Final Report

Team 22 - SHARC Sustainable Housing And Responsible Construction Andrew Blunt, Robert LaPlaca, Oscar Lopez, and Julie VanDeRiet

Engineering 339/340 Senior Design Project

Calvin College

May 10, 2018

This document outlines the work that Team 22 of Calvin College’s engineering senior design project achieved over the academic year, as well as the goals they achieved. The accomplished work contains research and feasibility analysis for design decisions regarding the design of the a sustainable home.

The client family desires a sustainable home near Calvin College. Team 22’s goal was to provide a solution to their problem by designing a home to comply with Passive House Institute US’s certification. This task requires a variety of engineering disciplines with specific objectives that require a parallel design process. This document outlines the research and work that Team 22 has achieved. Table of Contents 1 Executive Summary 2 Introduction 1 2.1 Project Introduction 1 2.1.1 Location 1 2.1.2 Client 1 2.2 Passive House US Requirements 1 2.3 The Team 3 2.3.1 Andrew Blunt 3 2.3.2 Robert LaPlaca 3 2.3.3 Oscar Lopez 4 2.3.4 Julie VanDeRiet 4 2.4 Senior Design Course 4 3 Results 5 3.1 Thermal Results 5 3.2 Home Design 5 3.3 Energy Performance 6 4 Project Management 7 4.1 Team Organization 7 4.2 Schedule 7 4.2.1 First Semester 7 4.2.2 Second Semester 8 4.2.3 Project Management Visualization 8 5 Design Process 9 5.1 Ethical Design Considerations 9 5.1.1 Transparency 9 5.1.2 Stewardship 9 5.1.3 Integrity 10 5.2 Design Alternatives 10 5.2.1 Certification Options 10 6 Architecture and Site 12 6.1 Client Specifications 12 6.1.1 Preliminary Client Specifications 12 6.1.2 Final Client Specifications 13 6.2 Location 14 6.3 City Regulations 14 6.4 Site Development 16 6.5 Floor Plans 16 6.5.1 Floor Plan Considerations 16 6.5.2 Basement 17 6.5.3 First Floor 18 6.5.4 Second Floor 18 6.6 Windows 19 6.7 Overhangs 20 6.8 Exterior Design 23 7 Structural 24 7.1 Structural Analysis 24 7.1.1 General 24 7.1.2 Load Combinations 24

7.1.3 Dead Loads 25 7.1.4 Live Loads 26 7.1.5 Structural Modeling 26 7.1.6 Roof Truss 26 7.2 Foundation Thermal Bridging 28 8 Mechanical 30 8.1 Heating and Cooling System 30 8.1.1 Heating Method Selection 31 8.1.2 Heat Pump Selection 32 8.2 Water Heating 32 8.3 Laundry 32 8.4 Ventilation 32 8.4.1 Ventilation System Selection 32 8.4.2 Utilization Pattern 33 9 Electrical 34 9.1 Appliances 34 9.1.1 Fridge/Freezer Combination 34 9.1.2 Dishwasher 34 9.1.3 Cooktop/Stove 34 9.1.4 Washer 34 9.1.5 Dryer 35 9.1.6 Water Heater 35 9.1.7 Appliance Summary 36 9.2 Energy Consumption 36 9.2.1 Heating and Cooling Energy Consumption 36 9.2.2 Appliance Energy Consumption 36 9.2.3 Lighting Energy Consumption 37 9.2.4 Miscellaneous Energy Consumption 37 9.2.5 Total Annual Energy Consumption 38 9.3 Energy Generation 39 9.3.1 Solar System Sizing Background 39 9.3.2 Roof Angle Considerations 40 9.3.3 Solar System Sizing Results 40 9.3.4 Roof Area Calculations 41 9.3.5 Solar System Cost 42 9.3.6 Tesla Solar Roof 42 9.4 Energy Monitoring 42 9.4.1 Neurio Energy Monitor 43 9.4.2 Smappee Solar 43 9.5 Power Distribution 43 9.5.1 Low Voltage DC Distribution Justification 43 9.5.2 Low Voltage Load Center 44 9.5.3 Low Voltage Distribution Factor 45 9.6 Daylighting Analysis 45 9.6.1 LEED v4 Daylighting Standard 45 9.6.2 Level 0 Daylighting Analysis 45 9.6.3 Level 1 Daylighting Analysis 47 9.6.4 Level 2 Daylighting Analysis 48 9.6.5 Daylighting Results 49 10 Thermal Modeling 50

10.1 Thermal Modeling Introduction 50 10.2 WUFI ® Plus 51 10.3 Walls and Insulation 53 10.4 Thermal Modeling Results 54 11 Financial Analysis 57 11.1 Initial Budget 57 11.2 Top-Down Financial Analysis 57 11.3 Bottom-Up Financial Analysis 59 11.3.1 Estimation Software 59 11.3.2 Additional Sustainable Design Cost 59 11.4 Cost Comparison 60 11.5 Payback period 60 12 Conclusion 62 13 References 63 14 Acknowledgments 67 15 Appendices 68 15.1 Appendix A: Team 22 Second Semester Gantt Chart 69 15.2 Appendix B: Licaso Daylighting Results 70 15.3 Appendix C: Heat Pump Specification Sheet 73 15.4 Appendix D: HRV Specification Sheet 75 15.5 Appendix E: Nextek Power Hub Driver Specification Sheet 83 15.6 Appendix F: Solar Generation - PV Watts - Results 85 15.7 Appendix G: Solar Panel Specification Sheet 86

iii

Table of Figures Figure 2.2a U.S. Climate Zones 2

Figure 2.3a From Left to Right: LaPlaca, Blunt, Lopez, and VanDeRiet 3

Figure 3.1a Thermal Modeling Results related to PHIUS Requirements 5

Figure 3.2a House Exterior Design 6

Figure 3.3a Annual Energy Use Comparison 6

Figure 4.2.3a Work Breakdown Schedule 8

Figure 6.1.2a Current Client Room Specifications 13

Figure 6.2a The Vos House location 14

Figure 6.3a MCN-LRD Minimum Dimensions 15

Figure 6.4a Site Plan 16

Figure 6.5.2a 0th Floor Design 17

Figure 6.5.3a First Floor Design 18

Figure 6.5.4a Second Floor Design 19

Figure 6.6a Multiple-Pane Window Energy Savings 19

Figure 6.7a Winter and Summer Solar Angle at Design Site 21

Figure 6.7b Southern First Story Overhang Design 22

Figure 6.7c Southern Second Story Overhang Design 22

Figure 6.8a House Exterior 23

Figure 7.1.6a Truss Design 27

Figure 7.1.6b Isometric Truss Design 27

Figure 7.1.6c Truss Design Load 27

Figure 7.1.6d Distribution of Trusses 28

Figure 7.2a Footing, Foundation and Wall Insulation 29

Figure 9.2.4a National Residential Site Energy Consumption by End Use 38

Figure 9.2.5a Energy Usage by End Means 39

Figure 9.5.1a Low Voltage Power Distribution System 44

Figure 9.7.2a Level 0 Licaso Daylighting Simulation 46

Figure 9.7.3a Level 1 Licaso Daylighting Simulation 47

Figure 9.7.4a Level 2 Licaso Daylighting Simulation 48

Figure 10.1a Grand Rapids Average Monthly Temperature 50

Figure 10.1b Grand Rapids Average Monthly Solar Radiation 51

Figure 10.3a Foundation Construction 53

Figure 10.3b Roof Construction 53

Figure 10.3c Exterior Wall Construction 54

Figure 10.4a Final Model as WUFI Input 55

Figure 10.4b Monthly Heating and Cooling Loads 55

Figure 11.2a Top Down Data Comparison 58

Figure 11.4a Simple Payback Period 61

Table of Tables Table 2.2a Climate Zone 5 Requirements 2

Table 5.2.1a Certification Alternatives 10

Table 6.1.1a Original Client Specifications 12

Table 6.3a Lot Dimensions and Setbacks 15

Table 6.6a Window Dimensions and Cost 20

Table 7.1.2a HUD Load Combinations 24

Table 7.1.3a HUD Dead Loads 25

Table 7.1.4a HUD Load Combinations 26

Table 7.1.6a Truss Design Load Results 28

Table 8.4.2a Supply Air Ventilation Pattern 33

Table 8.4.2b Exhaust Air Ventilation Pattern 33

Table 9.1.7a Appliance Summary 36

Table 9.2.2a Annual Appliance Energy Consumption 36

Table 9.2.3a US Department of Energy Data 37

Table 9.2.4a Miscellaneous Loads Percentages 38

Table 9.2.5a Annual Energy Consumption 38

Table 9.3.1a PVWatts assumptions 40

Table 9.3.3a PVWatts Results 41

Table 10.2a WUFI Equations 52

Table 10.4a Thermal Modeling Results 56

Table 11.3.2a Sustainable Solution Costs 60

Table 11.4a Cost Analysis 61

2 Introduction

Calvin College Engineering Team 22 was tasked with creating the design of a sustainable house for their client. Team 22 will match the considerations of the client with the requirements of a Passive House Institute US’s sustainable home certification. This document contains research, thermal models, electrical usage and cost data, a structural model, an architectural design, and client consultation decisions.

