DOCSLIB.ORG

Joanna Sacharczuk Alina Szwarc

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Joanna Sacharczuk Alina Szwarc Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici • Pedagogika XXXV/1/2018 Nauki Humanistyczno-Społeczne • Zeszyt 445 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/AUNC_PED.2018.003 Joanna Sacharczuk University of Białystok ORCID: 0000-0001-6031-1167 Alina Szwarc University of Białystok ORCID: 0000-0002-3075-5872 POLITICS OF MEMORY AND THE STATE OF EDUCATION BEFORE AND AFTER POLAND REGAINS INDEPENDENCE USING THE EXAmpLE OF THE CITY OF BIAłYSTOK – CONTEXTS OF REGIONAL EDUCATION Abstract In this paper, we attempt to present how dominant countries weave memory policy in their educational activity in order to gain control over the members of subordinate groups. This is an important topic in the context of the 100th anniversary of Poland’s independence being celebrated this year. We refer to the educational policy of the invaders to Poles and the Polish state towards minorities in the interwar period. We will illustrate this through the example of Białystok, the city of north-eastern Poland. K e y w o r d s : social memory, historical memory, memory policy, history of education in Bialystok, region, regional education. 36 J OANNA S ACHARCZUK , A LINA S ZWARC POLITYKA PAMIęCI A SYTUACJA SZKOLNICTWA PRZED I PO ODZYSKANIU PRZEZ POLSKę NIEPODLEGłośCI NA PRZYKłADZIE MIASTA BIAłYSTOK – KONTEKSTY EDUKACJI REGIONALNEJ Streszczenie W tekście podejmujemy próbę pokazania sposobów używania przez domi- nującą władzę polityki pamięci w działaniach edukacyjnych w celu podpo- rządkowania sobie członków podległych grup. Jest to temat ważny w kontek- ście obchodzonej w tym roku setnej rocznicy odzyskania niepodległości przez państwo polskie. Na przykładzie Białegostoku poruszamy zagadnienie polity- ki oświatowej zaborców wobec Polaków oraz państwa polskiego wobec mniej- szości w okresie międzywojennym. S ł o w a k l u c z o w e : pamięć społeczna, pamięć historyczna, polityka pamięci, historia szkolnictwa w Białymstoku, region, edukacja regionalna. Introduction he subject of this article is an attempt to present the issue of the Tmemory of the past as a crucial element of memory policy and to outline the contexts of its use in educational activities. Taking up this topic seems to be important for several reasons. This year, we celebrate the hundredth anniversary of the Polish state regaining independence. Such an important event is an excellent opportunity for reflection and memories, for talks about our history, but also for thinking about the challenges facing contemporary education, including regional education. Education is, in fact, one of the best tools for implementing the pol- icy of memory of the ruling party, so shaping the memory of the state, nation and region. In this text, we refer to the educational policy of the invaders to Poles and the Polish state towards minorities in the in- terwar period within the context of the example of Białystok, the city of north-eastern Poland. In connection with the celebrated anniversa- ry of regaining independence, many different celebrations and events take place in Białystok, on the occasion of this commemoration. In ad- P OLITICS OF M E M ORY AND THE S TATE OF E DUCATION 37 dition, the City Council has established that 2018 will be the year of Independence People. Regional education – theoretical and methodological approach The context of regional education adopted in this article is primar- ily based on the objectives of implementing such education. Certain human behaviour can only be understood in the context of culture, thanks to which appropriate attitudes, behaviours, patterns and values are formed in individuals. Without reference to the culture of ances- tors one cannot consider collective memory, which Jerzy Nikitorowicz defines as a “group of ideas about the past of the group”1. Therefore, it is not necessary to state without dispute that the school plays a key role in preparing the young generation for participation in culture. One such possibility is created by regional education, which can be de- scribed as a whole of didactic and educational activities aimed at im- plementing content related to the region in terms of knowledge, shap- ing skills, competences and attitudes. The aim of regional education is therefore to prepare for the conscious and responsible use of the rich- ness of regional cultural goods. As a scholarly discipline, regional education is quite new and for the moment certainly lacks well-established theoretical reflection2. However, it has extensive roots and is present in our lives practically since forever. The idea of regional education (formal and informal) has been known for a long time, although it has existed under various names and definitions. However, it was not until the 1990s in the last century that these issues became popular in the canon of content stud- ied in Polish schools3. 