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Relative Storage Capacity vs. Depth The Hydrogeology of  Alluvium generally has highest storage Thomas E. Ballard, PG, CHG capacity Southeast Hydrogeology, PLLC  Related to sand and Murfreesboro, TN gravel content  Bedrock storage capacity in TN is highly dependent on fractures  Fewer fractures with depth

Karst Hydrogeology Karst Aquifers

 Two thirds of Tennessee is underlain by  Openings forming the karst aquifer may limestone. be partly or completely water-filled.  Karst is an important groundwater source  The elevation where all pores are filled in those areas. with water in an aquifer is the water  Primary porosity is low in limestone. table.  Secondary porosity i.e. solution cavities  Water tables in karst areas can be highly and fractures are an important groundwater source. irregular in elevation, because water- carrying conduits can develop at various  Karst aquifers best developed near surface and in relatively pure limestones. elevations.

Idealized Diagram of Karst Example Karst Features Development

Sinking Stream

Spring at Limestone-Shale Interface

Epikarst Development

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Distribution of Limestone Karst Regions of Tennessee

in Tennessee Regional Geology Regional

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

Generalized Geology Key Regional Structural Setting

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Tennessee Aquifer Systems

TENNESSEE HYDROGEOLOGY OVERVIEW

PRINCIPAL AQUIFERS IN TENNESSEE Rate of water withdrawal by public water systems in millions of gallons per day, 2000 Source: U. S. Geological Survey

PRINCIPAL TN PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS TENNESSEE WATER THAT WITHDREW SUPPLY SOURCES GROUNDWATER IN 2000 Source of water supply, in percent, for public water supply withdrawals in Tennessee, 2000 Source: U. S. Geological Survey

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GROUNDWATER TRENDS IN PUBLIC WITHDRAWALS FROM WATER SUPPLY PRINCIPAL AQUIFERS, WITHDRAWALS, 1950- 2000 2000 Source: U. S. Geological Survey Source: U. S. Geological Survey

TOP 10 COUNTIES FOR TOP 10 COUNTIES FOR DOMESTIC WATER PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SUPPLY WITHDRAWALS, WITHDRAWALS, 2010 2010 Source: U. S. Geological Survey Source: U. S. Geological Survey

County Population Served Withdrawals (Mgd) County Population on Well Water Withdrawals (Mgd) Shelby 924,861 173.07 Rutherford 34,507 2.48 Madison 86,464 13.23 Sevier 31,317 2.25 Hamilton 333,606 10.7 Fayette 22,675 1.63 Carter 44,302 7.46 Robertson 20.752 1.49 Tipton 59,109 6.5 Hawkins 17,885 1.29 Obion 31,636 5.34 Grainger 15,294 1.10 Gibson 39,774 5.25 Blount 14,284 1.03 Dyer 36,890 5.17 Carter 13,122 0.94 Jefferson 38,758 4.58 McMinn 13,104 0.94 Montgomery 169,404 3.58 Jefferson 12,649 0.91

WELL DRILLING TRENDS IN TENNESSEE Source: Tennessee Department of Environmental and Conservation, Division of Water Resources

Year Number of Wells Drilled (approx) REGIONAL AQUIFER 2007 5000 SYSTEMS 2010 2400

2015 2150

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Mississippi Embayment Aquifer System

Mississippi Embayment Aquifer System

Mississippi Embayment Cross Section Memphis Aquifers

Mississippi Embayment Stratigraphy Stratigraphy Detailed

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Detailed Stratigraphy Detailed Upper Claiborne

Middle Claiborne (Memphis Sand) Lower Claiborne – Upper Wilcox

Middle Wilcox (Fort Pillow Sand) Lower Wilcox

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Pre-Pumping Groundwater Flow in Top of Lower Wilcox Aquifer the Lower Wilcox Aquifer

Water Quality McNairy-Nacatoch Aquifer McNairy-Nacatoch Aquifer

Aquifer Characteristics

 Cretaceous to  Aquifers thicken Quaternary from east to west unconsolidated where they occur in sediments. Tennessee.  Extremely productive  Greatest yields come Central Basin Aquifer System multiple sand from the Memphis aquifers separated by Sand (Middle and local and regional Lower Claiborne) – confining beds. generally 200 to 1,000 gpm but over 2,000 gpm locally.