2.1 Project Introduction

2.1.1 Location The proposed site for the client’s house is the current location of the Vos house located at 3135 Hampshire Blvd SE, Grand Rapids, MI 49506. The property is just under one acre in size1 and borders Calvin’s campus on the west side. This location provides the clients with a quick commute as well as with the potential to make the passive house a Calvin landmark. The front of the property faces south, which provides an excellent location for roof mounted solar generation. The property also incorporates a downward sloping elevation to the north, which provides the opportunity for a walk-out basement.

2.1.2 Client The client household, a family of seven, currently resides in a house in Grand Rapids. The heads of this household are two chemical engineering professors at Calvin.

2.2 Passive House US Requirements The house will most likely follow typical residential design conventions and take advantage of a wood frame. However, to comply with the passive house certification, certain heat transfer requirements must be met in the exterior and interior walls as well as the roof, floors, and foundation. Careful design choices and calculations will be made to assure proper certification of the dwelling.

When the project receives certification from PHIUS, the following qualifications must be met: ● Third-party Residential Energy Services Network (RESNET) approved quality assurance inspection ● U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Zero Energy Ready Home (ZERH) status ● U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Indoor airPLUS label ● Home Energy Rating System (HERS) rating2

1 City of Grand Rapids. (n.d.). 2 PHIUS Certification Overview. (n.d.). 1

In addition, to comply with the certification, the design must adhere to the energy usage restrictions based on its location. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the United States can be divided into eight zones of similar climates (Figure 2.2a).

Figure 2.2a U.S. Climate Zones3

The location of this project is within Zone 5, and therefore must comply with the Zone 5 energy restrictions (Table 2.2a).

Table 2.2a Climate Zone 5 Requirements4 Maximum Annual Heating and Cooling Demands

2 kBtu/sf-iCFA.yr kWh/m a Annual Heating Demand 6.1 19.2 Annual Cooling Demand 2.7 8.5 Maximum Heating and Cooling Loads Btu/sf-iCFA.h W/m2 Peak Heating Load 4.7 14.8 Peak Cooling Load 4.1 12.9 Manual J Peak Cooling 5.9 18.61 Load (Btu/sf-iCFA.h) *iCFA = Interior Conditioned Floor Area

3 Technical Pages. (n.d.). 4 PHIUS Certification Overview. (n.d.). 2

2.3 The Team Team 22 is Calvin College Engineering Department’s most multidisciplinary senior design team this year. The team, seen in Figure 2.3a, is composed of two civil and environmental engineering students, a mechanical engineering student, and a electrical and computer engineering student. The project brought all these disciplines together to design a sustainable home.

Figure 2.3a From Left to Right: LaPlaca, Blunt, Lopez, and VanDeRiet

2.3.1 Andrew Blunt Andrew is an electrical engineering student from Carol Stream, Illinois. He is enthusiastic about urban planning, lighting design, and sustainability, especially renewable energy. When not in the electronics lab, he can usually be found appreciating lighting design, riding his moped, or exploring new places.

2.3.2 Robert LaPlaca Robert is a civil engineering student from West Chicago, Illinois. He has a passion for urban development, systems thinking, and sustainability. He enjoys good architecture, water infrastructure, and when spaces are engineered to accommodate their interactors well. In his free time, he enjoys playing board games, woodwork, and exploring new places on his moped.

2.3.3 Oscar Lopez Oscar Lopez is a civil engineering student from Quito, Ecuador. He has a passion for structural modeling, sustainable buildings, and environmental engineering. He is an enthusiastic sports fan and a dedicated martial artist. In his spare time, he enjoys spending time with friends and family.

2.3.4 Julie VanDeRiet Julie is a mechanical engineering student from Holland, Michigan. Her love for people and the outdoors motivates her interest in sustainable design. She has a strong appreciation for simple solutions to complicated problems and enjoys running, cooking, and spending time outdoors.

2.4 Senior Design Course Engineering 339/340- Senior Design is intended to prepare students for their future careers by improving their ability to:

● Define, plan, and implement a major project ● Participate effectively as a team member ● Understand business and finance ● Launch a successful career ● Integrate Calvin College’s liberal arts education5

These goals are accomplished through lectures on topics such as written and oral communication, ethics, business, and conflict management, in addition to the design project itself.

5 Michmerhuizen, M., Nielsen, N., Tubergen, R., VanAntwerp, J., & De Rooy, L. (n.d.). ENGR340 - Senior Design Project. 4

3 Results

3.1 Thermal Results By defining the structural, architectural, electrical, and mechanical systems in the housing design, the team was able to model the thermal requirements of the design and change the remaining variables in order to meet the PHIUS certification requirements. These results, compared to the PHIUS certification maximum values, are shown in Figure 3.1a.

Figure 3.1a Thermal Modeling Results related to PHIUS Requirements

3.2 Home Design Based on the thermal, electrical, and structural needs and the client specifications, the PHIUS requirements were meet by a two story, 2800 square feet, brick and structural insulation panel home with attached garage. The aesthetic of the home was meant to match the neighborhood. Two stories with a basement and attached garage is normal construction for the street. The size of the house was designed to meet client stipulations. Figure 3.2a shows the completed home, modeled in Revit.

Figure 3.2a House Exterior Design

3.3 Energy Performance Overall, the home’s estimated annual energy usage is 12740 kWh/yr, which is 35% as much as the average Michigan home. See section 9.2.5 for details. With a solar array, the house operates with an annual operating carbon footprint of zero.

Figure 3.3a Annual Energy Use Comparison

4 Project Management

4.1 Team Organization As a multidisciplinary project, the various design components break down into their respective disciplines: mechanical, electrical, and structural/civil. Andrew Blunt, the electrical engineering student, developed the power and lighting design. Robert LaPlaca and Oscar Lopez are dividing the civil and structural design responsibilities. Robert LaPlaca developed the architectural and site development models as well reporting the financial analysis. Oscar Lopez carried out structural analysis of the project. As the mechanical engineering student, Julie VanDeRiet focused on the heating, cooling, and energy modeling. All teammates worked together to complete a project that surpassed the potential of their individual capabilities.

The team worked as a unit several times a week. The computer modeling, report documentation, presentations, meeting minutes and research are all stored in the senior design Team 22 drive. Team meetings with our instructure were run with specific agenda about once a week.

4.2 Schedule This project, like the senior design course, was broken up into two semesters. The goal of the first semester was to explore the project’s feasibility. The goal of second semester was to work towards optimizing the design and preparing for senior design night. Both goals were accomplished.

4.2.1 First Semester The first semester was primarily geared towards the collection of knowledge and materials. The first few weeks were used to define team members and projects; then the client clarified specifications and the team researched sustainable housing, general housing design, possible certifications, and types of modeling programs. The remainder of the semester was focused on solidifying those decisions, creating and presenting presentations for the Engineering 339 class, and writing the Project Proposal and Feasibility Study (PPFS).

A specific event that the team and client attended was the Zero Net Energy (ZNE) Conference on November 14, 2017. This event allowed the team to network and improve knowledge on sustainable structures and certifications.

4.2.2 Second Semester The spring semester started with updating the housing design to fit the client’s specifications, using that design to create new models, and optimizing the design. The team will also presented at Calvin College’s Senior Design Night, which took place on May 5, 2018.

4.2.3 Project Management Visualization The work breakdown structure (WBS) and the Gantt chart are both useful tools for project management. The WBS is especially useful for visualizing project topic hierarchy, while the gantt chart provides a clear picture of what tasks need to be accomplished by their respective deadlines. The work breakdown schedule used for this project is shown in Figure 4.2.3a, and the gantt chart for this project can be found in the appendix.

Figure 4.2.3a Work Breakdown Schedule

5 Design Process

5.1 Ethical Design Considerations Although all design norms affect the design decisions made by Team 22, the following three design norms are particularly relevant: transparency, stewardship, and integrity.

5.1.1 Transparency When Team 22 makes decisions about the housing design, the rationale must be disclosed, and those decisions should also reflect the big picture of sustainable housing. This is true because the macro purpose of pursuing the passive house certification is to live sustainability; if the the team design process is not energy efficient and the design unsustainable, even if the team achieves the passive house certification, it will not reflect a passive house’s true purpose.

A passive house is designed to be sustainable for its lifetime, so its resource and energy use will be transparent. The design process should reflect this transparent attitude by keeping the needs of the end user at the forefront of decision making.

