Introduction

Geography is made up of two Latin words geo and graphy. Techniques in Geography Geo means “Earth” and graphy means “to describe”. Thus the general meaning of geography is the branch of science Important techniques used for the geographic enquiry are which explains about the Earth. the following: Greek scholar Haecetus has been regarded as “father of 1. Cartography: It is the science and art of drawing maps geography”. Another Greek scholar Eratosthenes first coined and charts. the term geography. He wrote the book Geography. Alexander 2. Mathematical Geography: It is closely related to the Von Humboldt and Carl Ritter are known as “founders of making of maps and interpretation and analysis of modern geography”. statistical data. 3. Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS): Remote Sensing and GIS have emerged as the most important and powerful technique for the study of geographic problems. The Universe l The universe contains billions of stars, planets, asteroids, l The Moon, for example, is a satellite of the Earth. It moves comets, meteors, solid and gaseous particles, which are around the Earth and also around the Sun along with the called celestial bodies. Earth. K l Meteors: Small pieces of space debris (usually parts of Celestial Bodies comets or asteroids) that are on a collision course with the l Nebula: It is a diffused mass of interstellar dust or gas or Earth are called meteoroids. When meteoroids enter the both, visible as luminous patches or areas of darkness Earth’s atmosphere they are called meteors or colloquially depending on the way the mass absorbs or reflects a shooting star or falling star. incident radiation. l Comets: Comets are the most exciting of the heavenly l Galaxy: The universe contains over 100 billion galaxies. A bodies. They are made up of loose collections of ice, galaxy is a group of billions of stars. Our own galaxy is dust, and small rocky particles. A well developed comet called the Milky Way, and it contains about 300 billion has a tail which is always turned away from the Sun. The stars (300,000,000,000) and one of these is our Sun. head forms the bright portion of the comet. Halley’s Comet (Markenian-348:KUNDAN Largest known galaxy. It is 13 times larger is one of the important comets. It visits the Earth regularly than Milky Way.) and is visible once in 76 years. It was last seen in 1986. l Constellation: Constellations are clusters of stars which l As comets approach the Sun, they develop enormous appear in a specific form. Centaurus, Gemini, Leo, Hercules tails of luminous material that extend for millions of and Virgo are major constellations. kilometres from the head, away from the Sun. l Stars: Some celestial bodies that have their own heat and l Asteroids: Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there light are called stars. The Sun is also a star. is a swarm of small bodies which also revolve round the l The brightest star is Sirius, also called Dog Star, and the Sun. They are called asteroids. closest to the Earth is Proxima Centauri. l Stars are made up of vast clouds of hydrogen and helium Our Solar System gas and dust. Planets and other objects go round the Sun, and these make l Planets: Some celestial bodies do not have their own heat up the solar system, with the Sun at the centre. and light. These are called planets. The word planet means The solar system contains different types of objects ‘wanderer’. including: l Satellites: The word satellite means a smaller companion l a star — the Sun to anything. True to their meaning, these satellites revolve around their planets and also follow them in their revolution l planets, which go around the Sun around the Sun. l satellites, which go around the planets

Geography l 1 The Sun Planets of the Sun l The Sun is 109 times bigger than the Earth and weighs There are eight planets of the Sun which revolve round it in 2 × 1027 tons. their certain orbits. l The core of the Sun has a temperature of about 15 million 1. Mercury 2. Venus 3. Earth 4. Mars degrees C. 5. Jupiter 6. Saturn 7. Uranus 8. Neptune l Sunlight takes 8 min 16.6 sec to reach Earth. Planets are classified into the following two groups — l The density of the Sun is ¼ of that of the Earth. inner and outer planets: l In its composition, 71% hydrogen and 26.5% of helium Inner Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth & Mars are found. Outer Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus & Neptune l The Sun is about 150 million km away from the Earth. Note: The first four planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and l Light travels with a tremendous speed of about 3,00,000 Mars are called the terrestrial planets, because of their kilometres per second. Even at this speed the Sun rays take similarity to the Earth. about eight minutes to reach the Earth. Planets l The source of energy of the Sun is nuclear fusion, in which According to distance from Sun in ascending order: small nuclei of hydrogen atom fuse into helium atom. â Mercury - Venus - Earth - Mars - Jupiter - Saturn - Uranus Different Layers of the Sun - Neptune Heat and energy are emitted from the surface of the Sun According to size in descending order: constantly. This energy is the basis for the life on the Earth’s â Jupiter - Saturn - Uranus - Neptune - Earth - Venus - Mars surface. There is 6000 degrees Centigrade temperature found - Mercury on the surface of the Sun, while it is 15 million degrees Revolves around the Sun in minimum time period: Centigrade at the core. â Venus: 225 days The central part of the Sun is known as the core. â Mercury: 88 days l The Photosphere is the “light sphere”. The dark patches Revolves around the Sun in maximum time period: on it are known as sunspots. â Pluto: 248 years l The Chromosphere (colour sphere) is the next layer. It â Neptune: 164 years Kcontains most of the “elements” found on Earth, but they are in a state of vapour. The Solar Prominences (red flames) Description of Different Planets rise high above the Chromosphere. 1. Mercury l The Corona (crown) lies beyond the Chromosphere. It l The nearest planet of the Sun, it is situated 5.7 million extends in all directions from the Chromosphere out to kilometres away from the Sun. distances of million kilometres or more. It looks like a halo l It is the smallest planet of our Solar System whose diameter completely surrounding the Sun. is only 4849.6 kilometres. l There is no atmosphere; hence there is no possibility of The Planets life. TheKUNDAN 2006 redefinition of “Planet” by the International l It has no satellite. It revolves around the Sun in 88 days. Astronomical Union (IAU) states that, in the Solar System, a 2. Venus planet is a celestial body that: l It is the brightest of all planets because it reflects more of l is in an orbit around the Sun. the Sun’s light which falls upon it than other planets do. l has sufficient mass so that it assumes a hydrostatic l Clouds of sulphuric acid are found here. equilibrium shape. l It is the nearest planet to the Earth. l has “cleared the neighbourhood” around its orbit. l It is similar to the Earth in volume, weight and density; A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit therefore, it is called sister of the Earth and twin star. It is around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to also known as Evening Star and Morning Star. overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic l The cloud sphere of Venus is of orange colour, therefore it equilibrium (nearly round) shape, (c) has not cleared the is known as the orange planet. neighbourhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. l It rotates from east to west while the Earth rotates from According to this definition, there are currently eight west to east. planets and five dwarf planets known in the Solar System. l It has no satellite or moon. The five dwarf planets are Pluto, Ceres, Eris, Makemake and Haumea. 3. Earth l According to distance, it is third from the Sun. It is the fifth largest planet. It is 148.8 million km away from the Sun.

