)

(ﺑﯿﻠﺘﯿﻦ) Biltine (وادي ﻓﯿﺮا) Wadi Fira 4 Moussoro (ﺑﺤﺮ اﻟﻐﺰال) Bahr el Gazel 5 (ﻣﻮﺳﻮرو)

ﻓﺎﻳﺎ) Faya-Largeau (ﺑﻮرﻛﻮ) Borkou 6 (ﻻرﺟﻮ

(ﻓﺎدا) Fada (إﻧﯿﺪي) Ennedi 7

(ﻣﻨﻘﻮ) Mongo (ﻗﯿﺮا) Guéra 8

(ﻣﺎو) Mao (ﻛﺎﻧﻢ) Kanem 9

(ﺑﻮل) Bol (اﻟﺒﺤﯿﺮة) Lac 10

ﻟﻮﻗﻮن) Logone Occidental (ﻣﻮﻧﺪو) Moundou 11 Regions of Chad 2008–2012 (numbered (اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ (corresponding to table at left ﻟﻮﻗﻮن) (دوﺑﺎ) Doba 12 (اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ

(ﻛﻮرﻣﺎ) Koumra (ﻣﺎﻧﺪول) Mandoul 13

ﻣﺎﻳﻮ ﻛﯿﺒﻲ) Mayo-Kebbi Est (ﺑﻮﻧﻘﻮر) Bongor 14 (اﻟﺸﺮﻗﯿﺔ

ﻣﺎﻳﻮ) Mayo-Kebbi Ouest (ﺑﺎﻻ) Pala 15 (ﻛﯿﺒﻲ اﻟﻐﺮﺑﯿﺔ

ﺷﺎري) Moyen-Chari (ﺳﺎرة) Sarh 16 (اﻷوﺳﻂ

(أﺑﺘﺸﻲ) Abéché (واداي) Ouaddaï 17

أم) Am Timan (ﺳﻼﻣﺎت) Salamat 18 (ﺗﯿﻤﺎن

ﻗﻮز) Goz Beïda (ﺳﯿﻼ) Sila 19 (ﺑﯿﺪا

(ﻻدي) Laï (ﺗﺎﻧﺠﻠﻲ) Tandjilé 20

(ﺑﺮادي) Bardaï (ﺗﺒﺴﺘﻲ) Tibesti 21 N'Djamena (اﻧﺠﻤﯿﻨﺎ) N'Djamena 22 (اﻧﺠﻤﯿﻨﺎ) (capital)

Military The army has over 30,350 active personnel and 3,000,000 fit for military service. Military spending has fluctuated widely in recent history in response to local conditions, especially the 2005–2010 civil war and instability in neighboring countries. In 2009, while in civil war, Chad spent 4.2% of GDP on defense, which fell to 1.6% of GDP in 2011 before rising to 2.0% of GDP in 2013, when Chad began its military intervention in Northern Mali, as it worked with France and other African nations to bring back Mali's sovereignty over territory in the North.

Rebel groups

There have been numerous rebel groups in Chad throughout the last few decades. In 2007 , a peace treaty was signed that integrated United Front for Democratic Change or FUC soldiers into the Chadian Army.[93] The Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad or MDJT also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow President Idriss Déby. In addition, there have been various conflicts with Khartoum's Janjaweed rebels in eastern Chad, who killed civilians by use of helicopter gunships.[94] Presently, the Union of Resistance Forces or UFR are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad. In 2010, the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6,000 men and 300 vehicles.[95]

Law enforcement

In Chad, the Gendarmerie Nationale serves as the national police force for the country.