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Central Basin Aquifer System Generalized Cross Section Central Basin Basin Central

Detailed Stratigraphy Statigraphy

Detailed Stratigraphy Detailed Stratigraphy

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Conceptual Groundwater Detailed Stratigraphy Flow Model

Conceptual Groundwater Model Conceptual Groundwater Model Inner Central Basin Outer Central Basin

Central Basin Well Yields Central Basin Water Quality

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Aquifer Characteristics

 Carbonate rocks  Depth of freshwater (limestone and some varies greatly. dolomite) are primary  Wells are typically 50 – aquifers. 200 feet deep.  Intervening confining  Depth to salt water is units of shale and shaly generally greatest Highland Rim Aquifer System limestones where the limestone  Chattanooga Shale and dolomite aquifers separates Central crop out i.e. the apex Basin Aquifer System of the Nashville from overlying Dome. Mississippian rocks of  Recharge rates affect the Highland Rim depth to salt water.

Highland Rim Aquifer System Generalized Cross Section

Highland Highland

Highland Highland Detailed Rim

Stratigraphy Rim Stratigraphy Rim

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Conceptual Groundwater Model Highland Rim Water Quality Eastern Highland Rim

Aquifer Characteristics

Most Productive  Mostly karst aquifers Mississippian Aquifers  Groundwater moves  Ste. Genevieve through fractures, Limestone bedding planes, and  St. Louis Limestone solution openings in Knox Aquifer  Warsaw Limestone the limestone  Fort Payne Formation  Hydraulic characteristics (yield Fine-grained clastic rocks and specific capacity) are not generally vary greatly over short productive distances

Knox Aquifer Cross Section of the Knox Aquifer

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Conceptual Model of Groundwater Knox Aquifer Stratigraphy Flow in the Knox Aquifer

Water Quality of the Aquifer Characteristics Upper Knox Aquifer  Regional aquifer.  Dolomite typically has  Distinct from Knox the best yield Formation units in Valley  Limestones yield little and Ridge. water  Only exposed in  TDS < 1,000 mg/l at Sequatchie Valley. center of Nashville  Recharge through Dome and Sequatchie fractures that transect Valley anticline the overlying confining  Deeper zones have high unit. TDS  Water yields in upper 50  Freshwater-saltwater feet. interface does not coincide with shallower aquifers

Cumberland Plateau Aquifer System

Cumberland Plateau Aquifer System

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Generalized Cross Section Cross Sections - Mid and Southern Northern Cumberland Plateau Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee

Wilson, C.W., Jr. and Stearns, R.G., 1958, Structure of the Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee, State of Tennessee, Department of Environment and Conservation, Division of Geology, Report of Investigations No. 8

Cumberland Plateau StratigraphyCumberland Plateau Cumberland Plateau Stratigraphy

Hydrologic Significance Series

System Hydrologic classification Stratigraphic unit Geologic Description Occurrence in Tennessee and character Yield Shale, interbedded with sandstone, siltstone, Occurs only in Cumberland Mountains of Thin interbedded shales inhibit inhibit Sandstones may yield enough and thin coal beds. Maximum thickness about Anderson, Morgan, Scott, and Campbell vertical movement. Sandstones have water for small domestic supply. 550 feet. Counties. low intergranular permeability. Shales, siltstones, and coal yield little or no water to wells. Cross Mountain Formation

Shale, sandstone, siltstone, and coal. Present only in the northeast section of Permeability in sandstones is generally Sandstones yield water for Thickness from 200 to 400 feet. Cumberland Plateau. low, except where fracturing has domestic and public supplies, occurred. Shales have very low commonly 20 gallons per minute permeability. or less. Other lithologies yield Vowell less than 1 gallon per minute. Mountain Formation

Predominantly shale with interbedded Present only in the northeast section of Permeability in sandstones is generally Sandstones yield water for sandstones and coal. Thickness from 250 to Cumberland Plateau. low, except where fracturing has domestic and public supplies, 500 feet. occurred. Shales have very low commonly 20 gallons per minute permeability. or less. Other lithologies yield Redoak less than 1 gallon per minute. Mountain

