A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF MAGAR (As Spoken in Myagdi District)
A thesis Submitted To The Central Department of Linguistics The Faculties of Humanities and Social Sciences
Tribhuvan University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for The master's degree in Linguistics
By Kasi Raj Gautam Second year exam roll no. 5638 T.U. Regd. No. 1765-99
Central Department of Linguistics Kathmandu, Nepal 2010
Letter of recommendation
Date: 2067
This is to certify that Mr. Kasi Raj Gautam has completed this dissertation on the topic A Sociolinguistic Study of Magar (As Spoken in Myagdi District) under my guidance and supervision. I recommend this dissertation for evaluation.
______Mr. Lekhnath Sharma Pathak Lecturer Central Department of Linguistics Tribhuvan University Kathmandu, Nepal
2
Letter of Approval
This is to certify that A Sociolinguistic Study of Magar (As Spoken in Myagdi District) a dissertation submitted by Mr. Kasi Raj Gautam in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master's degree in Linguistics has been duly approved for acceptance.
______Dissertation Supervisor
______External Examiner
______Head of the Department
Date: 2067
3
Acknowledgements
First of all, I am profoundly indebted to my respected supervisor Mr. Lekhnath Sharma Pathak, Lecturer of Central Department of Linguistics, T.U., Nepal for his scholarly and insightful guidelines, constant encouragement, co-operation and constructive suggestions for successful accomplishment of the present thesis. I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude and honor to Dr. Dan Raj Regmi, Head of Central Department of Linguistics. I am very much thankful to him for his valuable remarks, guidelines and insightful comments. Dr. Nirmal Man Tuladhar, Professor of Central Department of Linguistics, deserves my special thanks as an external supervisor who provided constructive suggestions, invaluable support of accomplishment of thesis. I would like to express my gratefulness to Prof. Dr. Yogendra Prasad Yadav, former Head of Central Department of Linguistics and Dr. Madhav Prasad Pokhrel, Professor of Central Department of Linguistics who gave the broad vision of language I needed for the study.
I wholeheartedly would like to express my thankfulness to Mr. Ram Raj Lohani, Mr. Balram Prasain, Mr. Bhim Lal Gautam, Mr. Krishna Prasad Parajuli, Mr. Krishna Prasad Chalise, Mr. Bhim Narayan Regmi, Mr. Krishna Paudel and other faculty members of Central Department of Linguistics, T.U., Kirtipur for their direct and indirect academic prosperity and moral support.
I heartily thank my language teachers Sat Prasad Roka, Yam Bahadur Pun, Chandra Bahadur Budhathoki, Asha Pun, Laxmi Kumari Roka, who constantly provided me their valuable time for eliciting data and other things related to my dissertation. I am also indebted to all other informants whose names have not been mentioned here and who helped me to provide information about the Magar language and culture.
I offer my deep gratitude to Director of the Linguistic Survey of Nepal for providing sociolinguistic questionnaire. I am indebted to the authors whose ideas are cited and adopted in this thesis. My deepest debt of gratitude is to my colleagues and students of Mangala Shikshya Campus and Dawning English Secondary Boarding School, Babiyachaur, Myagdi. They encouraged me to follow my dreams. Moreover, I am very grateful to my brother Dipendra and other family members for their constant help to accomplish the present work. Finally yet most importantly, thanks are reserved to Bishow for photos.
Kasi Raj Gautam 4
Abstract
The main goal of this study is to assess the socio-linguistic situation of the Magar language spoken in Myagdi district. This study has employed different field based sociolinguistic tools such as sociolinguistic questionnaires, interviews, observation for the collection of the information for the sociolinguistic situation of the language.
This study has been organized into six chapters. The first chapter presents the introduction; the second chapter deals with the Magar language and people; third chapter describes the methodology used in study; chapter four and five presents the sociolinguistic data and analysis and finding; chapter six finally summarizes, recommends and concludes this work of research. The references and appendices are listed at the back of the thesis.
The major findings of the study comprise (i) The Magar language is spoken by only a few number of speakers, that is 770119 (ii) There is no standardization of language in any way (iii) It is potentially endangered language because of lack of intergenerational transmission, use in mass media and medium of instruction. (iv) Magar people are both bilingual and multilingual. Most of them speak Nepali, Magar, Chhantyal and English. (v) Only religious activities and daily communication are two domains in which Magar is used. (vi) They have positive attitude towards their language and language of others. (vii) They celebrate the Dashain, Tihar, Sanskranti and other tribal festivals for worshipping clan deities and other gods and goddess.
5
Table of contents
Acknowledgements iii Abstract iv List of tables viii List of figures ix List of maps x List of photos xi Abbreviations xii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1-5 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 2 1.3 Objectives of the study 2 1.4 Review of literature 2 1.4.1 Literature review related to the Magar language 2 1.4.2 Literature review related to sociolinguistic survey 3 1.5 Significance of the study 4 1.6 Limitations of the study 5 1.7 Organization of the study 5
Chapter 2: Magar people and language 6-25 2.0 Outline 6 2.1 Geographical introduction 6 2.2 Glotonym 9 2.3 Origin and history 9 2.4 Genetic affiliation 12 2.5 Magar society and their social practices 13 2.5.1 House and living style 13 2.5.2 Food system 14 2.5.3 Dressing 15 2.6 Economic activity of the society 16 2.7 Social and family structure 17 2.8 Kinship terms 17
6
2.9 Tradition and culture 18 2.9.1 Birth 18 2.9.2 Rice feeding ceremony (Putdhadai) 18 2.9.3 Hair shaving ceremony (Chhewar) 19 2.9.4 Marriage 19 2.9.5 Death rites 20 2.9.6 Festivals 20 2.10 Education, literacy and Literacy Traditions 22 2.11 Population distribution 23 2.12 Summary 25
Chapter 3: Methodology 26-28 3.0 Outline 26 3.1 Data collection 26 3.1.1 Tools 26 3.1.2 Sampling procedures 27 3.2 Data Analysis 28 3.3 Summary 28
Chapter 4: Language attitude and language use 29-40 4.0 Outline 29 4.1 Data on Language Attitude 29 4.2 Data on language use 33 4.3 Summary 40
Chapter 5 : Language endangerment, multilingualism, bilingualism and lexical similarities and differences 41-51 5.0 Outline 41 5.1 Data on Language Endangerment 41 5.2 Data on bilingualism / multilingualism 45 5.3 Lexical similarities and differences 49 5.4 Summary 52
Chapter 6: Findings, summary and conclusion 53-58 6.0 Outline 53 6.1 General summary 53 7
6.2 Main Findings 54 6.2.1 Socio-cultural Status 54 6.2.2 Language attitude 54 6.2.3 Language use 55 6.2.4 Bi/multilingualism 55 6.2.5 Language Endangerment 56 6.3 Conclusion 57 6.4 Recommendations 57
References 59-61
Appendices
8
List of tables
Table 2.1 : Government and private schools and colleges in survey areas 22 Table 2.2 : Regionwise Population of Magar by Mother Tongue 23 Table 2.3 : VDC wise Magar Native Speakers in Survey District 24 Table 3.1 : Overview of tools and its focus 26 Table 3.2 : Sampling of Population 27 Table 4.1 : Feeling of native speakers while speaking their mother tongue 29
Table 4.2 : Problems showing being an L1 speaker 30
Table 4.3 : Problem due to an L1 speaker 31 Table 4.4 : Language used in community gathering 31 Table 4.5 : Feeling of mother tongue against other languages 32 Table 4.6 : Language use 33 Table 4.7 : Language use 34 Table 4.8 : Language use 35 Table 4.9 : Language use 35 Table 4.10 : Language use 36 Table 4.11 : Use of languages for kith and kin 37 Table 4.12 : Language used for different genres 38 Table 4.13 : Use of languages with mother tongue speakers 38 Table 4.14 : Use of languages with the non-mother neighbours 39 Table 5.1 : The condition of endangerment 41 Table 5.2 : Language endangerment 43
Table 5.3 : Bilingualism 45 Table 5.4 : Bilingualism 46 Table 5.5 : Bilingualism 47 Table 5.6 : Bilingualism 47 Table 5.7 : Lexical similarities and differences 49
9
List of figures
Figure 4.1 : Feeling of native speakers while speaking their mother tongue 29
Figure 42 : Problems showing being an L1 speaker 30 Figure 4.3 : Language used in community gathering 31 Figure 4.4 : Feeling of mother tongue against other languages 32 Figure 4.5 : Language use 33 Figure 4.6 : Language use 34 Figure 4.7 : Language use 35 Figure 4.8 : Language use 36 Figure 4.9 : Language use 37 Figure 4.10 : Use of languages with mother tongue speakers 39 Figure 4.11 : Use of languages with the non-mother neighbours 40 Figure 5.1 : The condition of endangerment 42 Figure 5.2 : Language endangerment 43 Figure 5.3 : Bilingualism 45 Figure 5.4 : Bilingualism 46 Figure 5.5 : Bilingualism 47 Figure 5.6 : Bilingualism 48
10
List of maps
Map 2.1 : The boundary showing the VDC's of Myagdi district 7 Map 2.2 : Map of Nepal showing district area 8 Map 2.3 : Map of Nepal showing Magar speaking area 11
11
List of photos
Photo 2.1 : A typical Magar house in Myagdi district 14 Photo 2.2 : An Elderly Female in Traditional Magar Dress 15 Photo 2.3 : Women in Traditional Magar Dress 16 Photo 2.4 : Magar People in Cultural Programme 21 Photo 2.5 : Magar People in Rodhi 21 Photo 2.6 : Magar People in Religious Ceremony 22
12
Abbreviations
CBS – Central Bureau of Statistics CUP – Cambridge University Press LinSuN – Linguistic Survey of Nepal CDL – Central Department of Linguistics VDC – Village Development Committee TU – Tribhuvan University
13
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
This study is an attempt to analyze the socioilinguistic study of the Magar language (As spoken in Myagdi District). There are about 7000 languages in the world. Among them, many minority languages are on verge of extinction. As most of the languages are undocumented, there is an ample possibility of the languages with distinct culture, custom, traditions and values may disappear. S. Kanggas says that languages do not die themselves but kill by human-beings.
Nepal is a multilingual, multicultural, multiracial country. The 2001 census has identified 92 languages spoken as mother tongues by more than 102 ethnic communities Central Bureau of Statistics (2001). Ethnologue edited by Gorden (2005) lists 126. Mainly four language families exist here, namely, Indo-Aryan, Tibeto- Burman, Austro-Asiastic and Dravidian while. Kusunda is considered as language isolate.