5.1.2 Stewardship Careful stewardship of the earth’s environment is an essential consideration to be aware of when working on a housing design, since the heating, cooling, and electrical use of a house can be one of the most significant impacts on the environment a person can have.

Sustainability is not only about caring for the environment; according to the Calvin College Statement on Sustainability:

To live in a sustainable fashion means our daily activities will be conducted in such a manner that they do not seriously jeopardize, but instead promote, the wellbeing of other people, other species, and the ability of future generations of all creatures to flourish.6

Stewardship is about caring for the planet and the people who live on it by being responsible about the use of energy and resources, which is what the team hopes to accomplish with the housing design.

The energy regulations imposed on a passive house minimize its environmental footprint. Pursuing the certification exemplifies stewardship of the environment. Stewardship should not only be reflected in the end result, but also in the construction process and selected materials. The passive house, from design to implementation, should wholistically demonstrate stewardship.

6 Statement on Sustainability. (2007, May 7). 9

5.1.3 Integrity People, often more than they realize, take cues from the design of their surroundings. The shape of spaces and details that are often overlooked can play a role in the way people behave. Therefore, designing a home, where people spend a significant amount of their time, demands careful consideration.

The design norm of integrity demonstrates a harmony between function and form. All design decisions must not only take the client's specific needs into consideration, but also the certification requirements. Team 22’s goal is to design a home for a specific place and client, rising above the requirements necessary for sustainability.

5.2 Design Alternatives

5.2.1 Certification Options The team considered a variety of sustainable home certifications before deciding on the Passive House Certification from the Passive House Institute US. These alternatives are given in Table 4.2.1a.

Table 5.2.1a Certification Alternatives `Name Details

LEED for homes LEED homes version 4

Single family home point grading system: Certified, Silver, Gold, Platinum.

ENERGY STAR Certified Evaluates walls and windows, air ducts, heating and Home cooling, lighting and appliances.

NAHB National Green Evaluates energy efficiency, water conservation, resource Building Standard conservation, indoor environmental quality, and site design.

Greenstar GreenStar is based on the five pillars of green; Energy,Health,Water, Materials & Place and how these are affected systematically by the seven components of a home including, Outdoor/Site, Building Envelope Systems, Mechanicals, Electrical/Lighting, Plumbing Systems and Fixtures, Finish Materials and Coatings and Waste Management.

Passive House Institute U.S. The PHIUS+ Certification Program is the leading passive building certification program in North America.

All PHIUS+ certified projects earn ZERO and ENERGY STAR designations.

U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Star certified home compliant Zero Energy Ready Home Evaluates Building envelope, HVAC system, water efficiency, lighting & appliances, indoor air quality, and renewable energy.

After multiple discussions with the client about possible certifications, the client decided to have the team pursue a certification from the Passive House Institute US.

6 Another decision the team needed to make was whether to retrofit the current Vos house or to demolish the house and build a new house from scratch. The team decided to build a house from scratch for several reasons; first, retrofitting the client's current home would make the house more sustainable, but not as well as a house purposed from the ground up with sustainable design. The current house would also require major repairs in order to have sufficient stability before even starting to make it more sustainable. Finally, the house is too small for the client family, which would make it unsuitable for the family to live comfortably.

6 Architecture and Site

Most all aspects of this project influence each other. The design of the architecture greatly affects how the other electrical, mechanical, and structural, designs operate. However, to properly assess those other design criteria, some base architecture must exist to perform calculations. The final design for this project was therefore an iterative process.

6.1 Client Specifications

6.1.1 Preliminary Client Specifications The team first created a questionnaire for the clients to fill out near the beginning of the design process. The results can be seen in Table 6.1.1a below.

Table 6.1.1a Original Client Specifications Answers Specification Client 1 Client 2

Garage, carport, etc. Two car garage plus storage Garage- room for 2 cars and bikes

Architectural Style No Preference - Not ranch style - Bedrooms on 2nd story (able to safely leave windows open at night)

Renewable Energy Solar No preference

Construction time frame No Preference Flexible; to fit within loan time

Rooms Desired - Kitchen - 2 living room/family rooms - Game/Family room - Dining room area to seat 12+

Square Feet Requirement 2000-3000 ft2 2200-3000 ft2 Bathroom quantity 2.5-3.5 2-3

Bedroom quantity 6, Each 12x12-15x15 4 or 5, plus office/guest

Deck, Patio, etc. Deck Yes; deck preferred over patio

External Material Brick for low maintenance Maintenance free (not painted wood)

Green roof Maybe; rooftop solar preferred A bonus

Rainwater collection system Maybe Nice to have, but not necessary

Budget, including lot $400k $275-350k

Electric car charging station Yes Yes

Additionally, the client has expressed interest in incorporating generous amounts of indirect and natural lighting into the home. These specifications were used by the team to begin the modeling and analysis process.

6.1.2 Final Client Specifications Since the preliminary preliminary specifications, the client has provided more definitive specifications for number of rooms and room dimensions. These new specifications are shown in Figure 6.1.2a.

Figure 6.1.2a Current Client Room Specifications

The house's exterior is constrained by the client to a maintenance free surface, such as brick or concrete. Otherwise, the client is not as concerned with the aesthetics of the house so much as its functionality and its suitability for his family. Additionally, the client wishes to implement a large portion of the construction himself. This constrains the material selection. When possible, material selection decisions will be made to best meet the practical abilities of the client. This will greatly decrease the construction cost of the house.

6.2 Location This project was proposed to be built on the Vos House site, as seen in Figure 6.2a, which is slightly to the west of Calvin College. The site was chosen as an accessible location with interesting elevation changes. Because of this, special care was taken for the basement insulation and the site development.

Figure 6.2a The Vos House location

6.3 City Regulations Because the Vos house is within the city of Grand Rapids city line, any development must follow Grand Rapids ordinances. Careful attention to the city's code is essential for a successful design. The property lands in Grand Rapids Mid-20th Century Neighborhood, Low-Density Residential (MCN-LRD). According to the city,

The MCN-LDR District is intended to protect the established development pattern, consisting predominantly of low-density residential development characterized by single-family detached houses on individual lots with garages located to the side or rear of the main building. New development and building renovation shall be compatible with the valued characteristics of the existing built environment. To that end, a coordinated variety in design is encouraged. The repeated use of identical facade designs shall be avoided.7

The placement on the plot had to be within the allowable “setbacks” (distance from property lines to the house) for the specific type of neighborhood (Figure 6.3a).

7 Grand Rapids, Michigan, Municipal Code art. V, (2018. April 11) 14

. Figure 6.3a MCN-LRD Minimum Dimensions

These regulations constrain the design of the house both in proportion and site footprint. Besides satisfying these setback requirements, it also important that the house fits in the overall style of the neighborhood. This will ensure that the design is harmonious in its location.

The minimum setbacks at the project location and the actual values for the setbacks are given in Table 6.3a below.

Table 6.3a Lot Dimensions and Setbacks Minimum Value Actual Value

Lot Area 5,000 ft2 18,790 ft2 Rear Setback 25 ft 127 ft

Side Setback (1) 7 ft 15 ft

Side Setback (2) 7 ft 10 ft

Side Setback (1) + Side Setback (2) 18 ft 25 ft

Lot Width 42 ft 85 ft

Required Building Line (RBL) 35 ft 72 ft

6.4 Site Development The landscape plan has been designed for sustainability. Coniferous trees are to be located on the north side shielding the house from northern winds. Deciduous trees are to be planted on the south west side. These provide shade on the roof of the house in the summer and allow warmth of the sun to reach the house after the leaves have fallen. See Figure 6.4a for the landscaping layout.

Figure 6.4a Site Plan

6.5 Floor Plans

6.5.1 Floor Plan Considerations The floor plans were designed with needs from the mechanical, electrical, and structural designs. For example, most of the utilities in the house are stacked into the north west corner, saving the cost of running pipes in the subfloors. Windows and non-conditioned rooms were strategically placed to provide

better insulation or sunlight infiltration. All of those designs had to be taken into consideration while still meeting the clients needs. Because the client has a large family, there are six bedrooms, each with defined closet space. The client also desired storage and office space.

6.5.2 Basement The basement floor has a walkout door due to the steep change in site elevation. As seen in Figure 6.5.2a, two sliding doors were specified to create a mudroom to limit the exchange of air. The exterior earthwork is mounded up around the edge of the building to provide additional thermal insulation where possible.

Figure 6.5.2a 0th Floor Design

6.5.3 First Floor The first floor features two mudrooms, one at the front door, and one near the kitchen. They allow only a small air change when the exterior doors are opened, which prevent conditioned air from escaping. This design element allows the heating and cooling system to operate more efficiently.

Figure 6.5.3a First Floor Design

6.5.4 Second Floor The second floor was heavily designed from client needs. The layout of bedrooms and closets is specific to the client’s exact dimension specifications. The bathroom was also designed to accomodate a large family, as there are separate smaller rooms for the toilet and tub/shower. This layout allows multiple people to use the space simultaneously.