1 J. Nikitorowicz, Etnopedagogika w kontekście wielokulturowości i ustawicz- nie kształtującej się tożsamości, Kraków 2017, p. 109. 2 P. Petrykowski, Edukacja regionalna. Problemy podstawowe i otwarte, To- ruń 2003. 3 To a large extent this was associated with the processes of Poland’s admis- sion to the European Union. 38 J OANNA S ACHARCZUK , A LINA S ZWARC One of the first documents regulating the realisation of regional ed- ucation is the 1995 publication “Cultural Heritage in the Region. Pro- gram Curriculum Assumptions”, in which were described were the main tasks and goals. Some of them worth mentioning include bet- ter understanding of own culture and cultural heritage, distinguishing the value of own region in the national, state and human values con- text, shaping the citizens to be conscious of their rights and their ‘small homeland’, as well as shaping open attitudes, enabling learning about other cultures and European integration4. Of course, these assump- tions, or rather the ways of achieving them, will vary amongst regions5. However, regardless of their directions, but also the needs and ini- tiatives undertaken in the whole local environment and by various en- tities – from educational institutions to local government – everyone is responsible for the regional education. Hence, it is particularly ex- posed to various ambiguities that can “(...) lead to the creation of an illegible and facade description of reality, often losing the sense and meaning of so many valuable activities”6. In the last twenty years, these objectives have been carried out in schools in various forms and with various methods. This was facilitat- ed with favourable conditions such as obligatory educational projects in junior high schools. But above all – regional content was present in previous program frameworks (as a cross-curricular path: regional education – cultural heritage in the region). As the available research indicates, many schools in the Podlaskie Voivodship have carried out these paths very well7. 4 Dziedzictwo kulturowe w regionie. Założenia programowe, Ministerstwo Edu- kacji Narodowej, Warszawa 1995. 5 J. Nikitorowicz, Edukacja regionalna i międzykulturowa, Warszawa 2009. 6 P. Petrykowski, Edukacja regionalna…, op.cit., p. 5. 7 Compare: A. Szwarc, Intercultural education in urban and rural secondary schools, In: The city: a learning experience, ed. K. Kamińska, A. Szerląg, Wydaw- nictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, Wrocław 2011, pp. 168–186. Idem, Eduka- cja międzykulturowa w pozalekcyjnych formach kształcenia – komunikat z badań. „Pogranicze. Studia społeczne”, vol. XVII (2011), pp. 188–199. Idem, Rola i miej- sce treści kulturowych w procesie kształcenia na przykładzie podlaskich gimnazjów. „Ars inter Culturas” 2014, no. 3, pp. 171–178. P OLITICS OF M E M ORY AND THE S TATE OF E DUCATION 39 Unfortunately, in the current core curriculum, regional content is not as prominent. It is true that it is included in the curricula of par- ticular subjects, such as geography or history. However, this is not enough to be able to say that there are good grounds for running re- gional education in the current school system. Only the introduction of a new school subject could change that. Memory Policy – Historical Memory v. Social Memory Historical and social types of memory are important elements of mem- ory policy that evolve along with any changes in the political situation of the state. Memory policy is used both by the secular and religious authorities for their own benefit, as well as for the benefit of an in- dividual, community or the whole nation. In general,,emory policy is used by the cultural majority as well as by minorities. Memory policy is created by state leaders as the official part of the memory of an ethnic group, nation, or state. Memory policy is mostly based on historic memory that, by definition, is considered to be the only binding type of memory and is therefore used by politicians cur- rently in power as a tool to indoctrinate society. If a social context and differences in historical backgrounds of minorities living in a country are not taken into consideration, then memory policy may be a dan- gerous assimilation tool. It may be dangerous for the culture of