The Magar language belongs to Sino-Tibetan family of Tibeto-Burman branch of Bodic sub group of Central Himalayish group (Yadava 2003:146). It is spoken mainly in western-central part of Nepal such as Baglung, Rukum, Rolpa, Myagdi, etc. According to the census report 2001, the total population of Magars is 1622421 and its speakers 770116 (3.41%) of the total population of Nepal. Among languages spoken in Nepal, Magar holds seventh place. Out of them, 49757 Magar speakers live in urban and 720359 in rural areas.
Ethnologue edited by Lewis (2009:491-2) separates the Magar language into two types i.e. eastern and western. Eastern Magar is spoken in Gandaki zone, east of Bagmati river, central mountains, Bhojpur, Letang, Sikkim, etc. The literacy rate in L1 is 1% - 5% where as 25% - 50% in L2. Western Magar, on the other hand, is spoken in Rapti zone, Dhaulagiri zone and Bheri zone. The literacy rate in L1 is below 1% Whilst 5-15% in L2. Magar recognized as an official nationality. The Magar language is written in Devnagari script but Aakhkha script is in the process of development.
14
There are many programmes and news broadcast in media either print or electronic. Some magazines and newspaper have been published.
1.2 Statement of the problem
There are quite a few works carried out in the Magar language and culture but no effort has been made to demonstrate sociolinguistic survey of a particular dialect of Myagdi Magar by anyone till the date. There has not been found out a concrete figure of the Magar language and its sociolinguistic situation yet.
Thus, this research has raised the following problems:
a. What is the attitude of Magar people towards their mother tongue and other languages ?
b. What is the state and pattern of language endangerment ?
c. What is the rate of bi/multilingualism ?
1.3 Objectives of the study
The general objective of the study is to explore the sociolinguistic profile of the Magar language and its native speakers. The specific objectives are as follows:
a. To find out the attitudes of Magar people towards their mother tongue as well as other languages;
b. To investigate possible situations of language use;
c. To find out the state and pattern of language endangerment; and
d. To evaluate the level and extent of bi/multilingualism.
1.4 Review of literature
1.4.1 Literature review related to the Magar language
Shepherd and Barbara (1973) collected about 40 Magar texts and analyzed. They also listed out Magar word for plants and animals, clothing, etc.
Bista (1996) has described the Magar language and culture, customs of Magar native speakers under one subheading.
Van Driem (1997) has described the socio-cultural aspects of the Magar language under the heading of Magar and Kham. He interpreted all works on the Magar language by linguists till that time. 15
Magar (1998) included about 15000 words. Each word is described with its parts of speech, Nepali equivalent as well as English equivalent words.
Noonan (1999) has given the introduction of the Chhantyal people. According to him, the majority of the Myagdi Chhantyal continue to speak Chhantyal in the home and villages. Chhantyal has a regionally typical vowel system consisting of six vowel positions with contrastive and nasalization. Furthermore, he briefly describes typological sketch of Chhantyal. He also vividly gives English Chhantyal dictionary and kinship charts.
Regmi (1999) has found that there were four types of causatives, namely, morpho- lexical, lexical and syntactic, some non-causativizable verbs and morphological anti- causative in Magar. Likewise, expression of closeness and expression of control are two major semantic functions of causativization. He concluded that there is a complex process of causatization in Magar.
Watters (2002) has described about various grammatical aspects of Kham Magar vividly.
Thapa (2009) published the dictionary entitled Magar (Dhut) - Khas-English Dictionary. It comprised about 20000 words. He also has given Magar alphabet. Each word is supplied with pronunciation, example, Nepali and English equivalent word.
1.4.2 Literature review related to sociolinguistic survey
Rensch, et al. (1992) have provided a holistic overview of the sociolinguistic situation in northern Pakistan using multiple pronged approach. It was published in five different volumes.
Dhimal (2001) has found that Dhimal people are either bilingual or multilingual. The use of Dhimal among all subjects is high in the domains of religion, friendship and home. Older and younger people speak Dhimal differently. Young people mix Dhimal with Nepali. The attitude among younger people towards using are mostly positive.
16
Adhikari (2006) has found that the Chepang language is used in most of the domains like at home, with village friends, at local Market and at religious activities. The language variation is mutually intelligible. The formal process of standardization in the Chepang language has not been started yet .
Paudel (2008) has found that the Bankariya Language is spoken by a limited number of people called Bankariyas. No dialect of Bankariya has been found. It is used in limited domain. Moreover, it is used in ritual functions. It has only oral tradition with folk stories and songs. It is akin to Chepang and Bhujel.
Budhathoki (2009) has found that the Koyee language is used in very limited domains. It is used only in daily communication and religious activities. It has only oral traditions with talk stories and songs. They observe the festival sakela and all other festivals related to Hindu people. They are both bilingual and multilingual . Thus it is one of the endangered and the least studied language.
Das (2009) has found that it is spoken by a restricted number of people in a very limited domains. They are mostly bilingual. It is potentially endangered language. It has only oral traditions with folk stories and songs. It is very close to Majhi, Maithali, Bhojpuri.
Devkota (2010) has found that Gurung speakers have positive attitude towards their own language and language of others. It is the main and maximally used at home with neighbours, with friends at work place. Bilingual situation is strong in research area.
No study on sociolinguistic survey of the Magar language has been carried out yet so far. Hence, this research is being undertaken to do sociolinguistic survey of the Magar language as a new area of study.
1.5 Significance of the study
The present study has the following significance:
a. It will be a milestone in LinSuN. The findings of this study provide the current sociolinguistic situation of the Magar language.
b. The linguists, grammarians, researchers, students, teachers and textbook writers will be benefited.
c. It will lay a foundation for the typological study in Magar.
17
d. This will be useful for policy makers in the linguistic scenario.
1.6 Limitations of the study
The present study has following limitations:
a. This study is restricted to Myagdi district of Magar native speakers.
b. This study is only focused on sociolinguistic study of Myagdi Magar.
c. Only 60 native speakers of Magar have been chosen.
d. The study is more descriptive than theoretical.
1.7 Organization of the study
This study is organized into six chapters. Introduction of study and the Magar language are given in chapter one. Second chapter presents current situation of Magar people and language. Research methodology is in chapter three. Chapter four and five deal with presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. Findings, summary and conclusion is displayed in chapter six. References and appendices are presented at the end.
18
Chapter 2
Magar people and language
2.0 Outline
This chapter is segmented into twelve sections. Geographical introduction of study area is given in second section. Third section deals with glotonym. Origin and history of the Magar language can be seen on section 2.3. Section 2.4 deals with genetic affiliation of TB language family. Magar society and their social practices is in section 2.5. Section 2.6 deals with economic activity of the society. Section 2.7 and 2.8 describe social and family structure and Kinship terms respectively. Tradition and culture of Magar people is in section 2.9. Education, literacy and its traditions is shown in section 2.10. Population distribution of Magar people is on section 2.11. Section 2.12 summarizes the chapter.
2.1 Geographical introduction
Myagdi is a district which lies in Dhaulagiri zone. Gurja, Mudi and Narchang are distant villages. The district is located between the 28 20'-20 48' north latitude to 88 10' - 88 45' east longitude and is elevated from 915 to 8157 meters in attitudes. The total area of land of Myagdi is 2297 square kilometers. Beni Bazar is the headquarter of the district which is located at eastern part of district on the bank of Kali river and Myagdi Khola 'stream'.
Nepali, Magar, Chhantyal and Newar are the major languages spoken in the district. The population of district is 114,447. Out of them, 4782 are Magars; 18846 are Chhetri; 15273 are Kami; 8945 are Brahman Hill, 1005 are Newar (Population Census 2001). Devisthan, Histhan Mandali, Ramche and Muna are dense Magar villages in the district. The survey areas located at southern part of the district.
Dhaulagiri 1st, Bhosee, Jugia, Arghul Dhuri are the major Himalayan peaks. The famous lakes like Tatopani 'hot water' and Kunda 'pond' which contain sulpher and people take bath to be cured from skin diseases. It is important to note that Shaligram found on Kaligandaki river upon Galeswar, the famous tourism place of Nepal.
19
Map 2.1: The Boundary showing the VDC's of Myagdi district
(Source: Joshi and Bhandari 2007:520)
20
Map 2.2: Map of Nepal showing district area
(Source: Gurung et al. 2006: 02)
21
2.2 Glotonym
Most language in the Himalayan region are named, at least by outsiders, after the ethnic destination of the people who speak them (Watters 2002:8). It applies to Magar case too. The term 'Magar' refers to both ethnonym 'people name' and glossonym 'language name'. Thus, there is one to one relationship between the ethnicity and language.
2.3 Origin and history
'Magyar' is the name of traditional people of Hangeri as well as the race name of the Hangeri. It is said that Nepalese Magars entered Nepal from Central Asia through Tibet. They are the siblings of Huna. There is close blood relationship between Hangerian Magyar and Nepalese Magar. This fact also is mentioned by Hangerian scientist Alexander de Kores de Csoma (Khatri 2056:200).
Akharika is the oldest script of this continent which means verna mala or alphabet in the language. No other language except Magar can claim Rikaa as its script. The word Rikka means script or alphabet in the classical Magar language. It was first invented by Magar ancestors that pervaded through out the Indian subcontinent. Ancient Magar published booklet, newspapers and calendars in akkha script. Thus, akhkha script belongs to the Magar language. Later, it became Brahmi script. (www.magarlanguag/history.htm).
The name is written Magar in Nepali, but the pronunciation māgar, with a nasal vowel in the first syllable, is often heard and may reflect an old pronunciation (Van Driem 1997:775). The word 'Magar' is originated from the words Mangol, maangil and maongoli. Magar is the combination of mg and ar. mg refers to a manggal whilst 'ar' refers to children. Thus, it refers to the children of Manggal. The principal place of Magar settlement is bahramagarat 'twelve magar regions' which occupies Lumbini zone, Bheri zone and Rapti zone. The Magar area once a powerful kingdom in western Nepal with its centre in pālpā district in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Magars gained a status equivalent to that of the Thakuri in the Nepalese caste system during region of Prithvi Narayan Sah. Magar and Gurung were the first Tibeto- Burman groups to be incorporated by the nascent Gorkhali state, for they had become part of Prithvi Narayan Sah's war machine even before the conquest of the Nepal valley. This accounts for the fact that both Magar and Gurung are now found settled
22
throughout eastern Nepal, where they were not originally natives of the soil (Van Driem 1997:776).