Human rights

In Chad, homosexual acts are illegal and can be punished by 15 to 20 years in prison.[96] In December 2016, Chad passed a law criminalising both male and female same-sex sexual activity by a vote of 111 to 1.[97]

Land conflicts

In southern Chad, bitter conflicts over land are becoming more and more common. They frequently turn violent. Long-standing community culture is being eroded – and so are the livelihoods of many farmers.[98]

Economy

The United Nations' Human Development Index ranks Chad as the seventh poorest country in the world, with 80% of the population living below the poverty line. The GDP (Purchasing power parity) per capita was estimated as US$1,651 in 2009.[5] Chad is part of the Bank of Central African States, the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[99]

Chad's currency is the CFA franc. In the 1960s, the Mining industry of Chad produced sodium carbonate, or natron. There have also been reports of gold-bearing quartz in the Biltine Prefecture. However, years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 197 9 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects.[40][65] Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood.[40] The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate. In the southernmost 10% of the territory lies the nation's most fertile cropland, with rich yields of sorghum and millet. In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow, and these with much lower yields than in the south. On the other hand, the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats, sheep, donkeys and horses. The Sahara's scattered oases support only some Graphical depiction of Chad's product exports in 28 color- dates and legumes.[12] Chad's cities face coded categories. serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure; only 48% of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2% to basic sanitation.[42][89]

Before the development of oil industry, cotton dominated industry and the labour market had accounted for approximately 80% of export earnings.[100] Cotton remains a primary export, although exact figures are not available. Rehabilitation of Cotontchad, a major cotton company weakened by a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed Women in Mao, where water is by France, the Netherlands, the European Union, and the provided by a water tower. Access to clean water is often a problem in International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). Chad. The parastatal is now expected to be privatised.[65] Other than Cotton, Cattle and Gum Arabic are dominant.[101]

If Chad can maintain a semblance of stability foreign investments will eventually return, but even 24 years after the last successful coup that brought President Idris Deby to power, investors are still wary of investing in Chad.[102]

Humanitarian situation

According to the United Nations, Chad has been affected by a humanitarian crisis since at least 2001. As of 2008, the country of Chad hosts over 280,000 refugees from the Sudan's Darfur region, over 55,000 from the Central African Republic, as well as over 17 0,000 internally displaced persons.[103]

In February 2008 in the aftermath of the battle of N'Djamena, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes expressed "extreme concern" that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life-saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries, most of whom – according to him – heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival.[104] UN spokesperson Maurizio Giuliano stated to : "If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels, the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe".[105] In addition, organizations such as Save the Children have suspended activities due to killings of aid workers.[106]

Infrastructure

Transport

Civil war crippled the development of transport infrastructure; in 1987 , Chad had only 30 kilometres (19 mi) of paved roads. Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network[107] to 550 kilometres (340 mi) by 2004.[108] Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year. With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the [109] seaport of Douala. A bridge on the Bragoto River.

Air transport

As of 2013 Chad had an estimated 59 airports, only 9 of which had paved runways.[110] An international airport serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities.

Railways

At the beginning of the 20th century, a railway system was in development near Lake Chad. In the 21st century, Chad and the An airplane landing in Abéché. China Civil Engineering Construction Corp agreed to a $7 billion contract to build additional railway infrastructure. Presently, there are rail links to Libya and Sudan.

Energy

Chad's energy sector has had years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society (STEE), which provides power for 15% of the capital's citizens and covers only 1.5% of the national population.[111] Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power.[112]

ExxonMobil leads a consortium of Chevron and Petronas that has invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad. Oil production began in 2003 with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the World Bank) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon. As a condition of its assistance, the World Bank insisted that 80% of oil revenues be spent on development projects. In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount.[65][92] On 14 July 2006, the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 7 0% of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes.[113] Telecommunications

The telecommunication system is basic and expensive, with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company SotelTchad. Only 14,000 fixed telephone lines serve all of Chad, one of the lowest telephone density rates in the world.