assimi- lated groups and for the country itself. When using memory policy, every society evolves various myths. The purpose of these myths is to build a community, unite people around a common goal and make a group of people want to work for a country. A founding myth of a nation or state hence serves to culti- vate the memory of nation’s or sate’s past. It should make members of the nation feel special. If any state wants to last, then it will implement a memory policy based on the myth that contributes to the develop- ment of one common identity and unifies people as one nation. In case of emergency, a nation with a coherent identity will eagerly protect its unique community and with conviction. 40 J OANNA S ACHARCZUK , A LINA S ZWARC Myths and legends are part of history of every nation, region and town. Myths should ensure the continuance of tradition. They also evoke values important for the identity of a community.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 9781501756030 Revised Cover 3.30.21.Pdf
    , , Edited by Christine D. Worobec For a list of books in the series, visit our website at cornellpress.cornell.edu. From Victory to Peace Russian Diplomacy aer Napoleon • Elise Kimerling Wirtschaer Copyright © by Cornell University e text of this book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivatives . International License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/./. To use this book, or parts of this book, in any way not covered by the license, please contact Cornell University Press, Sage House, East State Street, Ithaca, New York . Visit our website at cornellpress.cornell.edu. First published by Cornell University Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Wirtschaer, Elise Kimerling, author. Title: From victory to peace: Russian diplomacy aer Napoleon / by Elise Kimerling Wirtschaer. Description: Ithaca [New York]: Northern Illinois University Press, an imprint of Cornell University Press, . | Series: NIU series in Slavic, East European, and Eurasian studies | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identiers: LCCN (print) | LCCN (ebook) | ISBN (paperback) | ISBN (pdf) | ISBN (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Russia—Foreign relations—–. | Russia—History— Alexander I, –. | Europe—Foreign relations—–. | Russia—Foreign relations—Europe. | Europe—Foreign relations—Russia. Classication: LCC DK.W (print) | LCC DK (ebook) | DDC ./—dc LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/ LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/ Cover image adapted by Valerie Wirtschaer. is book is published as part of the Sustainable History Monograph Pilot. With the generous support of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Pilot uses cutting-edge publishing technology to produce open access digital editions of high-quality, peer-reviewed monographs from leading university presses.
    [Show full text]
  • {FREE} Napoleon Bonaparte Ebook
    NAPOLEON BONAPARTE PDF, EPUB, EBOOK Gregory Fremont-Barnes,Peter Dennis | 64 pages | 25 May 2010 | Bloomsbury Publishing PLC | 9781846034589 | English | Oxford, England, United Kingdom Napoleon Bonaparte - Quotes, Death & Facts - Biography They may have presented themselves as continental out of a desire for honor and distinction, but this does not prove they really were as foreign as they themselves often imagined. We might say that they grew all the more attached to their Italian origins as they moved further and further away from them, becoming ever more deeply integrated into Corsican society through marriages. This was as true of the Buonapartes as of anyone else related to the Genoese and Tuscan nobilities by virtue of titles that were, to tell the truth, suspect. The Buonapartes were also the relatives, by marriage and by birth, of the Pietrasentas, Costas, Paraviccinis, and Bonellis, all Corsican families of the interior. Napoleon was born there on 15 August , their fourth child and third son. A boy and girl were born first but died in infancy. Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic. Napoleon was born the same year the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to France. His father was an attorney who went on to be named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child. Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time. When he turned 9 years old, [18] [19] he moved to the French mainland and enrolled at a religious school in Autun in January Napoleon was routinely bullied by his peers for his accent, birthplace, short stature, mannerisms and inability to speak French quickly.