The aspirations of the Magars to be included within the Hindu caste system was relationalsed by a myth. The first Magar was the youngest of the four brothers. The eldest, who became the ancestors of the Thakuris, worshipped Kalika while youngest sacrificed pig to the Bhairab 'name of the god'. Hence they became a Magar, that is, the Magar's engaged in the work of pig breeding, though this occupation and eating of pork were looked down by upper caste Hindus (Shrestha 1997:29).
Magars were Thakuris in the past. They worshipped the goddess Kali. It is true in the sense that we find castes like Thapa, Gharti, Rana, Budhathoki in both Thakuri and Magar. The foremost handwritten book of Magar was entitled 'Asta Sahasraka Prajha Paramita' which was written in 1059 A.D. Dhaulagiri zone was recognized as Mangwar Bisay which was written in 1100 A.D. which is the first evident of Magar existence in this zone (Budhamagar 2049:10).
There were many languages and many states in Nepal in the past. It can be proved that some places of present Nepal have certain meanings in the Magar language. For instance, Hile (a place in Dhankuta) means the place in stepland reached after walking; Kavre which means the place where air is blowing smoothly; Ilam means road; mechi means downward and Udayapur means old village in Magar. Magar people sacrifice pig to please god and goddess. The ancestors of Shah and Magar are same. Dor Bahadur Bista (1994) claimed that there is proof that Shah Dynasty belongs to the Magar family. The former kings of Nepal are the children of Magar (Magar 2054:103).
Prof. Dr. Madhav Pokharel (in personal communication) said that the word 'Magar' is derived from Mangol. Magar people entered into Nepal from central Asia. It is an umbrella term to cover different caste people and language. Hungerian Maygar and Mangol people had the close relationship of heredity. The original place of Magar should be Tibetan Mangol region. Hilly region is the main settlement area of Magar. Generally, they follow Hindu religion. Sixty percent of Magar words is related to the Magyar language spoken in Hangeri.
23
Map 2.3: Map of Nepal showing Magar speaking area
Source: Gurung et al. 2066: 73
24
2.4 Genetic affiliation
The Magar language is a Tibeto-Burman language of the Himalayish group. Grierson (1909:10) categorizes Magar as a Member of western sub group of non- pronominalized group under Himalayan branch of Tibeto-Burman family.
Noonan (2005:20) classifies Magar into Kham-Magar sub group within Tibeto- Burman sub-family of Sino-Tibetan family.
The following diagram vividly outlines the genetic flow of Magar.
Sino-Tibetan
Sinitic Karen
Tibeto-Burman
Bodic Others
Bodish Himalayish
Tibetan TGTH West East Himalayish Himalayish Central Himalayish
Kham Magar Bhujel Rai
Source: Bradely and Watters 2002 (cited from Yadav 2003:146)
25
Sino-Tibetan
Karenic Sinitic Baic Burmic Bodic Baric
Bodish West Himalayas West Central Himalayas
Vayu Magar Chepang
(Source: Hale 1973:10)
There are mainly five types of the Magar language (Thapa 2009:5). They are Magar Pali, Magar Kham/Pang, Kaike, Byansi and language spoken by Mijamahar. First three are spoken in different parts of Nepal whilst others are in India. Thapa (2009) claims that Byansi and language spoken by Mijamahar are dialects of Palimagar. The Magar language which is spoken from Baglung and Myagdi to west Rukum and Rolpa is called Magar Pang by Prof. Dr. Madhav Pokharel, Magar Kham by David Watters (Thapa 2009:5). Likewise, the Magar language that is spoken in Dolpa is Kaike
Till now, many linguists have attempted to classify the TB languages of Nepal. However, no consistency has been found yet in the number of languages. Unless a detailed survey is made, it is not easy to find out exact affiliation of Tibeto Burman languages of Nepal.
2.5 Magar society and their social practices
2.5.1 House and living style
Magars are Mongloid people and generally have short and thick body with short and flat nose, round eyes and moderate height. In other words, they are square built,
26
sturdy men, with fine muscular and large chest and limb development, low in status and with little or no hair on face or body and with fair complexion (Shrestha 1997:25). They are the people living in mountainous area or hilly region. They were simple minded and kind hearted and as recruits they were absolutely truthful and sensitive. They were loyal to each other and their officers in time of trouble or danger.
The houses are rectangular. They are made and roofed with stone placed close to each other. They are more spread out and each house has an open Veranda and a small courtyard. Log ladders link one level of the near vertical complex to the next. The inside is always neat and tidy and decorated with pot and potteries and furnished. The Chimneys are built to let the smoke get out of the house. Many of the smaller houses in the western communities are round or oval in shape and washed with ochre or reddish mud. Magar houses in the eastern hills are never round and most often while washed. Photo 2.1: A typical Magar house in Myagdi district
2.5.2 Food system
The principal crops are potato, millet, maize, wheat etc. They eat rice, porridge dhindo, roasted corn, mutton, buff and pork. In the morning, they drink tea. At about 10.00, they eat dal bhat, dhindo 'porridge' . For lunch, tea, steamed potato, noodles, cake, chowmin are used. Drinking alcohol is common for most grown up males while some of them take delight in chhyang 'rice beer'. They also use milk, curd and ghee.
27
2.5.3 Dressing
Magar people wear different types of clothes based on seasons and occasions. Young Magar people have stopped wearing traditional Magar dress. A typical Magar men wear a loin cloth, a bhoto a shirt or a shirt and a coat while Magar women wear a dhoti of short width, the front part of which was made shorter than the back. It is noteworthy to mention here that most women and males wear their dress on festivals and occasions like wedding, chhewar 'hair saving ceremony' etc. Cap, pakhi, kachhad, shoes, shirt, bhangra etc. are common male dress whilst sari, chola, patuka, etc. are common female dress.
Magar women prefer to wear different kinds of ornaments made up of silver, gilt, gold in different parts of the body in various occasions and cultural programmes. shiraphul, Tika, Dhungri, Mundri, Bulaki, Neckalce, Bangle, Ring, Kalli, etc. are some of them.
Photo 2.2 : An Elderly female in traditional Magar dress
28
Photo 2.3 : Women in traditional Magar dress
2.6 Economic activity of the society
The main economic activities of Magar people are agriculture, business and foreign jobs. Magar cultivate maize, wheat, potato, vegetables, fruits, etc. Buffaloes are raised for milk, meat and manure, cow for milk, manure, chicken for meat. Only a few farmers produce and supply their grains for the family from their own land for only six months. Almost all the land in this area is segmented into khet 'irrigated farm' and pakho 'unirrigated farm'. Currently rice and daily consuming goods are imported from Beni bazar either by vehicle or on mules's back.
The new generation is involved in teaching profession and other government services. Many Magars joined in the British, Indian and Nepalese armies and have been far away to England, Australia, Malaysia and Hong Kong. Magars constitute the largest number of Gurkha soldiers outside Nepal. Quite a number of Magar Gurkhas have attained the ranks of commanding officers, as colonels and majors, in Indian and British regiments as well as the Nepal Army and police where they are even generals. One survey showed that one quarter of total armies in British army are from Magar community. Nowadays, they have reached to Arabian countries and are engaged in different jobs.
29
2.7 Social and family structure
Magar society is female dominated society. They do have their dominance and power. They are all in all in the family. Males are involved in hard works, go to forests, fishing and other economic activities. Females are housewives and for looking after the family and work full time in the fields and farmlands. The Magar women of these places are cooperative, peaceful and helpful. Sisters or daughters, daughter-in-laws help them at the field or household activities.
Most Magars today like living as the nuclear family, while some of them live in extended family as well. The tiny-sized extended family has grand parents, parents and siblings and children.
2.8 Kinship terms
Kinship systems are universal features of language because kinship is so important in social organization. Factors like sex, age, generation, blood, marriage determines in kinships organization. The Magar language is rich in its kinship terms. It resembles to the South Asian languages in the characteistics of kinship terms. The following world list specify some of the kinship terms used in Myagdi Magar.
(a) bajyu - 'grand father' (b) bujyu - 'grand mother' (c) bi - 'father' (d) mi - 'mother' (e) pago - 'elder father' (f) mago - 'elder mother' (g) mama - 'maternal uncle' (h) muijyu - 'maternal aunt' (i) kaka - 'uncle' (j) dajyu - 'elder brother' (k) malum - 'elder brother wife' (l) bhoya - 'younger brother' (m) baini - 'younger sister' (n) sala - 'wife's younger brother' (o) sali - 'wife's younger sister' (p) jethu - 'wife's elder brother'
30
(q) chhema - 'mother's younger sister' (r) kanchhima - 'step mother' (s) badai - 'female's brother sister' (t) bage - 'elder maternal uncle' (u) babumiza - 'son' (v) nanimiza - 'daughter' (w) lenza - 'husband' (x) maja - 'wife' (y) miza - 'girl' (z) dzza - 'boy'
2.9 Tradition and culture
2.9.1 Birth
Child birth occurs in most cases in father's home-mother is assisted by mother-in-law and other females. Other family members are not allowed to go to females or places of worship or performing any religious activities until the name giving ceremony. The mother of the newly born baby is given nutritious food and the helping mother breast feeds until mother of newly born baby doesn't grow sufficient milk for the baby.
On the eleventh day of the baby's birth, there is a name-giving ceremony. There is small gathering of neighbors and relatives. In Magar, Priest called rama who performs religious activities. The child was then washed, his Barkha was determined and he was given two names, one of which was dedicated to the household god and the other denoted a family name by which he was called for six months after the birth in the case of a boy and five months in the case of a girl. Relatives are welcomed with wine and other delicious foods.
2.9.2 Rice feeding ceremony (Putdhadai)
Magars feed the baby boy in eight months and the baby girl in seven months of their birth. This is performed by feeding rice with the help of coin and leaf of poplar tree by the grandmother. Then, parents, relatives, neighbors fed and bless him/her with souvenirs and blessings. They enjoy with singing and dancing. All guests are welcomed with wine and other delicious foods.