Gateway Communications, a pan-African wholesale connectivity and telecommunications provider also has a presence in Chad.[114] In September 2013, Chad's Ministry for Posts and Information & Communication Technologies (PNTIC) announced that the country will be seeking a partner for fiber optic technology.[115]

Mobile phones

In September 2010 the penetration rate was estimated at 24.3% over a population estimate of 10.7 million.[116]

Chad is ranked last in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Chad ranked number 148 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 142 in 2013.[117]

Rank Operator Technology Subscribers Ownership (in millions) [118] 1 Tigo GSM-900 1.257 (Oct MIC (100%) 2010) 2 Airtel GSM-900 1.199 (June 2009) Bharti Airtel (100%)

3 salam GSM 0.120 (December Salam 2008) 4 Celtel[119] Zain

Media

Chad's television audience is limited to N'Djamena. The only television station is the state-owned Télé Tchad. Radio has a far greater reach, with 13 private radio stations.[120] Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution, and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs, low literacy rates, and poverty.[76][112][121] While the constitution defends liberty of expression, the government has regularly restricted this right, and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media.[122]

Education

Educators face considerable challenges due to the nation's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school. Although attendance is compulsory, only 68 percent of boys attend primary school, and more than half of the population is illiterate. Higher education is provided at the University of N'Djamena.[42][65] At 33 percent, Chad has one of the lowest literacy rates of Sub-Saharan Africa.[123]

In 2013, the U.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor[124] in Chad reported that school attendance of children aged 5 to 14 was as low as 39%. This can also be related to the issue of child labor as the report also stated that 53% of children aged 5 to 14 were working children, and that 30% of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school. A more recent DOL report listed cattle herding as a major agricultural activity that employed underage children.[125]

Culture

Because of its great variety of peoples and languages, Chad Holidays[111] possesses a rich cultural heritage. The Chadian Date English Name government has actively promoted Chadian culture and 1 January New Year's Day national traditions by opening the Chad National Museum and the Chad Cultural Centre.[42] Six national holidays are 1 May Labour Day observed throughout the year, and movable holidays 25 May African Liberation Day include the Christian holiday of Easter Monday and the 11 August Independence Day Muslim holidays of Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, and Eid Milad 1 November All Saints' Day Nnabi.[111] 28 November Republic Day 1 December Freedom and Democracy Day Music 25 December Christmas The music of Chad includes a number of unusual instruments such as the kinde, a type of bow harp; the kakaki, a long tin horn; and the hu hu, a stringed instrument that uses calabashes as loudspeakers. Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups: the Sara prefer whistles, balafones, harps and kodjo drums; and the Kanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments.[126]

The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on sai, a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack of A Chadian tailor sells traditional legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further dresses. development of the Chadian music industry.[126][127]

Cuisine

Millet is the staple food throughout Chad. It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces. In the north this dish is known as alysh; in the south, as biya. Fish is popular, which is generally prepared and sold either as salanga (sun-dried and lightly smoked Alestes and Hydrocynus) or as banda (smoked large fish).[128] Carcaje is a popular sweet red tea extracted from hibiscus leaves. Alcoholic beverages, though absent in the north, are popular in the south, where people drink millet beer, known as billi-billi when brewed from red millet, and as coshate when from white millet.[126]

Literature As in other Sahelian countries, literature in Chad has seen an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers. Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse. Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction. Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seïd, Baba Moustapha, Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko. In 2003 Chad's sole literary critic, Ahmat Taboye, published his Anthologie de la littérature tchadienne to further knowledge of Chad's literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad's lack of publishing houses and promotional structure.[126][129][130]

Film

The development of a Chadian film industry was hampered by the devastations of civil war and from the lack of cinemas, of which there is only one in the whole country. The first Chadian feature film, the docudrama Bye Bye Africa, was made in 1999 by Mahamat Saleh Haroun. His later film Abouna was critically acclaimed, and his Daratt won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival. The 2010 feature film A Screaming Man won the Jury Prize at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, making Haroun the first Chadian director to enter, as well as win, an award in the main Cannes competition.[131] Issa Serge Coelo directed Chad's two other films, Daresalam and DP75: Tartina City.[132][133][134][135]