Formation

Middle PENNSYLVANIAN

Predominantly shale with interbedded Occurs only in the Cumberland Permeability in sandstones is generally Sandstones yield water for sandstone and coal. Thickness from 150 to Mountains and Cross Mountains. low, except where fracturing has domestic and public supplies, 350 feet. occurred. Shales have very low commonly 20 gallons per minute permeability. or less. Other lithologies yield less than 1 gallon per minute. Graves Gap Formation

Alternating shales and sandstones. The shale Occurs only -in the Cumberland Permeability in sandstones is generally Sandstones yield water for intervals contain minor sandstones and coal. Mountains and Cross Mountain. low, except where fracturing has domestic and public supplies, Ranges from 150 to 500 feet thick. occurred. Shales have very low commonly 20 gallons per minute permeability. or less. Other lithologies yield Indian Bluff less than 1 gallon per minute. Formation

Cumberland Plateau Stratigraphy

Hydrologic Significance Groundwater Movement Model Series

System Hydrologic classification Stratigraphic unit Geologic Description Occurrence in Tennessee and character Yield Alternating sequence of shales, sand- stones, Occurs only in the Cumberland Permeability in sandstones is generally Sandstones yield water for and coals, predominantly fine- grained. Ranges Mountains and Cross Mountain. low, exept where fracturing has domestic and public supplies, from 300 to 650 feet thick. occurred. Shales have very low commonly 20 gallons per permeability. minute or less. Other lithologies yield less than 1 gallon per Slatestone minute. Formation

Shale, sandstone, conglomerate, siltstone, and Restricted to northern Cumberland Shales restrict vertical move- Yields to sandstones generally

Lower and Middle coal. Sandstones in this group and above are Plateau. ment. Aquifers restricted to fractured less than 20 gallons per minute. generally much thinner than those sandstones. Shales yield little or water. stratigraphically lower and less laterally Crooked Fork persistent. Ranges from 150 to 480 feet thick. Group

PENNSYLVANIAN Three major sandstone units occur in this Occurs throughout most of area, thickens Primary porosity of sandstones is small. Fractured sandstones yield group: the Sewanee, Newton,and Rockcastle. from west to east. Aquifer is best developed where from 50 to 350 gallons per All are conglomeratic in places and are massive fractures are concentrated in minute. cliff formers. They are separated by shales, sandstones. Shales siltstones, and coal Crab Orchard siltstone, and coals. Total thickness ranges inhibit vertical movement.

Mountains Group from 300 to 900 feet. Lower

The Gizzard may be divided into three parts: a Present throughout most of area, may be Zones of higher permeability occur Sandstones generally yield less thick lower shale with thin sandstones and absent locally. where fractures are concentrated in tnan 20 gallons per minute. Gizzard Group several coals; tne Warren Point sandstone; and sandstones. Other rock types have Shales yield little or no water to a thin upper shale. Total thickness ranges up to extremely low permeability and restrict wells. 700 feet. vertical flow. Aquifers in consolidated rocks are directly recharged by precipitation where they Shale, siltstone, fine- grained dolomite, Underlies entire area of the Cumberland Generally has very low permeability and Yields little or no water to wells. limestone, and thin- bedded sandstone. Plateau system. storage. Some solution openings occur Large springs issue from the top are exposed at the land surface. Water enters the aquifers primarily through Pennington Ranges from 100 to 500 feet thick. in limestone. of the formation. Formation Upper fractures. Fractures decrease in width and number with depth. In Pennsylvanian MISSISSIPIAN rocks, underclay beneath coal beds creates perched water tables, which result in springs that issue from valley walls. Water percolates slowly downward through the underclay to reach the main water table.

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Conceptual Groundwater Model Cross Section and Recharge Cumberland Plateau Cumberland Plateau

Groundwater moves primarily through fractures in clastic rocks and solution openings in limestone. Fractures in shale confining units allow rapid downward movement. Shallow near-surface fractures yield the most water to wells.

General Water Quality Aquifer Characteristics Cumberland Plateau  Geology consists of  A complete, ideal cycle easterly dipping of Pennsylvania rocks Pennsylvanian and consists of, from bottom Mississippian rocks. to top: underclay, coal,  Pennsylvanian rocks are primarily sandstone, gray shale or black platy conglomerate and shale shale, freshwater with some coal beds. limestone, and sandstone  Mississippian rocks are or silty shale. primarily shale and  Water from limestones limestones. tends to be alkaline and from coal/black shale more acidic.