31
2.9.3 Hair shaving ceremony (Chhewar)
It is one of the happiest occasions and is generally celebrated at the age of five. If not this age, other odd year is selected for that. The role of maternal uncle is ample in this ceremony. He shaves hair by tying him with the cow's tether. After that, the leaf of poplar and coin keep in the mouth of nephew. Then, maternal uncle puts teeka mixed in curd and gifts cap and clothes to the boy and blesses. The relatives and neighbours are also invited to enjoy the feast on this occasion. They offer flowers, money and delicious food. They give sari, cholo to the daughter.
2.9.4 Marriage
Conceptually, the Magars could marry anyone within the Magars community except members of their own lineage. There are mainly three types of marriage system in Magar community. They are arranged marriage, love marriage and cross-cousin marriage.
When a boy's parents decide the girl is suitable for their son, they may contact with one of the suited persons to proceed the proposal. He is regarded as the mediator. He has to go to the elder or younger brother's house. He takes a couple of bottles of wine provided by the boy's parents and pays visit to the parents of the girl. He proposes and discusses the details with them. If the girl's parents accept the proposal, the girl is asked whether she would like to be married to the boy if she is unwilling, some attempts would be made to convince her. The family's refusal is signified when they do not drink the wine and sent by the boy's family. That is returned to the boy's family. The first visit to the girl's family is known as the request. When the representatives from the boy's family return with favourite answer, they boy's family goes ahead with their marriage preparation. The date of the marriage ceremony can be fixed on the first agreement. Marriage ceremony generally follows the Hindu ritual.
The cross cousin marriage in also preferred among the Magars in Myagdi. When the son comes of age being matured for marriage, the parents of one cousin send a messenger with wine to the other cousin girl's home. The girl's side only savors the wine if they accept the proposal and subsequently nominate the date for wedding, otherwise, the wine is returned back.
32
In love marriage, young girl and boy decide themselves and form their own preference without parent's content and elope to marry. After few days, they return back to the boy's home and parents accept the marriage.
2.9.5 Death rites
When a person dies, neighbours gather, discuss, his/her body is covered with white clothes and is tied with a string. They call sons, daughters and others if they go away from house. rama 'priest' comes and performs ritual activities. When everything is ready the dead body is taken to the river side playing funeral tunes. Many people participate in funeral procession. Generally sons carry the corpse and others help if need be. When the elder son gives Dagbatti 'lamp', the corpse is burnt down. The sons shave the hair and return back home. They live in separate place and untouched by others, they prepare food themselves and eat until the thirteen days of death. No religious activities is done by people by same caste during the thirteenth days of death. On the thirteen day, rama perform activities for being scared or purification. Kith and kin offer meat of buffaloes, goats, rice, bread and liquor to the departed soul. They also assembled with a bottle of liquor. They performs puja and the mourning come to an end. They eat pork, wine and other delicious foods.
2.9.6 Festivals
Festivals in Magars hold religious, cultural and ethnic significance. Magar people celebrate festivals such as Losar 'a festival', worshipping land god, Dashain, Tihar, Ekadasi, Sankranti: Saune sankranti, Maghe sankranti, Chandi purnima, Rodhi, Sorathi etc.
On Ekadashi mela, there are singing and dancing done by males and females. Local sports programs run by youth clubs when both males and females participate in different contests. The youths play football and volleyball and shot put (throwing thelo). They eat various dishes and enjoy.
The festival 'worshipping land god' starts from Asar (June-July) 1 to 3 days. But its dance starts from the first of Baishakh (April-May). On this occasion, boys and girl call damai with his baja (tailor with his musical instrument). Damai plays his baja, then youths dance with old man and woman together till at midnight. Everyone wishes not to be attacked by foes. They also worship the land with desire of better crop and healthy life. They take dinner together. 33
Photo 2.4: Magar people in cultural programme
Photo 2.5: Magar people in Rodhi
34
Photo 2.6: Magar people in religious ceremony
2.10 Education, literacy and Literacy Traditions
According to 2008 projection, the literacy rate of my survey area, Arman is 52.8 percent, Babiyachaur is 59.7 percent and Darwang is 53.3 percent. The figure displays that the literacy rate is moderate because nearly 40% population is illiterate (Joshi and Bhandari 2007:523).
The Magar language has no written system. Thus, it follows Devnagari script. Magar people learn it from their senior orally and pass it down to their new generations. It has some books but not used in education administration and mass media properly. It does not have literacy text despite people want to preserve and promote their language by establishing Magar medium school, publishing books and use in mass media.
Table 2.1: Government and private schools and colleges in survey areas
Location Primary L. Secondary Higher College Total Secondary secondary Arman 4 - 1 - - 5 Babiyachaur 2 - 1 1 1 5 Darwang 4 - 1 1 - 6 Total 10 - 3 2 1 16
The above table shows that there are 10 primary schools, 3 secondary schools, 2 higher secondary schools and one college in survey areas. When a Magar child goes to school s/he begins to learn Nepali.
35
2.11 Population distribution
There are 26 ethnic communities and 13 languages communities in Myagdi district on the basis of census 2001. The total Magar speakers in Myagdi are 16997. The Magar language is spoken throughout the country. The total population of Magar in Nepal is 1622421 and its speakers 770116 which is 3.41% of the total population of the country.
The original home of the Magars was called Bara Magarant, the twelve regions of Magars which comprise all of hill districts of Lumbini, Rapti and Bheri zones. Present day Magar setlements range from Tanahun district of Gandaki zone to westward to include the districts of Palpa, Arghakhanchi, and Gulmi in Lumbini zone; Syangja, Kaski and Parvat in Gandaki zone, Myagdi, Baglung in Dhaulagiri zone; Rukum; Rolpa; Piuthan and Salyan in Rapti zone and Dailekh and Jajarkot in Bheri zone. The Magar have spread all over the country.
Table 2.2: Regionwise Population of Magar by Mother Tongue
S.N. Region Total Magar Speakers of Magars population (%) 1 Eastern development 5286890 139996 2.64 2 Central development 7988612 106368 1.3 3 Western development 4571013 402943 8.81 4 Mid-western development 2707244 99349 3.66 5 Far-western development 2183175 21460 0.98
Source: Population census (2001).
The districtwise population of the Magars across the country in statistics of census 2001 shown in the Appendix.
It is uncertain about the time and date when the first Magar Comunity settled in Myagdi. The Magar native speakers settle in 27 VDCs out of 41 VDCs in Myagdi district. VDC wise Magar mother tongue speakers of survey district can be shown in the following table.
36
Table 2.3: VDC wise Magar Native Speakers in Survey District
VDCs Magar mother tongue speakers Arman 673 Atthunge 128 Babiyachaur 154 Bagarkhola 37 Baranja 1101 Bhakimi 50 Bima 1331 Chimkhola 23 Dagnam 174 Darwang 1084 Devgisthan 2641 Dhatan 20 Histhanmandali 1872 Lulang 432 Malkwang 164 Mudi 1034 Muna 1146 Narchyang 399 Niskot 148 Pulachour 53 Ramche 1154 Ratnechaur 57 Room 1636 Shikha 1166 Singa 27 Takam 27 Tatopani 12
Source: Population census 2001.
37
2.12 Summary
This chapter presents current situation of the Magar people and their culture. The detail of study area is described. The word 'Magar' is derived from Magyar, Mangal and Maongoli. Magar is Tibeto-Burman language of the Himalayish subgroup within Tibeto-Burman group of Sino-Tibetan family. It is noteworthy to mention here is that Magar mother tongue speakers are found in all districts of Nepal. Magar constitute the largest number of Gurkha soldiers outside Nepal. Arranged marriage, love marriage and cross-cousin marriage are existed in Magar society. They follow either Hinduisim or Buddhism.
38
Chapter 3
Methodology
3.0 Outline
This chapter describes the research methodology. In order to accomplish the goals of the research, several tools were used. The following table displays the research tools and the focus of that method.
Table 3.1: Overview of tools and its focus
Tool Brief description Focus Questionnaires 25 questions of 60 Language attitude sets Language use Blingualism, multiligualism Language endangerment Wordlists 210 words of 60 Lexical variation among Magarpang, sets Magardhut and Nepali Observation, informal Culture, history discussion, secondary sources
3.1 Data collection
Both written and oral questions were posed to the respondents . Oral discussion, interaction, sociolinguistic questionnaire formed by Linguistic Survey of Nepal were the main bases of the study. That data were collected based on the objectives of study.
3.1.1 Tools a. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a list of questions asked by the researcher in order to elicit different types of information. Sociolinguistic questionnaire framed by Linguistc Survey of Nepal has been used. 60 sets of sociolinguistic questionnaire were filled to get the situation of language attitude, language use, language endangerment and bilingualism. Table 3.2 displays the sampling population for data collection.
39
b. Wordlists
Swedish word lists containing 210 items are taken, compared and used to calculate approximate lexical similarity percentage among Magar Pang, Magar dhut and Nepali. The words collected include noun, verb, adjectives, adverb. Human organs, time and climate, dress, etc. are some genres incorporated to collect the words. c. Informal discussion and observation
Besides sociolinguistic questionnaire and wordlists, we participated in information discussion and observation of the lifestyle of Magar community. That helps to elicit data on various aspects of language that could not captured by the help of major tools. d. Others
For eliciting secondary data, books, journals, newspapers, previous theses related to topic utilized whenever possible.
3.1.2 Sampling procedures
Sample population involved 60 Magar native speakers on the basis of age (above 15 years) and educational background and gender. Under educational background, there were two groups i.e. illiterate and literate. Those who were unable to read and write could be considered as illiterate. Moreover, the study population with the ability to read and write could be taken as literate. The research adopted the stratified random sampling procedure for selecting sample population which is given below:
Table 3.2: Sampling of Population riteria Numbers of Educational Gender Place population background Male Female Babiyachaur Illiterate 5 5 10 VDC literate 5 5 10 Illiterate 5 5 10 Arman VDC literate 5 5 10 Illiterate 5 5 10 Darbang VDC literate 5 5 10 Total 60
40
3.2 Data Analysis
We analyzed collected data employing descriptive method with the help of charts, figures, table, etc. For wordlists, we transcribed using the international phonetic alphabet (IPA). Afterwards, we compared the lexical items in order to determine similarities and differences among Magar Pang, Magar dhut and Nepali. For sociolinguistic questionnaire, we recorded their responses using paper and pen technique in Nepali language. Then, we analyzed data using database for general patterns and trends.