    [Show full text]
  • For the SGGEE Convention July 29
    For the SGGEE Convention July 29 - 31, 2016 in Calgary, Alberta, Canada 1 2 Background to the Geography It is the continent of Europe where many of our ancestors, particularly from 1840 onward originated. These ancestors boarded ships to make a perilous voyage to unknown lands far off across large oceans. Now, you may be wondering why one should know how the map of Europe evolved during the years 1773 to 2014. The first reason to study the manner in which maps changed is that many of our ancestors migrated from somewhere. Also, through time, the borders on the map of Europe including those containing the places where our ancestors once lived have experienced significant changes. In many cases, these changes as well as the history that led to them, may help to establish and even explain why our ancestors moved when they did. When we know these changes to the map, we are better able to determine what the sources of family information in that place of origin may be, where we may search for them, and even how far back we may reasonably expect to find them. A map of the travels of German people lets me illustrate why it has become necessary to acquaint yourself with the history and the changing borders of Eastern Europe. Genealogy in this large area becomes much more difficult without this knowledge. (See map at https://s3.amazonaws.com/ps-services-us-east-1- 914248642252/s3/research-wiki-elasticsearch-prod-s3bucket/images/thumb/a/a9/ Germans_in_Eastern_Europe5.png/645px-Germans_in_Eastern_Europe5.png) In my case, the Hamburg Passenger Lists gave me the name of the village of origin of my grandmother, her parents, and her siblings.
    [Show full text]
  • Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc
    Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc. 7407 La Jolla Boulevard www.raremaps.com (858) 551-8500 La Jolla, CA 92037 [email protected] Polen in die dermaligen Besitzungen eingetheilt Nach der vortreflichen Karte von Rizzi Zannoni Herausgegeben in Wien von Artaria u Comp. 1807. -- Carte de la Pologne Divisee entre les puissances co-partageantes . Stock#: 53916 Map Maker: Rizzi-Zannoni / Artaria & Co. Date: 1807 Place: Vienna Color: Outline Color Condition: VG Size: 34.5 x 39.5 inches Price: SOLD Description: Rare separately published map of Poland, based on the work of Giovanni Antonio Rizzi-Zannoni, published in Vienna. The map title is in French and German, and notes Poland is divided between its co-sharing partners. The map includes significant battle related information, with annotations at the bottom right referencing a battle on August 3, 1775. Another note references the prehistoric district of the Slobodan Elizbethgrad, which is no Kropyvnytskyi in Ukraine. The town has changed its name several times. In a letter of grant on January 11, 1752 to Major- General Jovan Horvat, the organizer of Nova Serbia settlements, the Empress Elizabeth of Russia ordered the Major-General "to found an earthen fortress and name it Fort St. Elizabeth". Thus simultaneously the future city was named in honor of its formal founder, the Russian empress, and also in honor of her heavenly patroness, St. Elizabeth. The name Yelisavetgrad (usually spelled Elisavetgrad or Elizabethgrad in English language publications) is believed to have evolved as the amalgamation of the fortress name and the common Eastern Slavonic element "-grad" (Old/Church Slavonic "градъ", "a settlement encompassed by a wall").
    [Show full text]
  • French Revolution & Napoleon: Coalition Wars
    French Revolution & Napoleon: Coalition Wars War of the First Coalition: 1792-1797 As events unfolded in France, its neighbors watched with concern and began preparing for war. Aware of this, the French moved first declaring war on Austria on April 20, 1792. Early battles went poorly with French troops fleeing. Austrian and Prussian troops moved into France but were held at Valmy in September. French forces drove into the Austrian Netherlands and won at Jemappes in November. In January, the revolutionary government executed Louis XVI which led to Spain, Britain, and the Netherlands entering the war. Enacting mass conscription, the French began a series of campaigns which saw them make territorial gains on all fronts and knocked Spain and Prussia out of the war in 1795. Austria asked for peace two years later. War of the Second Coalition: 1798-1802 Despite losses by its allies, Britain remained at war with France and in 1798 built a new coalition with Russia and Austria. As hostilities resumed, French forces began campaigns in Egypt, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. The coalition scored an early victory when the French fleet was beaten at the Battle of the Nile in August. In 1799, the Russians enjoyed success in Italy, but left the coalition later that year after a dispute with the British and a defeat at Zurich. The fighting turned in 1800 with French victories at Marengo and Hohenlinden. The latter opened the road to Vienna, forcing the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1802, the British and French signed the Treaty of Amiens ending the war.