Figure 6.5.4a Second Floor Design

6.6 Windows The team decided to use triple pane windows for the conditioned spaces, which provide more insulation than traditional single-pane windows.

Figure 6.6a Multiple-Pane Window Energy Savings8

8 Highly Insulating Window Panels. (2013, October). 19

For unconditioned attached spaces, traditional single-pane windows were chosen in order to save on cost. Triple-pane windows cost about $32.40 per square foot9, while single-pane windows cost about $12 to $16 per square foot10.

Using the designed areas of the windows in the house design, Table 6.6a outlines the cost of windows for the design.

Table 6.6a Window Dimensions and Cost Window Number of 2 Dimensions (in) windows Area (ft ) Cost ($) Basement 24 48 2 16 $518 36 48 2 24 $778

Conditioned Ground Floor 36 72 11 198 $6,415 Areas 36 48 10 120 $3,888

Second Floor 24 48 2 16 $518

Total 374 $12,118 48 18 3 18 $252 Garage 36 18 3 13.5 $189 Unconditioned Front Air Lock 36 48 4 48 $672 Areas Total 79.5 $1,113

The specific triple-pane windows used for modeling were the Intus Eforte windows, which have an R-value of 7.8; for the unconditioned area windows, the Tafco Corporation Single Glaze windows were chosen, and the estimation of a 1.1 R-value for single pane windows was used.

6.7 Overhangs Other considerations for the project, both electrical and mechanical, rely on solar angles. The gain from windows and solar panels have a significant influence on the thermal and power generation modeling. The site design needs to account for those solar demands. The highest the sun rises is on Thursday, June 21 and lowest on Thursday, December 21. Figure 4.6b displays these dates graphically with the sun’s path highlighted in yellow.

9 Highly Insulating Window Panels. (2013, October). 10 Learn how much it costs to Replace Glass Window Pane. (n.d.). 20

Figure 6.7a Winter and Summer Solar Angle at Design Site

On Thursday, June 21, the sun’s maximum angle will be 70.5 degrees off the horizon; on Thursday, December 21 the sun’s maximum angle with be 23.6 degrees.11 These angles were used to determine initial calculations for window placement. The optimal horizontal overhang depth and vertical displacement of the southern window overhangs were optimized with Sustainable by Design overhang calculator.12 The results showing percent shading are shown in Figures 6.7b and 6.7c.

11 NOAA Solar Position Calculator. (n.d.). 12 Sustainable By Design :: Tools. (2009). 21

Figure 6.7b Southern First Story Overhang Design

Figure 6.7c Southern Second Story Overhang Design

6.8 Exterior Design The exterior of this building, as seen in Figure 6.8a, was designed to fit in with the surrounding neighborhood. The large amount of southern facing roof was specified to accommodate the solar panel array. The other considerations were chosen from the client’s specifications.

Figure 6.8a House Exterior

7 Structural

7.1 Structural Analysis

7.1.1 General The location and direction of loads on the house will be consistent and in accordance with Michigan law. The loading amounts depend on mechanical or electrical design constraints, such as wall thickness, roof load from solar panels; therefore, the structural design will be carried out in tandem with the thermal and electrical models. Architecturally, the house must be designed to fit the needs of the client family. As a family of seven, the size of the client family was an additional challenge to the design of a passive house.

7.1.2 Load Combinations Load combinations provide the basic set of specific conditions that should be considered in Team 22’s design. The department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) gives these load combinations in Table 7.1.2a.

Table 7.1.2a HUD Load Combinations13

13 DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT, U.S. (2015). RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDE: 2000 edition. S.l.: LULU COM. 24

7.1.3 Dead Loads Dead loads consist of the permanent construction material loads of common materials used in residential construction. According to the department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) the dead loads for common materials are shown in Table 7.1.3a.

Table 7.1.3a HUD Dead Loads14

14 DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT, U.S. (2015). RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDE: 2000 edition. S.l.: LULU COM. 25

7.1.4 Live Loads Live Loads are produced by occupants of the structure. These loads are human occupants, non-fixed equipment, storage, and maintenance activities. Common applications of live loads, according to to the department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), are shown in Table 7.1.4a.

Table 7.1.4a HUD Load Combinations15

7.1.5 Structural Modeling The structural modeling will follow Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) code. This code has specification for wood structure, a design material used for the structure of the project. Timber has numerous benefits: intrinsic renewability, low production energy costs, carbon storage, and simple implementation. Besides this, the client has access to much of the process. STAAD Pro will be utilized to model the loading and the structure, showing the failure model of the building. Likewise, Revit will be used as a visual and architectural modeling tool, providing a 3D model of the sustainable house. The initial design for the floor layouts is shown in Figure 7.1.5a.

7.1.6 Roof Truss The structure chosen for the roof is a wooden roof made up of Timber. The truss will allow the model to have a larger open space with fewer materials. This will be structurally very efficient and it will help to save up as much as money posible. The model of the truss is a dual pitch truss, which has a shallow pitch

15 DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT, U.S. (2015). RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDE: 2000 edition. S.l.: LULU COM. 26

and a steep pitch as shown in figure 7.1.6a. This design was created in order to match the design of the roof but also create more space for the solar panels that will be located in the shallow pitch of the roof.

Figure 7.1.6a Design Load - Truss

The importance to this truss is to create stability by supporting the live loads and the dead loads of the roof on the truss. The model was created using the structural software called STAAD Pro, which creates loading simulation of the entire truss which will give the failure or the passing of every member in the truss. The type of timber used for the model is Easter White Pine, using outside members of EAWP_SS_2x6 and interweb members of EAWP_SS_2x5 as shown in Figure 7.1.6b.

Figure 7.1.5b Design Load - Truss

The truss was then modeled with the loads it will be required to support (Figure 7.1.5c).

Figure 7.1.5c Design Load - Truss

The following table show the summation of the live load and dead load for the roof. This includes the live load which in this case will be the snow on top of the roof, and dead load which includes every element of the roof itself.

Table 7.1.5a Design Load - Truss 2 Load Type Load (lb/ft ) Live Load (LL) 30

Dead Load (Shingles) 5

Dead Load (Plywood) 4

Dead Load (Solar Panels) 2

Total 41

Using the LRFD structural requirements, the design load for every truss including snow load, dead load and self weight is 61.2 psf. The separation of every truss between the entire span of the roof is going to be of 6.8 ft apart from each other; this separation will give a good distribution of the loading for every truss.

Figure 7.1.5b Distribution of Trusses

7.2 Foundation Thermal Bridging The R-value of the foundation of a house is typically not a construction concern. However, for this house, the foundation slab, footings, and basement walls had to be constructed with a specifically modeled R-value in mind (see section 11. Thermal Modeling). This mechanical goal was met with the use of Insulated Concrete Forms (ICF), a ¼” polyethylene insulating strip, and a sub slab layer of insulation.

These are well understood, while not conventional construction methods. The final design of this system is in Figure 7.2a.

Figure 7.2a Footing, Foundation and Wall Insulation

Insulated concrete forms is a construction technique that more and more contractors are able to perform. It would save time and money to higher a contractor that has done this construction before.

8 Mechanical

8.1 Heating and Cooling System

8.1.1 Heating Method Selection Since the team was determined to heat and cool the home without the aid of fossil fuels, an electric means of heating and cooling was necessary. The team weighed efficiency and cost as their primary parameters. Using the common standard for heating and cooling efficiency, the EER (Energy Efficiency Rating), which is rated BTU/h capacity divided by total electrical input.

Traditional electric resistive heating can provide an absolute maximum of 3412 BTU per kWh of electricity, assuming perfect conversion efficiency, for an ERR of 3.412. This level of efficiency is not acceptable for today’s heating and cooling standards, as EER’s of other electrically driven systems are regularly over 10.

EER of Resistive Heating = 3412 BT U/h = 3.412 Equation 8.1.1a 1000 W

Geothermal heat pumps are a sustainable option for heating and cooling, but can be expensive. The passive home requires just so little energy to moderate temperature, that implementing a geothermal system would not just be excessive, but needlessly capital intensive.

Air-source Heat pumps regularly deliver ERR ratings far above 10 and are significantly more economical than geothermal systems. Air-source heat pumps were not a viable method for heating homes in northern climates for many years. However, according to the US Department of Energy, “In recent years, air-source heat pump technology has advanced so that it now offers a legitimate space heating alternative in colder regions.”16 Because of theses reasons, Team 22 decided upon an air-source heat pump, a solution to both of efficiency and economics.