3.3 Summary
This chapter described how research was carried out. The present study included both primary and secondary data for study. Sociolinguistic questionnaire, observation, interview etc. were tools for elicitation of data. 60 Magar native speakers involved for collection of primary data. Books, journals, newspapers and previous theses related to topic utilized as secondary sources of data.
41
Chapter 4
Language attitude and language use
4.0 Outline This chapter deals with language attitude and language use in detail. In the section 4.1, language attitude is discussed and analyzed. In section 4.2 we examine language use. Section 4.3 summarizes the chapter.
4.1 Data on Language Attitude Attitude is one of pivotal factors for the survival of any language. Language survives due to mother tongue speakers' attitudes to their language. Thus, the summary of respondents and their responses to the situation of language attitude is presented below.
22a. Do you feel prestigious / embarrassed / neutral to speak in your mother tongue/ first language in the presence of the speaker of the dominant language?
Table 4.1: Feeling of native speakers while speaking their mother tongue
Respondents Yes No Neutral Embarrassed Total 60 60 0 0 0 60
This table demonstrates that Mager people feel prestigious to speak in their language in the presence of the speakers of the dominant language. This can be shown in following chart:
Figure 4.1: Feeling of native speakers while speaking their mother tongue
70 Yes 60 Neutral
50 Embarrassed
40
30
20
10
0 1
42
Because of awareness towards mother tongue, they feel prestigious to speak in their language in the presence of the speakers of the dominant language. The test conducted upon 60 respondents under this topic reveals that attitudes of the Magar language speakers highly positive to the preservation and promotion of their language. They want to educate their children in the Magar language. They say that they feel proud of speaking their own language.
22b. Have you ever had any problem because of being the native speaker of your mother tongue first language?
Table 4.2: Problems showing being an L1 speaker
Respondents Yes No Total 60 30 30 60
This table reveals that fifty percent of the Magar people who took part in this research have got some problems because of being native speakers of their mother tongue especially in the government offices in the past and others don't face any problems till the date. Nowadays, they thought that they have been backward in education especially, old native speakers. This is due to interference of mother tongue in learning the second language. The fifty percent of native speakers felt no problem speaking their mother tongue.
Figure 2: Problems showing being an L1 speaker
30% 30% Yes No
Despite being able to speak the Nepali language, fifty percent Magar people face some problems due to their face. Sixty percent of them use their own mother tongue far more than Nepali in most domains that is inside their community. 43
22c. If yes, what kinds of problems have you ever had?
If there are problems due to mother tongue speaking, they have in socio-politico- economic discrimination and backward in education. There is interference of mother tongue in learning the second language. The following table shows the kinds of problems.
Table 4.3: Problem due to an L1 speaker
Points Yes No Total Socio-politico-economic discrimination 30 0 30 Hostile confrontation 0 30 30 Discrimination in education 30 0 30
Fifty percent respondents replied that the problem is on socio-politico-economic fields and education. No respondents face problem in hostile confrontation.
22d. What is the language generally used in the community gatherings?
Table 4.4: Language used in community gathering
Respondents Magar Nepali Total 60 35 25 60
This table displays that 60% Magar people speak their own language in community gathering and 40 percentage of young generation Magar use the Nepali language in community gathering. This can be shown in the following chart.
Figure 4.3: Language used in community gathering
42% Magar 58% Nepali
44
The main domains of Magar usage are among family members, relatives and friends for communication, religious ceremonies, etc.
22e. In comparison to the Nepali language how would you rate your own mother tongue?
Table 4.5: Feeling of mother tongue against other languages
Points Yes No Total Rich 10 50 60 Sweet 60 0 60 Harsh 25 35 60 Powerless 20 40 60 Non-prestigious 0 60 60 Useful 50 10 60
This table displays that eighty three percent of them think that their native language is poor on the basis of its usage, vocabulary, etc. It is note worthy to mention here is that all language respondents feel that their native language is sweet, powerful and prestigious. Magar is thought to be poor and non-prestigious as nothing can be gained from the usage. Lack of script and limited domains are made speakers to feel non- prestigious. The statistics can be demonstrated in following chart.
Figure 4.4: Feeling of mother tongue against other languages
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Rich Sweet Harsh Powerless Non- Useful prestigious
Yes No
All loves their own mother tongue. Hundred percent respondents opined they wished their children spoke mother tongue prior to other languages as they have been
45
speaking. Moreover, they like to marry their children with some mother tongue speakers. These show that they have very positive attitude towards their mother tongue.
4.2 Data on language use
Out of 60 respondents , the following statistics has been synthesized.
The summary of responses provided by respondents to the situation of language use is presented below.
10.1 Which language do you most frequently?
Table 4. 6: Language use
Respondents Magar Nepali Total 60 10 50 60
This table shows that only seventeen percent Magar use their own language most frequently this can vividly be demonstrated in the following chart.
Figure 4.5: Language use
17%
Magar Nepali
83%
Because of lack of medium in education and dominance of the Nepali language, only few older Magars use the Magar language more frequently. They use it at home with village friends, at local market, at religious activities.
To be more specific, they use the Magar language frequently at home in the following situations.
(i) Talking about educational matters (like school, admission, teacher, etc.)
(ii) Talking about social events (like festivals, election, ceremonies etc.) with
46
(iii) Discussing family issues (like birth, marriage, savings, etc.)
In these domains of languages, respondents' responses were the use of the Magar language within community, most importantly, at homes. Although many of the speaker's grandparents and parents were dead, they communicated or heard members to have communicated with them in mother tongue. The elder people always talked in the mother tongue and used less of the contact language.
10.2 Which language do you use second most frequently ?
Table 4.7: Language use
Respondents Magar Nepali Total 60 50 10 60
This table shows that majority of Magar use their own language as their most second frequently. It is because of lack of medium in education dominance of the Nepali language every where, etc. This can also be displayed in the following chart.
Figure 4.6: Language use
17%
Magar Nepali
83%
This data shows that Magar people are immensely positive and enthusiastic enough to learn and use the Nepali language together with their mother tongue. They use the Nepali language in the market, across community people, strangers, in education, politics, civil affairs, health.
47
10.3 Which is your third most frequently used language?
Table 4.8: Language use
Respondents Chhantyal English Total 60 30 30 60
This table reveals that fifty percent of interviewees speak Chhantyal as the third most frequently used language. They belong up to five years old. Other fifty percent of respondents replied that they speak English as the third most frequently used language. This can be clearly displayed in the following chart.
Figure 4.7: Language use
Chantyal 50% 50% English
This figure displays that fifty percent Magar people use Chhantyal one of the neighbouring languages of theirs and others used the English language as the third most frequently used language. School children, teachers and Ex-British armies speak English as the third frequently used language. It is the evidence that Magars are either bilingual or multilingual.
10.4 Which is the easiest language among these for you?
Table 4.9: Language use
Respondents Magar Nepali English Total 60 50 10 0 60
48
This table reveals that fifty Magars out of 60 feel quite easier to speak their native language rather than other languages. But only ten Magars feel easier to speak Nepali than Magar. In other words, 83% (50 out of 60) named Magar alone as their most beloved language only 17% (10 out of 60) named Nepali alone as their most beloved language. This can be explicitly shown in the following chart.
Figure 4.8: Language use
17%
Magar Nepali
83%
This figure undoubtedly shows that Magar is their most efficient and the easiest language for communication of most of them. Few of them feel easy to speak Nepali due to influence of the Nepali language everywhere. Majority of them want to preserve and promote the Magar language.
10.5 Which is the most difficult language for you?
Table 4.10: Language use
Respondents Magar Nepali English Chhantyal Total 60 0 0 46 14 60
This table demonstrates that English is the most difficult language for seventy five percent of them and Chhantyal is another difficult language for twenty five percent of them to use in comparison to other languages like Nepali, Magar, etc. this can obviously be displayed below with the help of chart.
49
Figure 4.9: Language use
25%
English Chantyal
75%
What the data shows that English is most difficult language for seventy five percent of them. There is no proper environment of learning English in the research area. Only twenty five percent of them studied English as a compulsory subject in school and campus which is not sufficient exposure for them. Likewise, few of them feel difficulty to speak Chhantyal because of lack of proper access and used in community education, etc.
10.6 Which language do you use ...... ?
Table 4.11: Use of languages with kith and kin
Persons Magar Nepali English Chhantyal Total With parents 28 20 7 5 60 With elder brother 17 30 10 3 60 With children 23 27 6 4 60 With younger brother 26 18 10 6 60 With younger sister 23 26 1 10 60 With grand parents 15 10 2 3 30 With spouse 36 16 3 5 60 With servant 31 24 2 3 60 With pets 28 17 5 10 60 With relatives 46 4 6 4 60
The above table demonstrates that eighty three percent of respondents use Magar and Nepali to their kith and kin. Only few respondents who are from armies and Chhantyal community use English and Chhantyal respectively. The Magar language
50
is used more with relatives, grandparents, parents, spouse. Seventeen percent of respondents use Nepali and Magar while talking to the children Nepali is needed for formal use, less exposure to Magar and the younger children could pick out the language are some reasons in doing so.
10.7 Which language do you use for following activities ?
Table 4.12: Language used for different genres
Activity Magar Nepali English Chhantyal Total To think 31 23 2 4 60 To play 27 33 - - 60 To course 36 10 6 8 60 To joke 16 38 5 9 60 To scold 41 14 2 3 60 To sing 33 18 3 6 60 To count 13 37 10 - 60 To dream 32 21 - 7 60 To abuse 28 24 2 6 60 To do rituals 41 16 - 3 60 To pray 33 15 - 2 60
The above table displays that above fifty percent of them use the Magar language in thinking, cursing, doing rituals, scolding, dreaming. They use Nepali in playing, joking, counting, dreaming. The females who was born in Chhantyal family and become the second language speakers of Magar after marriage can use the Chhantyal language in different activities. The ex-armies use English in various activities.
10.8a Which language do you use with neighbours who are linguistically similar?
Table 4.13: Use of languages with mother tongue speakers
Respondents Magar Nepali English Total 60 60 0 0 60
This table reveals that all Magars use their own language when they meet the neighbours of linguistically similar. They feel pride of using their languages. This can be displayed vividly in following chart.
51
Figure 4.10: Use of languages with mother tongue speakers
Magar
100%
The above figure shows that all Magars use mother tongue within the community most importantly at homes and in religious activities. Elder people always talk in the mother tongue and use less of the contact language.
10.8b Which language do you use with neighbours who are linguistically dissimilar?