    [Show full text]
  • Why Was the Treaty of Tilsit Important
    Why Was The Treaty Of Tilsit Important Chartered Clark imbibes genitivally while Alic always protruding his rejecters partialised coweringly, he methylate so feasibly. Mauricio ullages cross-country as gemmy Dawson embruing her Croat knuckle ratably. Shinto and wide-screen Barrett fanaticises almost regressively, though Carmine sprig his hawks deflating. Napoleon and holydays were not likely to escape, in parliament on it was possible by many troops to tilsit was treaty of the degree of Russian was heavily repulsed their terms of tilsit treaties marked an important stage a peace? The million is bright so divided and forms one seamless document. Who established the Third Coalition for the British? This means to the polish subjects more restricted goals of the united into spain was the pretext of. German knights were unwilling to russia and smolensk but lacking in italics are egyptian ports to st helena in the tilsit. Anglo-Russian Relations from Austerlitz to Tilsit JStor. The Diplomacy of Alexander I in Tilsit Brill. Jacobins, and that, in cost, she threatened the tranquillity of her neighbors. The guy important German philosopher of the Romantic era was Hegel. Pay attention away with france was. The Russian army slipped away from Napoleon again work again. With this document, the Jews in the older areas of Prussia were granted citizenship. He set it was too late ministers about what happened to follow that he usually won. The sweetheart at Tilsit did he punish Russia in by same here that it punished Prussia. Parliament by a march on London. The exhibit shows many pictures of the active citizens in the envision of Tilsit who contributed in natural essential concern to the prosperity of the city although its niveau.
    [Show full text]
  • War Discourse As a Means of Constructing a National Myth (The Crimean War in Pre-Revolutionary Schoolbooks and Popular Literature)
    ACTA SLAVICA ESTONICA VI. Studia Russica Helsingiensia et Tartuensia XIV. Russian National Myth in Transition. Tartu, 2014 WAR DISCOURSE AS A MEANS OF CONSTRUCTING A NATIONAL MYTH (THE CRIMEAN WAR IN PRE-REVOLUTIONARY SCHOOLBOOKS AND POPULAR LITERATURE) LJUBOV KISSELJOVA In regimes throughout history, war has been and remains one of the most pow- erful instruments for anyone attempting to shape the ideology of the popular consciousness, no matter what their beliefs about war. These patterns extend far beyond the bounds of the 19th century, although this paper will focus on that era. The first step in the process of ideological preparation for a military cam- paign is the search for historical parallels and analogues which can serve as models and reference points in the building of a new ideological paradigm. Such searches have been conducted by power structures, literati, journalists, and publicists. In Russia in the time of the Napoleonic Wars, the Battle of Kuli- kovo, and particularly the year 1612, served as analogues. Then, the Patriotic War itself became a consistent source of myths1. However, the Patriotic War was one of victory, placing Russia in an exclusive position among European powers. The final victory against Napoleon allowed Russians, if not to forget, then at least to smooth over the memories of Austerlitz, of the defeats in 1807, and of the Treaties of Tilsit. This national triumph, the remembrance of which was skillfully maintained under Nicholas I through anniversary celebrations, monuments, and other symbolic actions, neutralized awareness in the Russian social consciousness of the new political realities of Nicholas’ rule: the lamen- table consequences of the politics of the Holy Alliance and the rapid decline of Russia’s status in Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • War of the Fourth Coalition 1 War of the Fourth Coalition
    War of the Fourth Coalition 1 War of the Fourth Coalition The Fourth Coalition against Napoleon's French Empire was defeated in a war spanning 1806–1807. Coalition partners included Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Many members of the coalition had previously been fighting France as part of the Third Coalition, and there was no intervening period of general peace. In 1806, Prussia joined a renewed coalition, fearing the rise in French power after the defeat of Austria and establishment of the French-sponsored Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia and Russia mobilized for a fresh campaign, and Prussian troops massed in Saxony. Overview Napoleon decisively defeated the Prussians in a lightning campaign that culminated at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on 14 October 1806. French forces under Napoleon occupied Prussia, pursued the remnants of the shattered