Furthermore, there are two types of air-source heat pump systems; ducted and ductless. They each have their own advantages and disadvantages. For example, ductless heat pump systems are more efficient than air-duct distribution systems because they do not waste energy heating the space in walls and attics. They function by transferring the thermal energy from the refrigerant to the air at the interior unit, eliminating the need for air ducts. However, this system lacks the distribution necessary to keep the entire home comfortable. If we were to use this type of system, we would need a ductless heat pump in almost every room, causing our system to be extraordinary over capacity. This issue is echoed by Dan Holladay in his Musings from an Energy Nerd writings. An interviewee states, “The equipment we have available is

16 Air-Source Heat Pumps. (n.d.). 30

overkill” and “the loads are 90% lower than a typical house, so we have fewer options in the marketplace, and that becomes challenging.”17

To solve the issue of distribution, short run air ducts will be implemented to form a ducted air-source heat pump system. This system was recommended in Fine Homebuilding magazine because its a “single system for heating and cooling, does not use fossil fuels if electricity comes from a renewable source, and the ducted distribution allows for even heating and cooling throughout the house.”18 While this system is not as efficient as a ductless system, it provides the necessary distribution, as well as improved aesthetics.

8.1.2 Heat Pump Selection As seen from Figure 3.1a, the heating load is 12.3 W/m2 and the cooling load is a less restricting 5.0 2 W/m . From these values, the specific capacity of the heat pump can be determined using the equation below.

Max Load · Area = Required Heat P ump Capacity Equation 8.1.2a Area

Heating sizing required:

W 2 1.00 m2 3.412 BT U/hr 12.3 2 · 2800 ft · 2 · = 10921 BTU/hr Equation 8.1.2b m 10.76 ft 1 W

Cooling sizing required:

5.0 W · 2800 ft2· 1.00 m2 · 3.412 BT U/hr = 4,440 BTU/hr Equation 8.1.2c m2 10.76 ft2 1 W

Thus, a 12,000 BTU/hr System was selected to fulfill the requirements of both the heating and cooling.

The Northeast Energy Efficiency Partnerships offers a comprehensive database of cold climate air source heat pumps.19 This database was used to choose a specific ducted heat pump that met the required capacity.

The specific model chosen was the Mitsubishi SUZ-KA12NA ducted heat pump system. More information about this unit can be found within the specification sheet found in Appendix C.

In order to use the chosen heat pump in the thermal model, the coefficient of performance (COP) was required. From the online resource, Power Knot, the equation for COP based on the Heating Seasonal Performance Factor (HSPF) is shown in Equation 8.2.2a.

17 HOLLADAY, M. (2013, May 10). Passivhaus Buildings Don't Heat Themselves. 18 Goldman, J. (2017). Right-Sizing Mechanicals. Fine Homebuilding, 58-61. 19 Northeast Energy Efficiency Partnerships. (2018, February). 31

COP = HSP F 0.293 Equation 8.1.2d20 *

Using the product specification of a HSPF of 10, the final COP is:

COP = 10 0.293 = 2.93 Equation 8.1.2e *

8.2 Water Heating A tankless hot water system was considered. However, after considering the large family who would always be home, this option was decided against. A heat exchanger/resistive coil hybrid water heater was decided upon. The home was also designed to stack utilities, further reducing heat loss. For more information on the water heater, see Section 9.1.6.

8.3 Laundry One of the obstacles in designing a sustainable home for a large family is balancing the need of an adequate laundry system with energy efficiency. Washing and drying both take large amounts of energy, but drying is an especially energy intensive task. For individuals or small families, air drying is a reasonable option; however, in this case, air drying clothes for the entire family would be too great a challenge. Therefore, a washer and dryer must be incorporated into the design and modeled in the WUFI ® Plus model.

Because a dryer typically has its exhaust air vented outside, it results in a large amounts of heat loss. However, condensation dryers avoid this problem by using a heat pump to condense the moisture from the exhaust while keeping the air inside the conditioned space.

For additional information on the selection of the washer and dryer, see Section 9.1.

8.4 Ventilation

8.4.1 Ventilation System Selection In order to keep comfortable living conditions, the air in the house will need to be kept fresh, moving, and at a comfortable humidity level. Ventilation will be a key concern in the kitchen and bathrooms due to the high levels of steam and heat generation, especially from the shower and stove, respectively.

To solve these issues, a Heat Recovery Ventilation, HRV, system was specified. An HRV system uses a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the stale outgoing air to the fresh incoming air in the summer, and to transfer heat from the fresh incoming air to the stale outgoing air in the summer. The specific HRV system chosen was the Zehnder ComfoAir 350 ventilation system.

20 COPs, EERs, and SEERs. (2011, March 1). 32

8.4.2 Utilization Pattern According to the International Mechanical Code (IMC), the minimum mechanical ventilation for a residential building is 0.35 ACH but not less than 15 cfm per person. The rooms that produce little moisture and are often occupied by the home are set as the supply air rooms, and the air flows for each room were scaled accordingly.

Table 8.4.2a Supply Air Ventilation Pattern 3 Supply Air Rooms Air Flow (m / h) Bedroom 1 38 Office 34 Game Room 34 Dining Room 34 Living Room 34 Bedroom 2 38 Bedroom 3 38 Bedroom 4 38 Bedroom 5 38 Bedroom 6 38 Hallway 26 Total Supply Air 390

Rooms that produce moisture were set as exhaust air rooms, and their air flows were scaled so that the total exhaust air was equal to the total supply air.

Table 8.4.2b Exhaust Air Ventilation Pattern 3 Exhaust Air Rooms Air Flow (m / h) Kitchen 90 Bathroom 1 70 Laundry 90 Bathroom 2 (half) 70 Bathroom 3 70 Total Exhaust Air 390

These values were all later included in the thermal model.

9 Electrical

9.1 Appliances

9.1.1 Fridge/Freezer Combination The Whirlpool fridge is going to be used as modern energy efficient model which only uses 350 kWh, compared to other regular models it saves 70% more energy. The saving overall of energy using this model is on average $158 a year in electricity cost. This Fridge is also ideal because is big enough for an extensive family. The material of the fridge is stainless steel with internal water dispenser, making it durable and ecological.

9.1.2 Dishwasher The Bosch - Ascenta 24’ dishwasher is an Energy Star Model. Energy Star is the governmental symbol for energy efficiency in order to help save money for the users and protect the environment through energy-efficient products and practices. The Energy Star label was also established to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants caused by the inefficient use of energy. Energy Star-rated dishwasher uses 4 gallons per cycle, and their energy use is 0.87 kWh per load. This model can hold 3.2 gallons which makes it the most efficient model for an extensive family.

9.1.3 Cooktop/Stove The chosen cooktop/stove used in this model is a 6.4 cubic foot capacity Whirlpool stove. The capacity of this stove is 6.4cu. ft. which gives the ability to the client for cooking many dishes at the same time. The cooktop features 2 FlexHeat 3000-Watt burners, 2 of 1200 watt burners and 100 Watt warming zone for the maintaining the already cooked dishes warm. This gives the family great flexibility to cook many dishes at the same time, working great for an extensive family. This model also includes a self cleaning oven using AquaLift self-cleaning technology which only uses water and low heat to help remove baked-on foods from the bottom of the oven, giving the client odor-free cleaning without harsh chemicals.

9.1.4 Washer The chosen washer used in this model is a 4.5 cubic foot capacity Whirlpool washer .This machine is ideal for a large family since there is enough room to wash over three baskets of clothing in a single load. The washer has smooth waves stainless steel technology which protects the fabrics of the clothing from fraying and snags. This energy star model exceeds governmental standards to help conserve natural resources and save money.

9.1.5 Dryer Because a passive house requires a tight thermal barrier without holes, a traditional vented dryer could not be used. Instead, a condensation dryer was chosen:

In a condensation dryer, process air is directed by means of a fan via a heating device into the drum containing the damp laundry, the drum acting as a drying chamber. The hot air removes moisture from the items of laundry to be dried. After passing through the drum, the moist process air is directed into a heat exchanger, upstream of which a fluff filter is as a rule located… In the heat exchanger (e.g. airfairheat exchanger) the moist process air is cooled, with the result that the water contained in the moist process air is condensed out.21

The specific dryer chosen to be used in the design was the Whirlpool True Ventless Heat Pump 4.3-cu ft Stackable Ventless Electric Dryer.

9.1.6 Water Heater As fossil fuels are not an option for this project, an electric source of heating water had to be chosen. Similar to the heating method selection seen in section 8.1.1, electric resistive coil technology is significantly less energy efficient than the heat pump method. This system achieves such efficiency by transferring the thermal energy from the surrounding air into the water, rather than generating the thermal energy from electric power alone. The specific model chosen was the Stiebel Eltron Accelera 300 E, which provides an 80 gallon tank, and operates on 1289 kWh/yr.22

A contraption could be constructed that draws air from the conditioned space within the home only when unwanted heat is within the home, and draws from the garage at other times. This device could also be timed by season, time of day, and communicate with the primary HVAC system to further increase efficiency. This contraption would make a great senior design project.