Grassy Cove, Tennessee , Tennessee

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Grassy Cove, Tennessee Grassy Cove, Tennessee

Head of Sequatchie Spring

Valley and Ridge Aquifer System

Valley and Ridge Province Valley and Ridge Aquifer System Generalized Cross Section

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Valley and Ridge Province Principal Aquifers in Valley and Ridge Conceptual Cross Section  Principal aquifers are carbonate rocks of Cambrian and

Ordovician Age

Valley and Valley and

Ridge Stratigraphy Ridge Stratigraphy

Valley and Ridge Province Conceptual Groundwater Model Conceptual Groundwater Model Valley and Ridge Groundwater moves downward through interstitial pore spaces in residuum and alluvium into the consolidated rocks, where it moves along fractures, bedding planes and solution openings. The general direction of flow is from ridges to toward springs and streams in the valleys.

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Conceptual Groundwater Model Water Quality –Valley and Ridge Western Toe

Aquifer Characteristics

 Geology is defined by  Karst systems series of imbricate generally have the best faulting related to deep yields. detachment fault  Fractures in clastic system. rocks can yield water  Groundwater is locally. Blue Ridge Aquifers primary stored in  Some production from fractures, bedding alluvium and residuum. planes and solution  Groundwater type is openings. typically calcium-  Nature of the geology magnesium- dictates no regional bicarbonate. flow systems.

Generalized Geologic Cross Section Blue Ridge Aquifer System of

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Blue Ridge Province Blue Ridge Stratigraphy Ridge Blue Conceptual Groundwater Model

Water Quality – Blue Ridge Aquifer Characteristics

 Most available  Fractures close off at groundwater is in depth. fractures within a  Regional few hundred feet of groundwater flow is the ground surface. not significant  Production capacity  Groundwater quality defined by number, is generally good size and degree of with low TDS. interconnected  Groundwater is fractures. calcium-magnesium- bicarbonate type.

Basal Sandstone Aquifer System

Basal Sandstone Aquifer

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Basal Sandstone Distribution Basal Sandstone Stratigraphy

Conceptual Model of Basal Sandstone Aquifer Characteristics Groundwater Occurrence  No surface  Limited data exposures  TDS exceeds 10,000  Occurs at depths of mg/L 5,000 to 10,000 feet  Not drinking water  200 to 400 feet thick quality  Similar to other basal  Has been used for units throughout the deep injection wells world

Questions?

Thomas E. Ballard, P.G., C.H.G. Southeast Hydrogeology, PLLC 1715-K South Rutherford Blvd, #400 Murfreesboro, TN 37130 931-394-3233 [email protected] [email protected] www.sehydrogeology.com

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References References (continued) Bradley, M. W. and Hollyday, E. F., 1984, Tennessee Ground-Water Resources in National Brahana, J. V., Bradley, M. W. and Mulderink, D, 1986, Delineation of the Regional Aquifers Water Summary 1984: Hydrologic Events, Selected Water-Quality Trends, and Ground- of Tennessee – Tertiary Aquifer System, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Water Resources, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275 Investigations Report 82-4011

Brahana, J. V. and Bradley, M.W., 1985, Delineation of the Regional Aquifers of Tennessee Brahana, J. V., Mulderink, D., and Bradley, M.W., 1986, Delineation of the Regional – The Knox Aquifer in Central and West Tennessee, U.S. Geological Survey Water- Aquifers of Tennessee – The Cretaceous Aquifer System of West Tennessee, U.S. Resources Investigations Report 83-4012 Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 83-4039

Brahana, J. V., Macy, J. A., Mulderink, D. and Zemo, D., 1986, Delineation of the Regional Brahana, J. V. and Bradley, M. W., 1986, Delineation of the Regional Aquifers of Tennessee Aquifers of Tennessee – Cumberland Plateau Aquifer System, U.S. Geological Survey – The Highland Rim Aquifer System, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Water-Resources Investigations Report 82-338 Investigations Report 82-4054

Brahana, J. V., Bradley, M.W., Macy, J. A. and Mulderink, D., 1986, Delineation of the Brahana, J. V., Mulderink, D. Macy, J. A., and Bradley, M.W., 1986, Delineation of the Regional Aquifers of Tennessee – Basal Sandstone West of the Valley and Ridge Province, Regional Aquifers of Tennessee – The East Tennessee Aquifer System, U.S. Geological U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 82-762 Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 82-4091

