Metallogenesis of the World's Ocean Against the Background of Oceanic Crust Evolution

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Metallogenesis of the World's Ocean Against the Background of Oceanic Crust Evolution RYSZARD KOTLIÑSKI METALLOGENESIS OF THE WORLD’S OCEAN AGAINST THE BACKGROUND OF OCEANIC CRUST EVOLUTION Polish Geological Institute Special Papers,4 WARSZAWA 1999 CONTENTS Introduction ..................................................................6 Aim and methods of the studies ........................................................7 Scope of the studies and basic source data...................................................7 International legal regulations of carrying out prospecting, exploration and exploitation of mineral resources.................9 Origin and geological structure of the oceans ................................................10 Morphotectonic structures of the ocean floor ..............................................11 Major stages of ocean floor development................................................12 Evolution of environmental sedimentary conditions ..........................................16 Metallogenic systematic of the world’s ocean ................................................19 Applied essentials of the metallogenic division.............................................20 Morphotectonic megaprovinces.....................................................24 Metallogenic provinces and ore deposit formations ..........................................25 Manganese nodule formation ....................................................30 Deep-sea manganese nodules ..................................................31 Cobalt-rich manganese crusts ..................................................39 Polymetallic sulphide formation ...................................................41 Polymetallic sulphide ores ....................................................43 Metalliferous sediments .....................................................47 Phosphorite nodule formation ....................................................48 Heavy minerals formation ......................................................49 Closing remarks ...............................................................50 Conclusions .................................................................53 References ..................................................................55 Plates.....................................................................60 Polish Geological Institute Special Papers, 4 (1999): 1–70 In honour of Arvid Pardo of Malta KOTLIÑSKI R., 1999 — Metallogenesis of the world’s ocean against the background of ocean crust evolution. Polish Geological Institute Special Papers, 4: 1–70. Ryszard Kotliñski, Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM), ul. Cyryla i Metodego 9, 71-541 Szczecin, Poland. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract. This paper presents results of the studies on the metallogenesis of the deep-sea mineral resources and their sedi- mentary environment. Connections between the structure and evolution of the oceanic crust, with regard to the rules of occur- rence and distribution of the ores, have been established. Main sources of the material delivered to the ores’ forming places and dominating types of processes and environmental factors determining the character of components’ concentration in the ores have been recognised. Basing on the obtained results, the present author’s own concept of metallogenic systematic of the world’s ocean, distinguishing morphotectonic megaprovinces, metallogenic provinces and ore formations has been pre- sented. All these units have their own specificity resulting from differential intensity of tectonic-magmatic and sedimentary processes controlled by groups of factors differing regionally and locally. The key differentiating factors include sources, and more precisely mutual relations between the kind and amount of allogenic and authigenic components delivered to different oceans, distance away from endogenic sources, depth, and morphotectonics of the sea floor, physical and chemical properties of the near-bottom and pore waters, as well as the specific structure and dynamics of the sea water masses. It is demonstrated, against the background of oceanic crust evolution which began about 170 million years ago and proceeded in 4 stages which were different in the Indo-Pacific and Indo-Atlantic areas, that generation of ore deposits was mostly affected by processes operating during the last stage of crust evolution. The manganese metallogenic period is related to the youngest, Alpine geotectonic period in the history of the Earth. Of key importance were here sub-volcanic and volcanic processes taking place at the fracture tectonic phase, during the terminal magmatism. Metallogenic provinces were distinguished within two major morphotectonic megaprovinces (Indo-Pacific and Indo-Atlantic). Within each of these metallogenic provinces, the following major ore deposit formations were distinguished: — manganese nodule formation, controlled by the domination of hydrogenic and hydrogenic-diagenetic processes, — polymetallic sulphide formation, affected mainly by subsea floor processes in active hydrothermal systems, — phosphorite nodule formation, produced mainly by biohydrogenic processes, — heavy minerals formation, resulting from mechanogenic processes. It is showed, that the ore deposits formations are regionally differentiated. Regions embrace groups of the ore deposits named subformations. Within the subformations fields have been distinguished. In the ore deposits fields the types of ore de- posits have been distinguished. The present paper is a synthesis of the present author’s long-term studies on the metallogenic systematic of the world’s ocean. Results of the studies on the oceanic deposit ores are included in the monographic papers, such as: “Geology and min- eral resources of seas and oceans” (“Gieo³ogija i mineralnyje resursy moriej i okieanow” — in Russian — 1990), “Mineral re- sources of seas and oceans” (“Surowce mineralne mórz i oceanów” — in Polish — 1998), “Explanatory Note — Metallogenic Map of the World Ocean” — 1998, and numerous Polish and foreign publications quoted in this paper. Key words: metallogenic systematic, morphotectonic megaprovinces, metallogenic provinces, ore deposit formations (regions and fields). Abstrakt. Na tle ewolucji skorupy oceanicznej przedstawiono wyniki badañ metalogenezy g³êbokowodnych z³ó¿ kopa- lin oraz œrodowiska ich sedymentacji. Ustalono zwi¹zki pomiêdzy budow¹ i ewolucj¹ skorupy oceanicznej z uwzglêdnie- 6 Introduction niem prawid³owoœci wystêpowania i rozmieszczenia tych z³ó¿. Rozpoznano tak¿e g³ówne Ÿród³a materia³u doprowadzanego do miejsc formowania kopaliny oraz dominuj¹ce grupy procesów i czynników œrodowiskowych determinuj¹ce charakter koncentracji sk³adników w z³o¿ach. W oparciu o uzyskane wyniki badañ przedstawiono autorsk¹ koncepcjê systematyki me- talogenicznej wszechoceanu, wyró¿niaj¹c megaprowincje morfotektoniczne, prowincje metalogeniczne i formacje z³o¿owe. Odznaczaj¹ siê one swoist¹ odrêbnoœci¹, bêd¹c¹ efektem zró¿nicowanej intensywnoœci przebiegu procesów tektonicz- no-magmatycznych i sedymentacyjnych, kszta³towanych na poziomie regionalnym i lokalnym, przez odmienne grupy czyn- ników. Decyduj¹cym czynnikiem wyró¿niaj¹cym s¹ Ÿród³a, a œciœlej wzajemne relacje pomiêdzy rodzajem i iloœci¹ materia³u allochtonicznego i autochtonicznego doprowadzonego do poszczególnych oceanów, odleg³oœæ od Ÿróde³ endogenicznych, g³êbokoœæ oraz charakter morfotektoniczny dna oceanicznego, w³aœciwoœci fizyczno-chemiczne wód przydennych i poro- wych, a tak¿e swoista struktura i dynamika wód oceanicznych. Na tle ewolucji skorupy oceanicznej, której formowanie roz- poczê³o siê oko³o 170 mln lat temu i przebiega³o w czterech etapach — odmiennie w obszarze Indo-Pacyficznym i Indo-Atlantyckim — wykazano, ¿e decyduj¹cy wp³yw na formowanie z³ó¿ mia³y procesy zachodz¹ce w ostatnim etapie przeobra¿eñ skorupy. Manganowy okres metalogeniczny zwi¹zany jest z najm³odszym, alpejskim cyklem geotektonicznym Ziemi. Decyduj¹ce znaczenie mia³y przy tym procesy subwulkaniczne i wulkaniczne przebiegaj¹ce w stadium tektoniki za³omowej, w okresie magmatyzmu koñcowego. W obrêbie dwóch g³ównych megaprowincji morfotektonicznych (Indo-Pa- cyficznej i Indo-Atlantyckiej) wydzielono prowincje metalogeniczne. W ka¿dej z nich rozpoznano nastêpuj¹ce g³ówne for- macje z³o¿owe: — manganow¹ formacjê konkrecyjn¹, odznaczaj¹c¹ siê dominacj¹ procesów hydrogenicznych i hydrogeniczno-diage- netycznych; — polimetaliczn¹ formacjê siarczkow¹, z dominacj¹ przypowierzchniowych procesów w aktywnych systemach hydro- termalnych; — fosforytow¹ formacjê konkrecyjn¹, z dominacj¹ procesów biohydrogenicznych; — formacjê minera³ów ciê¿kich, z dominacj¹ procesów mechanogenicznych. Wykazano, ¿e formacje z³o¿owe s¹ regionalnie zró¿nicowane. Regiony obejmuj¹ grupy z³ó¿ nazwane subformacjami. W ich obrêbie wydzielono pola z³o¿owe. W polach rozpoznano typy z³ó¿. Niniejsza praca stanowi syntezê wyników wieloletnich badañ autora w zakresie systematyki metalogenicznej z³ó¿ wszechoceanu. Wyniki badañ z³ó¿ oceanicznych zawarte s¹ w opracowaniach monograficznych, w tym: „Gieo³ogija i mineral- nyje resursy moriej i okieanow” — 1990, „ Surowce mineralne mórz i oceanów”— 1998, „Explanatory Note — Metallogenic Map of the World Ocean” — 1998 oraz w licznych publikacjach krajowych i zagranicznych cytowanych w niniejszej pracy. S³owa kluczowe: systematyka metalogeniczna, megaprowincje morfotektoniczne, prowincje metalogeniczne, formacje z³o¿owe (regiony i pola z³o¿owe). INTRODUCTION Sea floor sediments are a vast and not fully tapped source of a cal processes on the other side, have been ascertained.
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