21 Steiner, D. (2012). U.S. Patent No. US 8.266,824 B2. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. 22Accelera® E Heat Pump Water Heaters. (n.d.). 35

9.1.7 Appliance Summary Table 9.1.7a Appliance Summary Appliance Dimensions (in) Cost Energy Use

Fridge/Freezer 35.5 x 29.13 x 70.13 $1297 615 kWh/yr

Dishwasher 23.56 x 23.75 x 33.87 $630 269 kWh/yr

Cooktop/Stove 27.75 x 29.88 x 46.88 $547 .22 kWh/use

Washer 33.31 x 27 x 39.75 $600 116 kWh/yr

Dryer 24 x 26 x 34.5 $949 3.5 kWh/use

Water Heater 26 x 26 x 75.25 $2600 1289 kWh/yr

9.2 Energy Consumption

9.2.1 Heating and Cooling Energy Consumption Annual heating and cooling energy consumption from thermal modeling (Figure 3.1a), the total energy used for heating and cooling were calculated:

14.2 kW h + 2.3 kW h · 2800 ft2· 1.00 m2 = 4290 kWh/yr Equation 9.2.1a ( m2a m2a ) 10.76 ft2

9.2.2 Appliance Energy Consumption The consumption rates of the specified appliances, found in Section 9.1, were summed for a total appliance energy usage below.

Table 9.2.2a Annual Appliance Energy Usage Appliance Annual Energy Usage [kWh/yr] Fridge/Freezer Combo 615 Dishwasher 269 Cooktop/Stove 80 Washer 116 Dryer 1661 Water Heater 1289 Total 4030

9.2.3 Lighting Energy Consumption Annual lighting energy consumption calculations were determined by taking an approximation of the number of LED lamps, their on-time, and their average power consumption. with data from the US department of Energy.

Table 9.2.3a US Department of Energy Lighting Data23 Avg Daily HOU per lamp [hr/day] 1.6 Avg Lamp Power [W] 49.4 Avg Number of lamps per household 71

1.6 hr · 71 lamps · 365 days · 15 W atts · 0.9 = 560 kWh/yr Equation 9.2.3a day lamp

Two changes were made to this calculation to ensure accuracy. First the average lamp power was dropped from 49.4W to 15W to account for the implementation of LED technology. Secondly, a low-voltage-distribution factor of 0.9 was added to account for the energy saved when operating the lighting on such a system. See section 9.5 for more details.

9.2.4 Miscellaneous Loads Energy Consumption A method borrowed from a study called Analysis and Representation of Miscellaneous Electric Loads in NEMS by the US Energy Information Administration allows us to approximate the remaining loads.24 The method functions by taking the remaining loads from the whole, adding them up, and multiplying by the magnitude of the whole, as seen in Table 9.2.4a. The remaining loads and their respective percentages used in this analysis can be found in Figure 9.2.4a.

23 Residential Lighting End-Use Consumption. (n.d.). 24 Analysis and Representation of Miscellaneous Electric ... (2017, May). 37

Figure 9.2.4a National Residential Site Energy Consumption by End Use25

All the categories in the figure above are easily explained, except for the SEDS, State Energy Data Systems, adjustment factor, which is “the percentage allowance for the different energy accounting methods used by states.”26 Since the SED adjustment number is an adjustment factor, based on a percentage, it needs to be scaled to the appropriate magnitude. Therefore, the adjustment to SEDs value is taken at the projected annual energy usage of the passive house.

Table 9.2.4a Miscellaneous Loads Annual Energy Usage

Percentage DC Distribution Magnitude from EIA System Factor [kWh]27 Energy Usage [kWh/yr] 510 Adjust to SEDS 4% 1 12740 Other 3% 1 36050 1082 Computers 2% 0.9 36050 649 Electronics 5% 0.9 36050 1622 Total - - - 3860

As seen in the Table 9.2.4a above, the annual energy usage of the miscellaneous loads is 3860 kWh/yr.

25 Buildings Energy Data Book. (2017, August 29). 26 Efficient buildings. (n.d.). 27 Household Energy Use in Michigan - U.S. Energy Information ... (n.d.). 38

9.2.5 Total Annual Energy Consumption Adding the above categories together, we find the total annual energy consumption of the home.

Table 9.2.5a Annual Energy Consumption Energy Use [kWh/yr] Heating/Cooling 4290 Appliances 4030 Lighting 560 Miscellaneous 3860 Total 12740

As we have established the average household in Michigan consumes 36050 kWh of energy per year, the estimated annual energy usage of this residence using 35% as much as the average Michigan home.

Figure 9.2.5a Energy Usage by End Means

9.3 Energy Generation

9.3.1 Solar System Sizing Background The client specified solar generation as their preferred energy generation method and wishes to produce over his projected electrical needs and sell back to the grid. However, the local utility, Consumers Energy,

does not allow overproduction with their net metering program.28 Calculations were carried out to determine what would be needed to comply with the net metering policy.

The energy generation calculations were carried out with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's PVWatts calculating software29.

Table 9.3.1a PVWatts Assumptions DC System Size (kW) 7.3

Module Type Standard Crystalline Silicon

Array Type Fixed Roof Mount

System Losses 15%

Tilt (Degrees) 15.2

Azimuth (Degrees) 180

9.3.2 Roof Angle Considerations Optimizing for reducing wind loads and electrical generation. Current Roof angle is eight degrees, which is less than ideal. To optimize for summer generation, equation below from the online recourse Solar Power is the Future30

Latitude · 0.9 − 23.5° = Solar P anel Angle Equation 9.3.2a

43° · 0.9 − 23.5° = 15.2° Equation 9.3.2b

However, while still important, altering the angle of the panels affects generation output by only 1-3 percent.31

9.3.3 Solar System Sizing Results A matched solar system would produce 13,161 kWh of electrical DC energy. Some of this energy would be lost to an AC conversion, which is also reported in the table below. Overall, an averaged value of 12,872 kWh approximately matches the projected energy consumption outlined in section 9.2.5

28 Net Metering Program Guide. (2017, May). 29 PVWatts. (n.d.). 30 How to Figure the Correct Angle for Solar Panels. (n.d.). 31 Landau, C. (2017, March 18). Optimum Tilt of Solar Panels. 40

Table 9.3.3a PVWatts Results AC System Solar Radiation DC array 2 Month Output [kWh] [kWh/m / day] Output [kWh] January 530 2.0 558 February 729 3.1 763 March 1146 4.5 1198 April 1296 5.3 1354 May 1477 6.2 1543 June 1450 6.3 1515 July 1538 6.6 1606 August 1390 6.1 1450 September 1156 5.1 1207 October 833 3.3 873 November 572 2.3 601 December 467 1.8 493 Annual 12583 4.4 13161

As seen in the table above, this system size will generate the approximate energy required to match the home’s energy needs, and comply with the net metering program. For all PV Watts results, see Appendix F.

The solar panel selected was the LG Neon2: LG315N1C-G4. See Appendix G for specification sheet. Thirty two of the 315W panels make up a 10.08kW DC system size.

9.3.4 Roof Area Calculations

2 This size system will cover an approximate area of 565 ft , as seen in equation 9.3.2.c below.

System Size (kW ) Array Area (m²) = Equation 9.3.3a 1 kW /m² × Module Efficiency (%)

2 10.08 10.76 ft Array Area = = 565 ft2 Equation 9.4.3b 1 kW /m² × 19.2% 1.0 m2

The primary south facing roof area is 1060ft2 41

Primary South-facing Roof Area = 35 ft · 30.3 ft = 1060 ft2 Equation 9.4.3c

Therefore, the prescribed solar array can easily fit on the roof of the home. Adequate working and spacing room.

9.3.5 Solar System Cost According to the online pricing resource, solar-estimate.org, the average cost of a residential solar system installed, is $3.10 per watt.32

$ Solar System Cost = 3.10 W att · 10080 W att System = $31, 248

The annual savings from this solar system would be approximately $1,725, as seen in Appendix F The simple payback of such a system would be 18 years, as seen in equation 9.3.5a below.

$31,248 $1,725/yr = 18 years Equation 9.3.5a

9.3.6 Tesla Solar Roof Since both Tesla’s solar roof and traditional photovoltaic panels are under consideration for this project, the required areas for their respective systems were calculated. Using Tesla’s consumer-oriented online calculator, the exact projected roof area required could not be calculated. However, the calculator implied that the roof area would be large enough to cover the projected energy usage.33 Due to Tesla’s lack of specifications available for their solar roof, the product will remain a design alternative. However, it could easily replace the traditional solar system and roof specified above.

9.4 Energy Monitoring Energy monitoring is essential. This is not just to ensure PHIUS certification, but also for the owner’s personal enjoyment. There are a variety of products on the market, but two are highlighted below from two different manufacturers. Both incorporate solar monitoring.

