The Citizenship Experiment Studies in the History of Political Thought Series Editor Annelien de Dijn (Utrecht University) Advisory Board Janet Coleman (London School of Economics and Political Science, UK) Vittor Ivo Comparato (University of Perugia, Italy) Jacques Guilhaumou (cnrs, France) John Marshall (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA) Markku Peltonen (University of Helsinki, Finland) volume 15 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/ship The Citizenship Experiment Contesting the Limits of Civic Equality and Participation in the Age of Revolutions By René Koekkoek leiden | boston This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC 4.0 license, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Further information and the complete license text can be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc/4.0/ The terms of the CC license apply only to the original material. The use of material from other sources (indicated by a reference) such as diagrams, illustrations, photos and text samples may require further permission from the respective copyright holder. An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. More information about the initiative can be found at www.knowledgeunlatched.org. Cover illustration: Carel Frederik Bendorp (1736–1814), Allegorie op de Conventie (1795), Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. For a detailed description: see page ix. The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2019038014 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 1873-6548 ISBN 978-90-04-22570-1 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-41645-1 (e-book) Copyright 2020 by René Koekkoek. Published by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner. Contents Acknowledgments VII Cover Illustration IX Introduction 1 1 Citizenship in the Age of Revolutions 2 2 The Terror and the Haitian Revolution 7 3 A Comparative Approach to the ‘Atlantic Thermidor’ 14 1 ‘The Kindred Spirit Tie of Congenial Principles’ 26 1 Rights Declarations and the Constitutional Framework of Citizenship 31 2 Converging Revolutionary Citizenship Ideals 34 3 The French Revolution and the Heyday of a Transatlantic Ideal of Citizenship 43 4 Regimes of Exclusion 52 2 Saint-Domingue, Rights and Empire 57 1 The Logic of Rights and the Realm of Empire 60 2 The Nation’s Colonial Citizens 63 3 Slavery and Civic Inequality in the US before Saint-Domingue 69 3 The Civilizational Limits of Citizenship 78 1 The Enlightenment Language of Civilization 82 2 Unity and Hierarchy in the French Empire 91 3 Levelling Principles and Remorseless Savages 97 4 The Turn Away from French Universalism 105 1 Citizenship and Inequality in the Dutch Republican Empire 107 2 ‘The vile machinations of men calling themselves philosophers’ 118 3 The French Colonial Thermidor 123 5 Uniting ‘good’ Citizens in Thermidorian France 132 1 The Revolutionary Political Culture of Citizenship, 1792–1794 136 2 Good Citizen / Bad Citizen 141 3 Isolating the Citizen 146 4 What is a Good Citizen? Redefining Civic Virtues 154 5 Narrowing Down Political Citizenship 158 vi Contents 6 The Post-Revolutionary Contestation and Nationalization of American Citizenship 169 1 A Burgeoning Partisan Public Sphere 171 2 ‘Whether France is Saved or Ruined, is still Problematical’ 174 3 Political Societies, Faction, and the Limits of Democratic Citizenship 179 4 Anti-Jacobinism and the American Citizenship Model 188 7 Forging the Batavian Citizen in a Post-Terror Revolution 201 1 Portraying the Terror between Orangist Restoration and Batavian Revolution 205 2 Limiting Power, Protecting Rights: The Terror and the Need for a Constitution 213 3 Channelling the Participation of the People 219 4 Nationalization 227 5 The End of the Democratic-Republican Citizen 231 Epilogue: The Age of Revolutions as a Turning Point in the History of Citizenship 240 Bibliography 253 Index 290 Acknowledgments This book project began at Utrecht University’s Research Institute for History and Culture and was generously financed by a grant from the Netherlands Or- ganization for Scientific Research (NWO). I am most grateful for their financial and institutional support. It is also a great pleasure to thank my supervisors Ido de Haan and Wijnand Mijnhardt. Ido has been my mentor since I started my research master in history in Utrecht in 2008. His rigour and demanding standards have sharpened this book’s arguments as well as my attitude of mind in general. At an early stage, Wijnand agreed to act as a second supervisor. I deeply appreciated his eye for the big picture and his infectious enthusiasm for scholarship in the true sense of the word. I also wish to thank Maarten Prak for his help in the earliest stages of my research project. During the final stages of my research I had the privilege to spend time at Princeton University where David Bell welcomed me as a graduate research fellow. I profited greatly from his incisive comments and was honoured that I was given the opportunity to present my project at the distinguished Princeton Eighteenth Century Semi- nar. I want to thank him also for staying in touch and sharing his advice with me long after I had left New Jersey. The seeds for this project were sown during my studies at the bachelor’s and master’s level. In particular James Kennedy, Josine Blok and Siep Stuurman have shaped my thinking. I owe a special thanks to Wyger Velema who –in his research seminar on the Batavian Revolution– ignited my interest in the late eighteenth-century Age of Revolutions. I presented research papers related to the book project at several venues: the International Congress for Eighteenth Century Studies in Rotterdam, the Third International Conference of the Association for Political History at Bielefeld University, the Conference The Roots of Nationalism, 1600–1815 at Nijmegen University, the Seminar of the Research School Political History at Utrecht, the International Conference on the History of Concepts in Bilbao, the Annual Weissbourd Conference of the Society of Fellows at University of Chicago, and the Consortium of the Revolutionary Era, in Charleston, S.C. I thank all the audiences for their questions and comments. In particular, I benefited from comments by, and conversations with Hans Erich Bödeker, Samuel Moyn, and Henk te Velde. A special thanks also to Katlyn Carter and James Alexander Dun for collaborating on a panel at the Consortium and for exchanging insights on the revolutionary era in both Princeton and Charles- ton. In addition, thanks to Nathan Perl-Rosenthal for sharing his thoughts with me through e-mail on the concept of citizenship in the revolutionary era. viii Acknowledgments At Utrecht University as well as the University of Amsterdam I have benefit- ed greatly from comments and suggestions by Pepijn Corduwener, Joris Odd- ens, Jan Rotmans, Devin Vartija, and Bart Verheijen. Over the last years I have also greatly appreciated the academic companionship and collaboration on various exciting projects with: Lars Behrisch, Camille Creyghton, Annelien de Dijn, Boyd van Dijk, Lisa Kattenberg, and Matthijs Lok, and again Devin and Pepijn. I want to thank the series editor Annelien de Dijn for enthusiastically wel- coming my book in the Brill Series in the History of Political Thought. Thanks to my editor Ivo Romein and production editor Kim Fiona Plas for the smooth and pleasant collaboration, and the three anonymous reviewers for their comments. I also want to thank a number of people without whom this book would not have been possible. First of all, my mother Ann Schilderinck and father Flip Koekkoek for their encouragement and support. Unfortunately, my father was only able to witness my first years as a history student. I want to thank Bert Leufkens who together with Ann has meant a lot for me and my family. Many thanks to my mother-in-law, Marjet Vos, who has been a mainstay for our fam- ily; and thanks also to my father-in-law Gerard Bakker in whose home at the lake of Vinkeveen I wrote many pages that ended up in this book. It was very important to me, Fedja and my children to have my sister Sanneke Koekkoek and brother-in-law Joost Lemmens and their children living close to us during the years of research and writing. Finally, I want to thank Fedja for everything. She has witnessed – and prob- ably suffered most from – every stage of the project. In the meanwhile, we’ve been incredibly lucky and thankful to have welcomed our three wonderful