Prussian Army, and captured Berlin on October 25, 1806. They then advanced all the way to East Prussia, Poland and the Russian frontier, where they fought an inconclusive battle against the Russians at Eylau on 7–8 February 1807. Napoleon's advance on the Russian frontier was briefly checked during the spring as he revitalized his army. Russian forces were finally crushed by the French at Friedland on June 14, 1807, and three days later Russia asked for a truce. By the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, France made peace with Russia, which agreed to join the Continental System. The treaty however, was particularly harsh on Prussia as Napoleon demanded much of Prussia's territory along the lower Rhine west of the Elbe, and in what was part of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
    [Show full text]
  • Historijsko-Geografske I Geopolitičke Konstante Jadrana I Jadranskog
    historijsko-geografske abstract i geopolitičke U radu se razmatra doprinos Braudelova djela Sredoze- mlje i sredozemni svijet u doba Filipa II. razumijevanju konstante jadrana i i tumačenju temeljnih obilježja jadranske geopolitike ti- jekom povijesti. Težište je pritom stavljeno na historij- jadranskog prostora u sko-geografsku i geostratešku valorizaciju povijesne ulo- ge ključnih nadzornih točki u kontroli i zaštiti glavnih kontekstu braudelove longitudinalnih i transverzalnih jadranskih pomorskih koridora, kao i na geostratešku analizu odnosa Jadrana vizije sredozemlja spram ostatka Sredozemlja te napose spram njegovih bli- žih i daljih kontinentalnih zaleđa. historical- Ključne riječi: F. Braudel, povijest dugog trajanja, prirodno-geografska osnova, Sredozemlje, Jadran, geographical and kontinentalno zaleđe, historijska geografija, geopolitika geopolitical constants of the adriatic and abstract adriatic region This work deals with the contribution of the Braudel’s work The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the context of in the age of Philip II to understanding and interpretati- on of the basic characteristics of the Adriatic geopoliti- braudel’s vision of the cs through history. The focus is on the historical - geo- graphical and geostrategical valorization of the historical mediterranean role of crucial vantage points in control and protection of main longitudinal and transversal Adriatic maritime corridors as well as on the geostrategical analysis of re- lations of the Adriatic with the rest of the Mediterranean and particularly with its closer and more distant conti- nental hinterlands. Key words: F. Braudel, longue durée, natural-geograph- Petar Elez ical basis, Mediterranean, Adriatic, continental hinter- land, historical geography, geopolitics Državni arhiv u Vukovaru / State Archive Vukovar Županijska 5 HR - 32000 Vukovar [email protected] UDK / UDC: 930.2(497.5)(210.5)”15” 911.3:94(497.5)(210.5)”15” 911.3:32(497.5)(210.5)”15” Pregledni rad / Review article Primljeno / Received: 18.
    [Show full text]
  • Illustrated Timeline
    Napoleon’s Rise & Fall: Illustrated Timeline Explore this in depth illustrated timeline of Napoleon's rise and fall! Grade Level: Adult, College, Grades 3-5, Grades 6-8, Grades 9-12 Collection: European Art Culture/Region: Europe Subject Area: Fine Arts, History and Social Science, Visual Arts, World Languages Activity Type: Art in Depth, Special Exhibition Find the abbreviated pdf of the timeline as it appears at the exit of the Napoleon: Power and Splendor exhibition here: Napoleon’s Rise & Fall: Illustrated Timeline (Exhibition Version) EARLY LIFE August 15, 1769: Napoleon Bonaparte is born in Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean, a subject of King Louis XV of France. 1778–85: Napoleon attends military school in France, where he excels at math and history. He receives a commission as an officer in the artillery division of the French army. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION July 14, 1789: Parisian mobs storm the Bastille, and the French Revolution begins. August 1792–January 1793: The French Legislative Assembly abolishes the monarchy and declares The Fortress of the Bastille, Jean Francois France a Republic to be governed by an assembly Rigaud (1742–ca. 1810), colored engraving. known as the Convention. The following January, King Paris, Nusée Carnavalet Louis XVI is guillotined. Thousands of aristocrats, including many French military officers, flee from France. September 5, 1793: The Reign of Terror, the most radical period of the French Revolution, begins. At least 300,000 suspects are arrested; 17,000 are executed, and perhaps 10,000 die in prison or without trial. September–December 1793: Napoleon wins fame by defeating Royalist forces supported by the British navy in the port of Toulon.