32 Solar-Estimate. (n.d.). 33 Tesla Solar Roof. (n.d.). 42

9.4.1 Neurio Energy Monitor34 Neurio states that their home energy monitor “provides extremely granular energy data that is used to reduce energy usage, monitor solar performance and plan for future storage needs.” Installation is easy, and the product is solar ready. Neurio is also developing a home energy controller, which will allow for control, not just communication, of the solar and storage systems, in addition to the Neurio energy monitor.35

9.4.2 Smappee Solar36 Smappee’s line of products is similar to that of Neurio. They claim the Smappee Solar can provide a real-time energy consumption and solar energy production overview. Smappee is also developing a product called Smappee Plus37, which will display heat pump consumption in real time, solar panel output, among other features.

9.5 Power Distribution

9.5.1 Low Voltage DC Distribution Justification Since solar systems generate, and LED lighting use, DC voltage, there is an opportunity for energy savings by circumventing the rectifying conversion and adopting a hybrid power distribution system. Low-voltage, direct-current light fixtures and appliances are readily available and will be circuited to a low voltage load center, fed straight from the solar-energized battery system, as seen in Figure 9.5.1a below. However, this DC distribution system does not abandon the traditional AC distribution system, but merely runs parallel to it.

34 Energy Monitor. (n.d.). 35 Home Energy Controller. (n.d.). 36 Smappee Solar. (n.d.). 37 Smappee Plus. (n.d.). 43

Figure 9.5.1a Low Voltage Power Distribution System38

9.5.2 Low Voltage Load Center The specific low voltage load center chosen for this project was the NexTek Power Hub Driver. This load center transforms a 90-305Vac, or 127-431Vd input signal into a steady 24V DC output.39 This allows additional cost savings because the LED fixtures will no longer require external drivers or additional lighting control hardware. This system inherently operates at a lower monetary cost because of the energy savings. The NexTek Power Hub Driver also has multi-zone dimming control that communicates with external systems. More information on the NexTek Power Hub Driver can be found in Appendix E.

The LED fixtures chosen are either specifically manufactured for 24V DC use, or are modified to use 24V DC light bulbs, which can be found from various suppliers, like led-cfl-lighthouse.com.40 This selection will save electricity over the long term.

38 Evans, G. (2015, November 24). Time to Ditch 120V AC? How a Low-Voltage, DC-Powered Home Might Work. 39 Nextek. (n.d.). 40 Independence Electric Co. (n.d.). 44

9.5.3 Low Voltage Distribution Factor The low-voltage-distribution factor added to the energy usage calculations is 0.9. This factor was calculated from the 5% loss that occurs from converting between the two modes of power.

0.95 · 0.95 ≈ 0.9 Equation 9.5.3a

9.6 Daylighting Analysis

9.6.1 LEED v4 Daylighting Standard The lighting design software, Licaso, was used to evaluate how well natural means lit the home. Using a well known benchmark established by LEED, factors such as Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA) and Annual Sunlight Exposure (ASE) were evaluated to determine how well this house performed. Unfortunately, there is no daylighting benchmark for residential buildings, only commercial. However, this benchmark should give estimate if the home is designed well.

To further explain the certification, a few terms and metrics must be explained. Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA) “examines whether a space receives enough daylight during standard operating hours (8 a.m. to 6 p.m.) on an annual basis using hourly illuminance grids on the horizontal work plane.”41 This LEED v4 metric requires 55% or 75% (depending on number of desired points) of the regularly occupied spaces to reach 300 Lux at least 50% of the time between 8am and 6pm.42 Lux is a measure of illuminance, and a value of 300 Lux is standard for task lighting.

9.6.2 Level 0 Daylighting Analysis As seen in Figure 9.7a above, a significant amount of light falls down the staircase. As expected with most below-grade construction, the rooms do not receive much natural light.

41 Van Den Wymelenberg, K., & Mahic, A. (2016, April 12). Annual Daylighting Performance Metrics, Explained. 42 Daylight. (n.d.). 45

Figure 9.7.2a Level 0 Licaso Daylighting Simulation

9.6.3 Level 1 Daylighting Analysis The garage clerestory is doing its job. The other rooms are surrounded by windows and provide task lighting the majority of the time.

Figure 9.7.3a Level 1 Licaso Daylighting Simulation

9.6.4 Level 2 Daylighting Analysis The second floor has adequate natural light. One bedroom was designed with only one east facing window. This room receives the least amount of sun and is the only bedroom to fail the LEED certification natural lighting certification. The corridor also lacks sufficient natural light. The rest of the second floor has good natural lighting.

Figure 9.7.4a Level 2 Licaso Daylighting Simulation

9.6.5 Daylighting Results As seen in Appendix B, twelve out of the twenty, or 60% of the spaces analyzed pass the LEED daylighting standard. Further investigation, the spaces that failed the standard are located in the basement. Since daylighting basements is difficult, this is no surprise.

Additional natural lighting techniques, such as solar tubes, light penetration surfaces around staircases and within walls would improve these results.

The complete Licaso results can be found in Appendix B.

10 Thermal Modeling

10.1 Thermal Modeling Introduction Since the house will be located in West Michigan, keeping the internal air temperature at a comfortable level proved challenging. Average high and average low air temperatures for Grand Rapids can be seen in Figure 10.1a.

Figure 10.1a Grand Rapids Average Monthly Temperature43

The amount of solar radiation, as well as the incident angle, will also affect the temperature of the house. Average monthly solar radiation for Grand Rapids from each direction can be seen in Figure 10.1b.

43 Climate for Grand Rapids, Michigan. (n.d.). 50

Figure 10.1b Grand Rapids Average Monthly Solar Radiation44

Figure 10.1b only displays the air temperature averages, and not the extremes, meaning there will be days that are much colder and much hotter than the values shown. Because of this, additional data was gathered for the analysis to ensure comfortable living conditions during these extreme conditions.

10.2 WUFI ® Plus WUFI Plus was used for the sustainable house thermal modeling. WUFI Plus is supported by PHIUS; it is the first modeling program suggested on the “Software & Resources” page of the PHIUS website. The design layout and materials will be used as inputs to the program to determine heat transfer values. WUFI Plus “allows realistic calculation of the transient coupled one- and two dimensional heat and moisture transport in walls and other multi-layer building components exposed to natural weather.”45

WUFI uses a complex series of equations to determine the thermal properties of the home being analyzed. Some of these equations are shown in Table 10.2a, assuming the following variable definitions:

● q = Heat Flux

● T s = Inner Surface Temperature ● t = Time

● f frame = Frame Reduction Ratio ● A = Area

44 Climate for Grand Rapids, Michigan. (n.d.). 45 WUFI (en). (n.d.). 51

● U = U-value

● T a = Air Temperature; i = Interior, e = Exterior ● I = Solar Radiation

● cp,a = Specific Heat Capacity of Air

● ρa = Density of Air

● V i = Volume of Zone i ● n = Air Change Rate

● gm = Moisture Flux over Inner Surface ● ca = Absolute Moisture Content; i = Interior, e = Exterior

● CCO = CO2 Concentration; i = Interior, e = Exterior 2

Table 10.2a WUFI Equations46 Heat Transport

Moisture Transport

Structural Heat Transfer

Window Heat Transfer

Ventilation Heat Transfer

Air Changes

46 Fundamentals of WUFI-Plus WUFI Workshop NTNU / SINTEF 2008. (n.d.). 52

10.3 Walls and Insulation After all of the known values were put into the thermal model, the remaining variables were the materials and thicknesses of the exterior walls of the home. By varying these parameters, the team was able to insulate the house to where it passed the PHIUS certification requirements with a 20% factor of safety.

For the foundation of the home, the main concern was conduction to the earth surrounding the foundation. In order to combat that loss of conditioning, a layer of expanded polystyrene insulation was added between the gravel and concrete used to support the building itself (Figure 10.3a).

Figure 10.3a Foundation Construction

2 The final foundation design has a thickness of 18.1 inches and a thermal transmittance of 3.32 m K /W.

For the roof material design, thickness was not a factor, because the insulation could simply be built into the unused attic space. Therefore, the roof design included two thick layers of cellulose insulation in addition to the oriented strand board (OSB) and gypsum board used for structural integrity and finishing, respectively (Figure 10.3b).

Figure 10.3b Roof Construction

2 The final roof design has a thickness of 12.2 inches and a thermal transmittance of 8.08 m K /W.

Finally, the main exterior wall of the home was designed. Since this wall’s thickness was the most important to the design, it was minimized while still meeting the PHIUS certification. The client specified brick as an exterior material because it is low-maintenance, wood fibreboard and OSB were used to provide structure, gypsum board acts as the finishing material, and cellulose insulation and mineral wool provide the remaining required insulation (Figure 10.3c).

Figure 10.3c Exterior Wall Construction

2 The final exterior wall design has a thickness of 13.7 inches and a thermal transmittance of 6.61 m K /W.

10.4 Thermal Modeling Results After the Revit model of the house was finalized, it was ready to be exported to WUFI for analysis. Figure 10.4a shows the final model of the house after being imported to WUFI.