Table 4.14: Use of languages with the non-mother neighbours
Respondents Magar Nepali English Chhantyal Total 60 0 50 5 5 60
This table displays that eighty three percent respondents use Nepali to talk to their neighbours who are linguistically dissimilar. It is because the Nepali language is a lingua franca in that place and medium of instruction in education and widely used language in media and government offices. only 7.5 percent respondents use English who belong to retired Armies and other 7.5 percent respondent use Chhantyal who belong to old and illiterate and closely contact with Chhantyal. The following figure clearly displays it.
52
Figure 4.11: Use of languages with the non-mother neighbours
60
50
40 Nepali 30 English Chhantyal 20
10
0 1
4.3 Summary
This chapter presents and analyzes language attitude and language use. The Magar people have very positive attitudes towards their language and languages of others. The Magar language is more frequently use at home, religious activities and within linguistically similarly people. Intimate domain is the major area of the Magar language by native speakers.
53
Chapter 5
Language endangerment, multilingualism, bilingualism and lexical similarities and differences
5.0 Outline
This chapter deals with language endagerment, blingualism, multilingualism and lexical similarities and differences in detail. In the sectin 5.1, the extent of language endangerment is discussed and analyzed. Bilingualism and multilingualism are discussed and analyzed in section 5.2. Section 5.3 displays lexical similarities and differences among Magar pang, Magar dhut and Nepali. Section 5.4 summarizes the chapter.
5.1 Data on Language Endangerment
The summary of the respondents and their responses to the situation of language endangerment is presented below.
13.1 Is the language currently endangered?
Table 5.1: The condition of endangerment
Respondents Yes No Total 60 40 20 60
This table displays that sixty seven percent respondents out of sixty replied that their language is currently endangered whist other thirty three percent persons answered that their language is not currently endangered. This can be more clearly displayed in the following chart.
54
Figure 5.1: The condition of endagerment
33% Yes No
67%
The data obviously shows that sixty seven percent of the Magar people keep their language as an endangered language. No transmission of language to next generation, few domains of language use, lack of materials for education, no access in opportunities, etc. are some causes in the list of being endangered language.
The case study of the verities of the Magar language displays that the position of language on the basis of endangerment is potentially endangered. Most speakers and respondents were asked to categorize. All of them viewed their own ways. Since the Magar language has one of the highest number of speakers in Nepal, no possible endangerment is seen. However, youths' motivation to other languages and rigorous political, economic, social and contact language pressures like Nepali at educational institutional and offices, the Magar language will have fallen down to the endangerment.
The lack of script and obligation of using Devnagari script at each and every level has eased the way to attracting to the second language in survey area. Furthermore, the higher flow of government officials to district headquarters through the village routes: everyday activities like reporting, dealings in Nepali Medium of the developmental activities in the villages and VDCs directly impact in bilingular situation in which many native speakers have less exposure in mother tongue. It is assumed that mother tongue speakers will confine at home for the use of mother tongue within few decades.
55
13.2 What is the position of your language in terms of endangerment ?
Table 5.2: Language endangerment
Respondents Potentially Endangered Seriously Moribund Extinct Total endangered endangered
60 30 30 0 0 0 60
The language teacher who opined the language is potentially endangered are fifty percent in score, on the other hand, the respondents who replied that their language is endangered are also fifty percent in score. This can be revealed in the following chart.
Figure 5.2: Language endangerment
Potentially endangered 50% 50% Endangered
Many Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal are endangered and Magar is not an exception though they have strongly positive attitude towards their mother tongue, there is lack of intergenerational language transmission. The young generation motivate to other languages and rigorous, political, economic, social and contact language pressures like Nepali at offices, school and every where the Magar language is found to be spoken by elderly and adult Magars.
Young generations spend most of the time using the Nepali language at school and people at offices and outside the community. The bilingual atmospheres in which the majority of speakers have less time to spend in the mother tongue environment. The Magar language is losing one after another domain of the language. It means that
56
there is gradual degradation in the domains of language use. The lack of script and obligatory of using Devanagari script at every level has eased to increasing the use of second language in the research area.
Inter-lingual marriage is another genuine factor for language endangerment. When a Magar speaking girl marries to Nepali speaking boy or Chhantyal speaking boy, she doesn't find any environment or speakers of the language and give up speaking the Magar language. As a result her children also don't acquire it.
There were total 50% of the respondents who said it is potentially endangered. The following causative factors were reported in course of study. To sum up, there are the following reasons the Magar language described as a potentially endangered language.
i. Negligence of concerned authorities towards promotion and preservation of language (23%).
ii. Marginalization (23%).
iii. Lack of response to the new domains and media (26%)
iv. Low socio-economic status of the speakers (33%).
v. Lack of materials for language education and literacy (36%).
vi. Migration to urban areas for employment and education (41%)
vii. Due to undocumentation of the language regularly (46%).
vii. Loss of existing language domains (46%)
ix. Lack of access in opportunities (48%)
x. Lack of inter generational language transmission (50%)
There are some obvious and specific reasons of language endagerment that respondents raised. They are: lack of intergenerational transmission and loss of existing language domains which most of the consultants raised during the time of data elicitation. Little or no access in opportuities, neglience of government authorities and pressures of dominant language like Nepali and English are other reasons.
57
5.2 Data on bilingualism / multilingualism
The summary of the respondents and their responses to the situation of bilingnalism/ multilingnalism is stated below.
26.1 What language do your children use when they talk to parents?
Table 5.3: Bilingualism
Respondents Magar Nepali English Total 60 45 15 0 60
The table shows that seventy five percent Magar children use their own language when they talk to mother or father. Only twenty five percent Magar children who stay in cities use Nepali when they talk to their parents. It can be displayed in the following chart.
Figure 5.3: Bilingualism
25%
Magar Nepali
75%
The data displays that most of seventy five percent children who are regularly in contact with parents speak the Magar language while talking to parents. Only twenty five percent children who are far from parents use the Nepali language because of dominant of Nepali outside the house. It shows that being competent in mother tongue one should regularly live with parents to acquire language well. No one is monolingual in the present day world. Thus, bilingual or multilingual situation is common in all parts of the world. The same case is also happened in survey district.
58
26.2 What language do your children use when they talk to their teacher ?
Table 5.4: Bilingualism
Language teacher Magar Nepali English Total
60 25 35 0 60
This table demonstrates that fifty eight percent Magar children who have already started to go school use Nepali while talking to the teachers. On the other hand, forty two percent Magar children who just start to go school or at the age of going school use their mother tongue while talking to the teachers. Putting it another way, Magar child could not understand his teacher when he first goes to school. It is said that the length of time required by child to acquire enough Nepali to know the teacher ranged from about 1 to 3 years. The following chart helps to make it clear.
Figure 5.4: Bilingualism
42% Magar Nepali 58%
The Nepali language is the national language of Nepal. it has the deepest dominance to all other languages spoken in Nepal. All Magar people whoever the researcher met are bilingual/multilingual. They speak Magar and Nepali. It is because of the bilingual environment having at homes, in the community and at schools and colleges. Moreover, speakers of minority languages learn Nepali under socio-psychological pressures.
59
26.3 What language do your children use when they talk to strangers?
Table 5.5: Bilingualism
Respondents Magar Nepali English Total 60 0 50 10 60
This table demonstrates that eighty three percent of the Magar people use Nepali when they talked to strangers. Only seventeen percent of them use English. It is more clearly displayed in the following chart.
Figure 5.5: Bilingualism
17%
Nepali English
83%
The above figure shows that eighty three percent Magar speakers use Nepali when they have to talk to the strangers. We know that Nepali is a lingua franca all over the Nepal. Even non-Nepali native speakers need to develop proficiency in Nepali, Likewise the Magar people who lived abroad for a long time and studied at campus level used the English language especially the foreign strangers.
26.4 What language do your children use when they talk to their relatives?
Table 5.6: Bilingualism
Language teacher Magar Nepali English Total 60 50 10 0 60 This table displays that eighty three percent Magar people use their own language when they talk to their relatives. It can be more explicitly shown in the following chart.
60
Figure 5.6: Bilingualism
17%
Nepali English
83%
The above chart shows that eighty three percent Magar children speak their mother tongue when they talk to their relatives. They feel pride and intimacy while speaking Magar language to the relatives. It is important to emphasize that they speak Nepali to the relatives who are linguistically dissimilar. Anyway the native language use with in and across house premises.
Nepali education system, job opportunities, government policies and planning contact language pressure, lack of independent script, etc. are some reasons of native speakers of Magar being bilingual or multilingual. They speak the Magar language subconsciously. All of the language users are bilingual, as most speakers can be able to know and speak Nepali good. It is due to the bilingual environment everywhere. Nepali is the most frequently used second language. The English speakers are also increasing gradually due to tourism, boarding school and returning of ex-armies from Britain. The growing tendency of English is a must has created a situation of learning English. It has fostered to multilingual situation. Moreover, many Magars are retired of Indian army and picked it up while staying there. The growing motivation to watching Hindi movies, listening to songs and serials are also common. Thus, it also helps to create multilingual situation in survey area. The data displays that grandson generation know more number of languages in comparison to the parent generation. Anyway the bilingual situation existed even in the prior and former genration. Among Magar, the translation is higher in between Magar and Nepali than other languages.
61
5.3 Lexical similarities and differences
Variation is one of the features of a language. Thus, there are some similarities and difference between Magar dhut and Magar pang which are shown below by comparing Swedish world lists.
Table 5.7: Lexical similarities and differences
S.N. World list Magar dhut Magar pang Nepali 1 I 2 You 3 We 4 This 5 That 6 Who 7 What 8 Not 9 All 10 Many 11 One 12 Two 13 Big 14 Long 15 Small 16 Woman 17 Man 18 Person 19 Fish 20 Bird 21 Dog 22 Louse 23 Tree 24 Seed 25 Leaf 26 Root 27 Bark 28 Skin 29 Flesh 30 Blood
62
31 Bone 32 Fat 33 Egg 34 Horn 35 Tail 36 Feather 37 Hair 38 Head 39 Ear 40 Eye 41 Nose 42 Mouth 43 Tooth 44 Tongue 45 Nail 46 Foot 47 Knee 48 Hand 49 Belly 50 Neck 51 Breasts 52 Heart 53 Liver 54 Drink 55 Eat 56 Bite 57 See 58 Hear 59 Know 60 Sleep 61 Die 62 Kill 63 Swim 64 Fly 65 Walk 66 Come 67 Lie
63
68 Sit 69 Stand 70 Give 71 Gay 72 Sun 73 Moon 74 Star 75 Water 76 Rain 77 Stone 78 Sand 79 Earth 80 Cloud 81 Smoke 82 Fire 83 Ash 84 Burn 85 Road 86 Mountain 87 Red 88 Green 89 Yellow 90 White 91 Black 92 Night 93 Hot 94 Cold 95 Full 96 New 97 Good 98 Round 99 Dried 100 Name
When I compared Swadesh words among Magar dhut, Magar pang and Nepal, I found 66 percent. Similarly between Magar pang and Magar dhut and one percent. Similarly, between Magar and pang.