    [Show full text]
  • The Eiffel Tower- Quick Facts Obuilt 1887-1889 O1,063 Ft
    First French Republic (1792-1799) o Maximilien Robespierre: committee of public safety o Jacobins start reign of terror (1793-94) o Thermidorian Reaction (July 27, 1794) o 1796: Napoleon invades Italy First French Empire (1804-1814) o Marked by French domination o Europe reorganized o 1802: Napoleon named first emperor for life o Napoleon spent his first years as emperor trying to take down Britain. o Treaties of Tilsit, July 1807 o Peninsular War o Continental system failing -> Napoleon’s invasion of Russia o 1814 Napoleon abdicated as emperor o Louis XVIII installed as King (brother of Louis XVI), France regained its 1792 boundaries o 11 months later, Napoleon was back o Waterloo Restoration (1814-1830) o Louis XVIII is in power o Charles X takes over once Louis XVIII dies o Charles X tried to reinstate the absolute monarchy and the Catholic church July Monarchy (1830-1848) o Bourgeoisie is dominant o Louis-Phillipe crowned “King of the French” o Louis-Phillipe associated more with the middle class o The president of the council became unpopular but Louis-Phillipe didn’t remove him o Revolutions of 1848 caused the fall of the monarchy and the start of the second republic Second Republic (1848-1852) o Constitution ratified in September 1848 o Napoleon’s nephew, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, elected president of the republic in December of that year o In 1852 he declared himself emperor of the Second Empire, Napoleon III Second Empire (1852-1870) o Napoleon III ruled France o Little freedom of press and assembly o Industrial, urban, and economic growth, but catastrophic foreign policies o Napoleon III aided the confederacy during the civil war o Defeated by Prussia only two months after declaring war in July 1870 o Napoleon III exiled to England.
    [Show full text]
  • Russia's Educational Policy Aimed at the Poles and The
    Russias EducationalPRZEGL¥D Policy Aimed WSCHODNIOEUROPEJSKI at the Poles and the Polish Territories... VII/1 2016: 112811 ANDRZEJ SZMYT University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn RUSSIAS EDUCATIONAL POLICY AIMED AT THE POLES AND THE POLISH TERRITORIES ANNEXED DURING THE REIGN OF TSAR ALEXANDER I 1 KEYWORDS: Russia, tsar Alexander I, the Russian partition of Poland, the history of education, the Vilnius Scientific District, Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski ABSTRACT: The beginning of the 19th century in Russia marks the establishment of the modern system of education, to much extent based on the standards set by the National Commission of Education. Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , then a close associate of Alexander I, used the young tsars enthusiasm for reforming the country, including the educational system. The already implemented reforms encompassed also the territories of the Russian partition. The unique feature of the Vilnius Scientific District created at that time was the possibility of teaching in the Polish language in all types of schools. It was the school superintendent Prince A. J. Czartoryski who deserved credit for that due to his considerable influence upon the tsars policy towards the Poles. After the change in the position of the superintendent (1824) and the death of Alexander I (1825), the authorities policy on the Polish educational system became stricter, and after the fall of the November Uprising Polish educational institutions practically disappeared. The source base of the text is constituted by the archival materials stored in the State Historical Archives in Kiev and Vilnius as well as in the Library of The Vilnius University.
    [Show full text]