Sports

Football is Chad's most popular sport.[136] The country's national team is closely followed during international competitions[126] and Chadian footballers have played for French teams. Basketball and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced, the latter in a form in which the wrestlers put on traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust.[126]

See also

Outline of Chad 2010 Sahel famine

Notes

1. "Chad country profile, Political Rights and Civil Liberties" (https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2 018/chad). Freedom House. 10 January 2018. 2. "Le TCHAD en bref" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151222081746/http://www.inseedtchad.com/?Le-TCHA D-en-bref) (in French). INSEED. 22 July 2013. Archived from the original (http://www.inseedtchad.com/?Le-T CHAD-en-bref) on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2015. 3. Projections demographiques 2009–2050 Tome 1: Niveau national (https://web.archive.org/web/201512221541 46/http://www.inseedtchad.com/IMG/pdf/projections_demographiques_nationales.pdf) (PDF) (Report) (in French). INSEED. July 2014. p. 7. Archived from the original (http://www.inseedtchad.com/IMG/pdf/projections _demographiques_nationales.pdf) (PDF) on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2015. 4. DEUXIEME RECENSEMENT GENERAL DE LA POPULATION ET DE L'HABITAT (RGPH2, 2009): RESULTATS GLOBAUX DEFINITIFS (https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035230/http://www.inseedtchad.com/IMG/pdf/ rapport_resultats_definitifs_rapport.pdf) (PDF) (Report) (in French). INSEED. March 2012. p. 7. Archived from the original (http://www.inseedtchad.com/IMG/pdf/rapport_resultats_definitifs_rapport.pdf) (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2015. 5. "Chad" (http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=54&pr.y=1&sy=2014& ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=628&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&gr p=0&a=). International Monetary Fund. 6. "Gini Index" (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=TD). World Bank. Retrieved 16 April 2017. 7. "2016 Human Development Report" (http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.p df) (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2017. 8. Bush, Ray (2007). Poverty and neoliberalism: persistence and reproduction in the global south (https://books.g oogle.com/books?id=347BAAAAIAAJ). ISBN 9780745319605. 9. Amin, Samir (1990). Maldevelopment: Anatomy of a Global Failure (https://books.google.com/books?id=p_5Hjgjp mmUC). United Nations University Press. ISBN 9780862329310. 10. Bond, Patrick (2006). Looting Africa: The Economics of Exploitation (https://books.google.com/books?id=tBXF3 IIcBwYC). Zed Books. ISBN 9781842778111. 11. Decalo, pp. 44–45 12. S. Collelo, Chad 13. D. Lange 1988 14. Decalo, p. 6 15. Decalo, pp. 7–8 16. "Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History" (https://web.archive.org/web/2014100613193 1/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157). Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original (http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2010. 17. Decalo, p. 53 18. Decalo, pp. 8, 309 19. Decalo, pp. 8–9 20. Decalo, pp. 248–249 21. Nolutshungu, p. 17 22. "Death of a Dictator" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917376,00.html), Time, (28 April 1975). Accessed on 3 September 2007. 23. Decalo, pp. 12–16 24. Nolutshungu, p. 268 25. Nolutshungu, p. 150 26. Nolutshungu, p. 230 27. Pollack, Kenneth M. (2002); Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3733-2, pp. 391–397 28. Macedo, Stephen (2006); Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1950-3, pp. 133–134 29. "Chad: the Habré Legacy" (https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR20/004/2001/en). Amnesty International. 16 October 2001. 30. Nolutshungu, pp. 234–237 31. "Chad ex-leader Habre charged in Senegal with war crimes" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23153 532). BBC. 2 July 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013. 32. 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External links

Government

General

"Chad" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cd.html). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Chad country study (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/tdtoc.html) from Library of Congress Chad (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/chad.htm) web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado–Boulder Libraries Chad (https://curlie.org/Regional/Africa/Chad) at Curlie (based on DMOZ) Chad profile (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13164686) from the BBC News Wikimedia Atlas of Chad Key Development Forecasts for Chad (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TD) from International Futures

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