64
5.4 Summary
This chapter presents and analyzes Bilingualism, multilingualism, language endagerment and lexical similarities and differences. The tables and figures were used to clarify the data. All Magar native speakers are bilingual. They speak Magar, Nepali well. The Magar language is potentially endangered language due to loss of existing language domain, lack of intergeneration transmission, lack of materials for education and literacy etc. are some reasons to place it in potentially endangered language. There should be 66 percent similarity between Magar dhut and Magar pang. Only one percent similarity between Magar and Nepali.
65
Chapter 6
Findings, summary and conclusion
6.0 Outline
This chapter deals with the summary (findings), conclusion and finally the recommendations. The first part deals with the summary. Conclusion is in second part. Finally third part covers the recommendations.
6.1 General summary
Language is widely used means of communication. it is species specific i.e. only human beings posses language. We use language to communicate. The world is enriched with about 7000 languages. Among them, many minority languages are in the verge of extinction. The census report (2001) has identified 92 languages spoken as mother tongue in Nepal while Ethnologue (2005) presents a list of 126 languages of Nepal.
The word 'Magar' refers to the both ethnonym 'people name' and glossonym 'language name' . The word 'Magar' is derived from Hungerian caste 'Magyar'. The Magar language is a potentially endangered language of Nepal. According to the popujlation census report 2001, the total population of Magars is 770116 (3.41%) of the total population of Nepal. Among languages spoken in Nepal, Magar holds seventh position. It is written in Devnagari script. There are five types of the Magar language. They are Magar Pali, Magar, Kham / Pang, Kaike, Byansi and language spoken by Mijamahar.
Genetically, the Magar language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of Himalayish subgroup within Sino-Tibetan language family. It is spoken in hill and mountainous area of all over the Nepal. There are four hundred castes in Magar. Among them, Rana, Pun, Ale, Thapa, etc. are major. The Magars are Mongoloid people and generally have short and thick body with short nose, round eyes and moderate height.
This research is mainly focused upon the Myagdi district which is in Dhaulagiri zone. The researcher selected only three VDC's i.e. Babiyachaur, Arman and Darwang for the research. It is done based on Ethnologue (2009) named the western Magar and Magar pang by Pokharel.
To find out the attitudes of Magar people towards their mother tongue as well as other language, to investigate the possible situations of language use, to find out the state 66
and pattern of language endangerment and rate of bi/multilingulism were the main objectives of the study. In this research, first chapter gives introduction, chapter second related to the socio-cultural and demographic aspects, chapter three focused on methodology, chapter four and five on presentation, analysis and interpretation of data and last chapter with the summary, conclusion and recommendations for the further steps necessary to preserve and promote the Magar language.
6.2 Main Findings
6.2.1 Socio-cultural Status
This sample research of the Maygdi Magar had recorded the socio cultural aspects of the Magar which exist in Myagdi. They have their own unique habit, belief, lifestyle, cultural rites and rituals which make them distinct from other ethnic groups. All the socio-linguistic questionnaire, observation books related to the Magar language and the researcher's own living with them prove this fact.
6.2.2 Language attitude
Language attitude refers to the feelings people have about their own language or languages of others. This may be positive or negative. Magar people are very optimistic and positive attitude towards their own language culture and identity and the language of others. They are immensely positive and enthusiastic enough to learn and use Nepali together with their mother tongue. The majority of participants, regardless of age and education, also have highly positive feelings towards their language and are eager for their children to learn the Magar language and to marry somebody who also speaks it. Furthermore, most of them believe that the children of their current children will also continue to speak their mother tongue.
They used it as a second language with linguistically dissimilar people and strangers. They want to preserve and promote their language for their own identification. Likewise, some of them also use Chhantyal, English, Hindi happily and this fact reveals that they are even positive towards other languages too. All Magar children speak Nepali in house or in schools it is very possible that children of next generation will become fluent in it overtime, this will be a threat to the vitality of this language.
Many of them said that the Magars is the most beloved language. All generation native speakers show a highly positive attitude towards Magar regardless of their age, sex and educational level. They want to foster their sense of cultural identity. They 67
hope that the village children's children will speak Magar in future. Half of the respondents want to develop the Magar language through literacy classes which is useful for preserving their own language and enhancing its status.
6.2.3 Language use
Mother tongue Magar speakers reported that their language is used in a very limited domains. It is the main and maximally used language at home with linguistically similar neighbours and relatives. The Nepali language is used only at school, at offices and with the non native speakers. Likewise they use Nepali even to play, joke, count, etc. Magar people use their mother tongue especially in religious and cultural activities. However in other activities like education, administrative affair, etc. language shift seems to be greater. Migration, inter-lingual marriage, modernization have pulled its speakers to other language usages. The vast majority use Magar for more often than Nepali in most domains especially in the home, with village friends, and while expressing their deepest feelings. They used their native language in intimate environment.
Younger generation uses the Magar language in intimate domain of home and village. This shows that the Magar language is likely to become extinct with a couple of generations. Gender seems to be an unlikely influencing factor in the language use of Magar versus Nepali among Magar. Religious domain is the most usage domain of the Magar language. But educational domain is the least usage domain. The Magar people are eager for their children to learn Magar and to marry somebody who also speaks it. They want their current children will also continue to speak their mother tongue. They claimed that the Magar language is their most efficient language and used it in situations where a language choice is possible. Many of them seem more interested in reading Magar books that are about their religion, history and culture, mainly for the purpose of identity affirmation.
6.2.4 Bi/multilingualism
Magar speakers are at least bilingual and multilingual as well. They speak Nepali as well as Magar. Majority of them who are retired from foreign armies and study in higher level speak Nepali, Magar, English and Hindi as well. It is because Nepali is the national language as well as lingua franca among Magar speakers. An important consequence of multilingualism is language endangerment . Bilingual situation is
68
strong in villages as the speakers alter the codes when the speakers and place change. It is because of the bilingual environment at homes, in the community and at schools and campuses. Moreover, speakers of minority languages learn Nepali due to socio- psychological pressures.
Findings on the perception of bilingualism reveal that even though almost every participant should speak or know Nepali. Majority participants think that young Magar children who first enter school are unable to understand their Nepali-speaking teacher's speech. It is guessed that young Magar native speakers understand Nepal. Within one to four years. Most Magar people speak Nepali but some Magar words they frequently mix while speaking. This implies that the government should provide mother tongue education at least in primary level for Magar children so that they become able to transfer easily their learning in the Nepali language later.
6.2.5 Language Endangerment
On the basis of research, Magar is potentially endangered language. Potentially endangered language are economically and socially disadvantaged under heavy pressure from a large language and beginning to lose child speakers (Stephen Wurm 1998:192) Mainly this language is found to be spoken by elderly and adults ones. Due to pressure and dominance of dominant languages the young generations almost avoid the use of it. There are the following causes to justify it as a potentially endangered language.
i. Lack of inter generational language transmission
ii. Loss of existing language domains.
iii. Lack of response to the new domains and media
iv. Negligence of concerned authorities towards promotion and preservation of language.
v. Lack of materials for language education and literacy.
vi. Lack of access in opportunities
vii. Migration to citizens for job and education
viii. Marginalization.
69
6.3 Conclusion
Magar is an ethnic as well as a linguistic group of Nepal. They mainly live in hilly and mountainous regions all over the Nepal. Agriculture, hunting are their traditional occupation. But nowadays they are engaged in government job, foreign armies and so on.
The Magar language is a potentially endangered language having no written tradition. The young generations almost avoid the use of their own language due to pressure and dominance of the dominant language. Despite having positive attitude towards the mother tongue, there is no any programme for development of language. They say that they feel proud of speaking their language. They use it in limited domains like religious activities, scolding or cursing singing and so forth. Almost all of them are bilingual or multilingual regardless of age, sex, occupation and education. The majority of respondents have indicated a desire to read about something related to their identity like the Magar language, religion, history culture and anything else about themselves.
They use Chhantyal, English happily and this shows that they are even positive towards other languages. Attitude towards their own mother tongue and mother tongue education suggests that there is potential for sustainable community based language development efforts. socio-economic, political academic and economic factors have forced the users to shift from Magar to Nepali:
Lack of inter-generational language transmission, loss of opportunities migration, loss of existing language domains, etc are some causes to justify it as a potentially endangered language.
6.4 Recommendations
Nepal is a multicultural, multiethnic, multilingual and multi-religious country despite small in size. Putting the same thing another way, the multiple mother tongues rites and rituals festivals, life patterns, cultural beliefs, etc. are the major identifications of our country. The census of 2001 has cited the population of the indigenous nationalities at 37.2% of the total population of Nepal. Thus, language preservation, promotion and development must be done to do the development and identification of nation in the world. The following recommendations are suggested in order to promote and enhance this language so as to preserve from the mouth of the death. 70
As stated in the interim constitution of Nepal that is each community shall have the right to educate their children in their mother tongue, mother tongue education system for the children should be implemented to preserve, promote and develop the Magar language.
Necessary curriculum, textbooks, teaching materials should be devised and built to promote the mother tongue learning environment .
Under the language policy of Nepal government committed to build New Nepal providing racial and lingual rights to its subjects, urgently support the linguistic survey of Nepal.
Both print media and electronic media should be mobilized in order to promote mother tongue. It should be used in social interaction, education, publications, documentary and films.
The processes of language standardization can help to raise the standard of the language. Thus, selection of norms, devising writing system, development of vocabularly, preparation of dictionaries and grammars; expansion of its domains are necessary to preserve the Magar language.
Extensive and comprehensive socio-cultural documentation of the language is required in the entire Magar speaking areas.