Figure 10.4a Final Model as WUFI Input

Once the climate information, heat pump specifications, ventilation data, and other values were put to the program, as well as the determined wall materials and thicknesses, the heating and cooling loads for the house over the course of the year could be determined by the WUFI program. The heating and cooling demands by month are shown in Figure 10.4b below.

Figure 10.4b Monthly Heating and Cooling Loads

The values from the entire year used to determine the PHIUS certification are shown in Table 10.4a.

Table 10.4a Thermal Modeling Results Annual Heating and Cooling Demands PHIUS Maximum Demand Actual Demand

2 Annual Heating Demand (kWh/m a ) 19.2 14.2 2 Annual Cooling Demand (kWh/m a ) 8.5 2.3 Heating and Cooling Loads PHIUS Maximum Demand Actual Demand

2 Peak Heating Load (W/m ) 14.8 12.3 2 Peak Cooling Load (W/m ) 12.9 5.0 2 Manual J Peak Cooling Load (W/m ) 18.6 13.4

11 Financial Analysis

11.1 Initial Budget The initial budget given for this project from the client is $400,000. This was the upper limit to the construction of the sustainable residence.

11.2 Top-Down Financial Analysis Team 22 found proof of concept in a 2014 home that passed the German standards for a passive house.47 This two-story, three-bedroom, 2,440-square foot, home is a similar size to the client’s specifications, making it a good comparison. However, at $205 per square foot, the construction costs would put the client’s construction project significantly over budget. Fortunately, other case studies have been found with more affordable costs.

Broader research conducted by the team revealed a few other case studies for passive houses. A producer in Maine called Go-Home48 produces prefabricated passive homes that boast a cost that exceeds typical construction by only 7%.. They had several options that come at different sizes and costs. The Passive House database has three case studies that record a price and square footage. All of these numbers are represented in Figure 11.2a.

47 Michigan's 1st Passive House wins Fine Homebuilding Award. (2014, May 20). 48 "Pricing." GO Home by GO Logic. Accessed May 11, 2018. http://thegohome.us/pricing/. 57

Figure 11.2a Top Down Data Comparison

This is a limited amount of data. The passive houses in Bethesda MD and Roanoke VA were very large ostentatious dwellings. Team 22’s model was designed with more utility in mind.

The house in portland reported cost of construction that was 15 per square foot greater than typical construction49. A house in Sonoma California reported a cost that was 15% above typical construction.50 The average cost of of construction in michigan is $98.15 (for our area code from Resi Cost51) as seen in orange in the above figure. $15 dollars on top of construction, and a 15% increase in construction then both equal about $115 per square foot for Michigan. This line is plotted in green in the above figure. Assuming this cost, Team 22’s design for a 2800 square foot house, cost $322,000. This point is plotted as a yellow dot in the above figure. This estimate seemed on the low end of the data presented in Figure 11.2a. To increase financial estimate accuracy, Team 22 preformed bottom up analysis.

49 Glasswood Commercial Retrofit. (n.d.). 50 O'Neil Passive House. (n.d.). 51 Cost to Build a Home: Home Construction Cost per Square Foot. (n.d.).

11.3 Bottom-Up Financial Analysis Construction cost of this project proved to be difficult to estimate from the bottom up. Construction estimation of a passive house construction is a field of study that has few data points.The client only has taken the project far enough to get initial modeling numbers. Financial numbers lie in the details. The detailed process of what contractors will be constructing is usually what flushes out the financial details. This process has not been carried out for this theoretical design. For this reason, several approaches had to be taken in order to come up with a reasonably consistent bottom up estimate. Team 22 used a computer data-based cost estimator to get an estimate. That estimate was compared to the sum of the costs accrued to achieve PHIUS certification added to a average cost of construction in michigan.

11.3.1 Estimation Software Team 22 used RSmeans as a tool for a basic construction guidelines. This software can account for construction location and a few other simple variables. The results from this database was a overall cost of $331,147 at $118.27 cost per square foot. This estimate is purposefully high to try and account for implemented the sustainable features

11.3.2 Additional Sustainable Design Cost Table 11.3.2a is a summary of costs that are accrued by the sustainable features of the house. These estimates were generated with costs based on research. If this work is being used as a guide for sustainable house construction, research local available resources and their costs.

Table 11.3.2a Sustainable Solution Costs Design Item Cost ($) goal Structural Insulated Panel $0.00 Insulated Concrete Forms $3,744.00 Mineral wool $1,984.00 PHIUS Sub Foundation Insulation $4,080.00 Heat Recovery Ventilation $7,500.00 Window upgrade cost $6,881.60 Solar panels $31,248.00 Net Zero Low voltage DC $3,500.00

Summation Sustainable Solutions Cost $58,937.60 Typical Grand Rapids Cost $276,360.00

Total Cost $335,297.60 Price per square foot 128.32

The results from this table indicate that designing a house to meet phius standards means an increase in cost of 9%. Taking the passive house design to net-0 would take an additional 12%. The Structural Insulated panel is a unique form of construction. It is a relatively affordable way of construction, just a newer method that is not common practice. It cost would be similar to what is covered in the Typical Grand Rapids Cost.

11.4 Cost comparison The top down results said that our cost would be about $322k. Bottom up cost estimator said about 331k. The bottom up cost of the sustainable solutions added to a Grand Rapids yielded a result in the $335k region. With this data, Team 22 is confident that a 2800 sq ft, net zero, passive house would cost within 15% of $330,000 to build in michigan.

11.5 Payback period Table 11.4 breaks down the costs by standard. The yearly costs for michigan were from the US energy information administration.52

52 Household Energy Use in Michigan - U.S. Energy Information ... (n.d.). 60

Table 11.4a Cost Analysis

The first row represents the additional 9% construction cost of bringing the house to PHIUS standard. The second column records the multiplicative effect of pursuing the net zero energy. This cost is an additional 12% of the cost of the passive house. This data shows the clear difference of 1555.73 in yearly savings. Figure 11.4a shows the payback period

Figure 11.4a Simple Payback Period

Pursuing net zero energy has a cost of construction that is $34,700 more expensive than pursuing a passive house certification, however, the payback period of the resulting house is 10.7 years faster. The PHIUS & Net Zero payback period is the average of the weighted average of the PHIUS 26.8 year payback and the 18 year payback associated with solar panels, as see in section 9.3.5.

Taking a regular-inificently-operating home to net zero energy with solar panels takes about $92k and pays itself off in 42 years. This proves that using both PHIUS standards and solar panels will yield the best payback period for net zero construction.

12 Conclusion

In all, Team 22 has shown that building a PHIUS compliant and net zero house in Michigan is possible. The cost of building a passive house depends largely on the grade of the house components. For a moderate-2800 sqft home in Grand Rapids, Michigan, a builder should expect about a 9% increase in cost to achieve the PHIUS certification. An additional 12% will get the house operate with net zero energy. By incorporating these design elements, the house significantly more efficient energy than a standard home and consequently, more environmentally friendly.

Because these designs varey by client, budget, and location, a unique design has to be made to achieve the PHIUS certification. Achieving this goal demands a multidisciplinary approach. Communication and coordination between architectural, structural, electrical, and mechanical systems is necessary to create a cohesive sustainable design.

13 References

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14 Acknowledgments

The team would like to send a special thanks to David Malone, Dean of Hekman Library, for his assistance in research. He helped us find the Passive House case study from Holly Michigan, which supported this project’s proof of feasibility. Dr. Malone also found several helpful books that will guide the project in the following semester.

The team would also like to thank Professor Mark Bjelland of the geography department for his thoughts and insights. His knowledge about both the local ordinance and sustainable infrastructure was invaluable, and he helped the team brainstorm new ideas about how to lay out the design more sustainably.

Finally, the team would like to thank engineering senior design advisor, Professor Jeremy VanAntwerp. He served as both the client and mentor for Team 22. His work helped us to narrow the scope of the project and set achievable goals.

15 Appendices

Appendix A: Team 22 Second Semester Gantt Chart Appendix B: Licaso Daylighting Results Appendix C: Heat Pump Specification Sheet Appendix D: HRV Specification Sheet Appendix E: Nextek Power Hub Driver Specification Sheet Appendix F: Solar Generation - PV Watts- Results Appendix G: Solar Panel Specification Sheet

15.1 Appendix A: Team 22 Second Semester Gantt Chart

15.2 Appendix B: Licaso Daylighting Results

15.3 Appendix C: Heat Pump Specification Sheet

15.4 Appendix D: HRV Specification Sheet

15.5 Appendix E: Nextek Power Hub Driver Specification Sheet

15.6 Appendix F: Solar Generation - PV Watts - Results

15.7 Appendix G: Solar Panel Specification Sheet