Brahana, J. V. and Bradley, M. W., 1986, Delineation of the Regional Aquifers of Tennessee Brahana, J. V. and Broshears, R. E., 2001, Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Flow in the – The Central Basin Aquifer System, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Memphis and Fort Pillow Aquifers in the Memphis Area, Tennessee, U.S. Geological Investigations Report 82-4002 Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 89-4131

References (continued) References (continued)

Crawford, N.C., 1996, The Karst Hydrogeology of the Cumberland Plateau Escarpment Clark, B.R., Hart, R.M., and Gurdak, J.J., 2011, Groundwater availability of the Mississippi of Tennessee, TN Dept. of Environment and Conservation, Division of Geology, Report embayment: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1785 of Investigations No. 44, Part IV

Conant, L. C. and Swanson, V. E., 1961, Chattanooga Shale and Related Rocks of Central Hollyday, E.F., and Hileman, G.E., 1997, HydrogeologicTerranes and Potential Yield of Tennessee and Nearby Areas, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 357 Water to Wells in the Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province in the Eastern and Southeastern United States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1422-C Crawford, N.C., 1987, The Karst Hydrogeology of the Cumberland Plateau Escarpment of Tennessee, TN Dept. of Environment and Conservation, Division of Geology Report Kingsbury, J. A. and Shelton, J. M., 2002, Water Quality of the Mississippian Carbonate of Investigations No. 44, Part I Aquifer in Parts of Middle Tennessee and Northern , 1999, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4083 Crawford, N.C., 1989, The Karst Hydrogeology of the Cumberland Plateau Escarpment of Tennessee, TN Dept. of Environment and Conservation, Division of Geology Report Lloyd, O. B., Jr., and Lyke, W. L., 1995, Ground Water Atlas of the United States, Segment of Investigations No. 44, Part II 10, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Investigations Atlas 730-K Crawford, N.C., 1992, The Karst Hydrogeology of the Cumberland Plateau Escarpment of Tennessee, TN Dept. of Environment and Conservation, Division of Geology Report Moore, G. K., 1965, Geology and Hydrology of the Claiborne Group in Western of Investigations No. 44, Part III Tennessee, U.S.G.S. Water-Supply Paper 1809-F

References (continued) References (continued)

Piper, A. M., 1993 (reprint), Ground Water in North-Central Tennessee, TN Dept. of Wilson, C. W., Jr, Jewell, J. W. and Luther, E. T., 1956, Pennsylvanian Geology of the Environment and Conservation, Division of Geology Bulletin 43 Cumberland Plateau, TN Dept. of Environment and Conservation, Division of Geology

Stearns, R. G., 1954, The Cumberland Plateau Overthrust and Geology of the Crab Wilson, C. W., Jr, and Stearns, R. G., 1958, Structure of the Cumberland Plateau, TN Orchard Mountains Area, Tennessee, TN Dept. of Environment and Conservation, Dept. of Environment and Conservation, Division of Geology, Report of Investigations Division of Geology, Bulletin No. 60 No. 8

U.S. Geological Survey, 2000, The National Atlas of the United States of America – Wolfe, W. J., Haugh, C. J., Webbers, A., and Diehl, T. H., 1997, Preliminary Conceptual Principal Aquifers, U.S. Geological Survey available at Models of the Occurrence, Fate, and Transport of Chlorinated Solvents in Karst https://water.usgs.gov/ogw/aquifer/map.html Regions of Tennessee, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 97-4097 Waldron, B. and Larsen, D., 2015, Pre-Development Groundwater Conditions Surrounding Memphis, Tennessee: Controversy and Unexpected Outcomes, Journal of Zurawski, A., 1978, Summary Appraisals of the Nation’s Ground-Water Resources – the American Water Works Association, Vol. 51, No. 1, February 2015 Tennessee Region, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 813-L

Webbers, A, 2003, Ground-Water Use by Public Water-Supply Systems in Tennessee, TN Digital Geologic Map in KMZ, WMS, WFS, SHP formats at U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 03-47 https://mrdata.usgs.gov/geology/state/state.php?state=TN

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