Language development programmes that are most likely to have long term effects are those that owned by the mother tongue language community. Put it slight differently, these are programmes in which the language community bears major responsibility for decision making and programmes implementation.
Development of literature and its genres can be another step to preserve and promote the Magar language.
The Magar speakers themselves should come with the purpose of preserving, promoting and developing their alarmingly disappearing linguistic and cultural heritage and encourage their children to speak their language in all domains.
The ongoing linguistic survey should be fully supported by government to preserve all languages of Nepal.
71
References
Adhikari, Rishiram. 2006. A Sociolinguistic survey of the Chepang language of North Eastern Chitwan. M.A. thesis. Tribhuvan University. Kathmandu.
Bista, Dor B. 1996. People of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.
Budha Magar, Harsha. B 2049. Kirat Bansh ra Magarharu (Kirat language and Magars). Lalitpur: Suvas Printing Press.
Budhathoki, Mohan B. 2009. A Sociolinguistic survey of the Koyee Language. M.A. thesis. Tribhuvan University. Kathmandu.
Central Bureau of Statistics. 2001. Population Census Report. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics.
Das, Rabindra P. 2009. A Sociolinguistic study of Danuwar as spoken in Baluwa VDC. Kavre. M.A. Thesis. Tribhuvan University. Kathmandu: T.U.
Devkota, Shovakhar. 2010. A Sociolinguistic Study of Gurung. M.A. Thesis. Tribhuvan Univesity. Kathamandu.
Dhimal, Chandra, Holly J. Larsen and Rebecca G. Williams. 2001. The Dhimal: A sociolinguistic survey. Field Report. Kathmandu. van Driem, George. 1997. Languages of the Himalayas. New York: Koniklike Brill.
Garden, Raymond. G. (ed). 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. 5th edition. Summer institute of linguistics: Texas Dollas.
Gautam, Bhim ; Krishna P Parajuli. 2009. Sociolinguistic study of the Kumal language: A field report. Tribhuvan University. Kathmandu
Gurung, Hark; Yogendra Yadava and Chhabi Lal Chidi. 2006. Nepal atlas of language group. Lalitpur: National foundation for development of indigenous nationalities.
Grierson, George A. (ed.). 1909. Linguistic survey of India: Tibeto-Burman family. Volume III. Part I. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
72
Hale Austin and David Walters. 1973. 'A survey of clause patterns'. In Clause sentence and discourse patterns in selected languages of Nepal. (ed) Austin Hale and David Walters. Norman: University of Oklahoma. Summer institute of linguistics.
Hudson, Richard A. 1999. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge university press.
Joshi, Shambu R. and Himlal Bhandari (Ed) 2007. District profile of Nepal. Kathmandu: Intensive study and research centre.
Kansakar, Tej R. 1993. 'The Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal: A general survey'. Contribution to Nepalese studies. 20:2. 165-173.
Khatri, Prem K. 2056. Nepal ko dharmik mat ra samajik sanrachana. (Religious view and social structure of Nepal). Kathamandu: MK Publisher .
Lee, Maureen B. 2005. Bayung Rai: A Sociolinguistic survey. Kirtipur: CINAS.
Lewis, Paul M. (ed.). 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the world. 16th edition. America. SIL International.
Magar, Bhai K. 2054. Gorkhaka Magarharu (Magars of Gorkha). Kathamandu: Gita printing press.
Magar, Karna B. 2061. Nepali-Magar Pang-English dictionary. Kathmandu: Eighteen Magar Language-culture development academy.
Noonan, Michael. 1999. Chhantyal dictionary and texts. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Noonan, Michael. 2005. Language documentation and language endangerment of Nepal. University of Wisconsin: Milwaukee.
Paudel, Rachana. 2008. A sociolinguistic survey of the bankariya language. M.A. Thesis. Tribhuvan University. Kathmandu.
Payne, Thomas, E. 1997. Describing morphosyntax: A guide for field linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge university press.
Regmi, Bhim N. 1999. Causativization in Magar. M.A. Thesis. Tribhuvan University. Kathmandu
73
Regmi, Dan R. 2007. The Bhujel language. Ph.D. Thesis. Tribhuvan University. Kathmandu.
Rensch, Calvin R., Calinda E. Hallberg and Clare F. O'Leary 1992. Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan. Pakistan: National institute of Pakistan studies and Summer institute of linguistics.
Shrestha, Bimala. 1997. Social Life of Nepal. Biratnagar: Mayuri printers.
Thapa, Hira Singh, 2009. Magar (Dut)- Khas-English dictionary. Kathmandu: Nepal Magar association.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1986. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge university press.
Watter S. David. 2002. A Grammar of Kham. Cambridge: Cambridge university press.
Watter, David 1998. The Kham language of west central Nepal. Cambridge : Cambridge university press.
Wurm, Stephen A. 2001. Atlas of the world's Language in danger of disappearing. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
Yadava, Yogendra P. 2003. Language in population monograph in Nepal. Vol. 1. 137-171. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics.
74
Appendix-A
Population of Myagdi District
S.N. VDC Total Male Female Literacy % Population 1 Arman 4860 2209 2652 52.8 2 Arthunge 8095 4010 4085 71.7 3 Babiyachaur 3442 1644 1798 59.7 4 bagarkhola 2262 1058 1204 64.4 5 Baranja 5732 2703 3029 56.9 6 Bhakilmi 3848 1709 2140 50.5 7 Bima 2097 951 1146 61.9 8 Chimkola 1758 814 944 61.7 9 Dagnam 1700 634 766 51.8 10 Dana 2229 1093 1137 59.7 11 Darwang 3674 1666 2008 53.3 12 Devisthan 4011 1738 2273 45.6 13 Dhatan 4582 2083 2499 55.3 14 Dowa 1343 636 708 64.4 15 Gurjakhabi 1152 552 599 32.4 16 Histhanmandali 2338 1044 1294 61.6 17 Jhin 1414 638 777 49.8 18 Syamrukot 3645 1674 1971 62.3 19 Kuhun 3932 1780 2153 58.0 20 Kuine Mangale 1571 733 838 46.4 21 Lulong 1507 714 793 51.9 22 Malk Wang 1769 823 946 38.0 23 Marang 2129 959 1169 50.4 24 Mudi 2717 1304 1413 25.5 25 Muna 2484 1118 1366 45.8 26 Narchyang 2074 955 1119 58.8 27 Niskot 2413 1165 1248 47.8 28 Okharbot 2572 1258 1314 51.2 29 Pakhapani 3099 1433 1666 55.1 30 Patlekhet 1954 894 1060 53.1
75
31 Pulachaur 3957 1773 213 65.4 32 rakhubhagawati 3822 1702 2120 56.4 33 Rakhupiple 4346 2020 2326 60.4 34 Ramche 2335 1039 1296 62.3 35 Ratnechaur 2715 1231 1484 56.0 36 Room 6228 3048 3181 34.6 37 Shikha 6315 2892 3423 61.9 38 Singa 3629 1632 1997 58.7 39 Takam 4381 2047 2334 57.6 40 Tatopani (Bhurung) 962 457 504 56 41 Institutional 396 340 56
(Source: Joshi and Bhandari 2007).
76
Appendix-B
Magar Population in Nepal
S.N. District Population % 1 Palpa 91147 11.84 2 Gulmi 9786 1.27 3 Baglung 21389 2.78 4 Myagdi 16997 2.21 5 Parbat 8785 1.14 6 Kaski 6331 0.82 7 Syangja 53541 6.95 8 Tanahun 67727 8.79 9 Lamjung 1919 0.25 10 Gorkha 13499 1.75 11 Kapilvastu 2929 0.38 12 Rupandehi 23602 3.06 13 Nawalparasi 80094 10.40 14 Rasuwa 136 0.02 15 Sindhu-Palchok 198 0.03 16 Dolakha 706 0.09 17 Makwanpur 3491 0.45 18 Dhading 8102 1.05 19 Nuwakot 438 0.06 20 Kavre-Palanchok 1974 0.26 21 Ramechap 14824 1.92 22 Sindhuli 23050 2.99 23 Kathmandu 11692 1.52 24 Lalitpur 3383 0.44 25 Bhaktapur 768 0.10 26 Chitwan 7295 0.95 27 Parsa 1074 0.14 28 Bara 3097 0.40 29 Darchula 38 0.00 30 Bajhang 9 0.00 31 Bajura 83 0.01
77
32 Baitadi 17 0.00 33 Dadeldhura 1912 0.25 34 Doti 3591 0.47 35 Achham 684 0.09 36 Kanchanpur 2619 0.4 37 Kailali 12507 1.62 38 Humla 3 0.00 39 Mugu 37 0.00 40 Kalikot 311 0.04 41 Jumla 312 0.04 42 Dolpa 4037 0.52 43 Dailesh 4202 0.55 44 Jajarkot 1220 0.16 45 Rukum 13496 1.75 46 Surkhet 15606 2.03 47 Salyan 43 0.01 48 Rolpa 38164 4.96 49 Pyuthan 5554 0.72 50 Bardiya 2815 0.37 51 Banke 5668 0.74 52 Dang 7881 1.02 53 Mustang 193 0.03 54 Manang 61 0.01 55 Arghakhanchi 4943 0.64 56 Jhapa 8118 1.05 57 Morang 18114 2.35 58 Sunsari 6681 0.87 59 Saptari 1644 0.21 60 Siraha 5319 0.69 61 Solukhumbu 659 0.09 62 Sankhwa-Sav 3925 0.51 63 Taplejung 575 0.07 64 Okhaldhunga 12606 1.64 65 Khotang 7828 1.02 66 Bhojpur 6353 0.82
78
67 Udayapur 34259 4.45 68 Dhankuta 14775 1.92 69 Terhathum 2306 0.30 70 Panchthar 6068 0.79 71 Ilam 10766 1.40 72 Rautahat 779 0.10 73 Sarlahi 7946 1.03 74 Mahottari 11950 1.55 75 Dhanusa 5465 0.71
(Source: Census 2001).
79
26 Bilingualism or Multilingualism
26.1 What language do your children use when they talk to parents? Ă Magar Ă Nepali Ă English Ă...... 26.2 What language do your children use when they talk to their teacher ? Ă Magar Ă Nepali Ă English Ă...... 26.3 What language do your children use when they talk to strangers? Ă Magar Ă Nepali Ă English Ă...... 26.4 What language do your children use when they talk to their relatives? Ă Magar Ă Nepali Ă English Ă......
80
81