2 l Geography l It rotates along its own axis in 24 hours. in a complete revolution, it comes closest to the Earth l It revolves around the Sun in 365 days 5 hours and 42 twice and goes the farthest twice. minutes. l The nearest position of the Moon to the Earth is known as l It is called the Blue Planet. perigee and the farthest position is known as apogee. l It is the only planet where life exists due to favourable When the Earth, the Sun and the Moon are collinear, it is atmosphere. known as syzgie. l Its diameter is 12,733.2 kilometres. Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse l It has only one satellite — the moon. l When the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, l It is tilted at 23½ degrees on its axis and thus makes an the Moon is unable to get sunlight, i.e. the Moon is angle of 66½ degrees. partially or fully over-shadowed. This is called the lunar l It takes 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds to rotate once eclipse. on its axis and 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds l When the Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth, (i.e. approx 365½ days) to revolve around the Sun. Rotation the Earth doesn’t get sunlight. This is known as the solar creates days and nights. The earth’s revolution around the eclipse. Sun is responsible for various seasons in a year. For the sake of convenience, the awkward one quarter of a day is ignored 4. Mars for three years and then an extra day is added to every fourth l It rotates along its own axis in 24.6 hours (almost equal to year to give us our ‘Leap years’ of 366 days. the time taken by the Earth). Statistical Data of the Earth l Due to presence of iron oxide, it appears red and is called the Red Planet. The Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. l On Mars, Nix Olympica Mountain is situated, which is l Diameter three times loftier than Mount Everest. Equatorial Diameter 12,756 km l Mars has two satellites Phobos and Deimos. Polar Diameter 12,714 km l It is the only planet after Earth which has sign of water l Circumference and there is possibility of life. Equatorial Circumference 40,077 km l Various space missions so far have been sent to Mars, eg Polar Circumference 40,009 km K Vikings, Pathfinder, Mars Odyssey and Curiosity. l Density 5.52 g/cu cm (5.2 times l It has thin atmosphere comprising nitrogen and argon. that of water) l Age 4.6 billion years 5. Jupiter l Highest Land Point (Mt Everest)8848 m l It is the largest planet of the Solar System. Its diameter is l Lowest Land Point () -397 m 11 times and area 120 times that of the Earth. It is called the l Greatest Ocean Depth 11022 m Lord of Heavens. (Mariana Trench) l It has more gravity as compared to the Earth. l Temperature Highest: 58°C at Al- l It is the fastest rotating planet. Aziziyah, Libya l It rotates along its own axis only in 10 hours. Lowest: –89.6°C at l It revolves around the Sun in 11 years and 10 months. KUNDANAntarctica l Its surface is not solid and its atmosphere, made of Average: 49°C hydrogen, helium, ammonia and methane, is very dense. l Escape Velocity: 11200 m/s l One special feature of this planet is the ‘Great Red Spot’. The Moon l Jupiter has 63 satellites. l Ganymede, the largest of these, is larger than the planet l Diameter – 3,475 km Mercury. l Gravitational force – 1/6 of the Earth l Average distance from the Sun – 3.85 lakh km 6. Saturn l It revolves around the Earth in 27 days 7.4 hours. l It is the second largest planet of the Solar System. It is l It has low albedo (the amount of sunlight which the planet 141.7 crore km away from the Sun. It revolves around the reflects). It reflects only 7% and the rest is absorbed. The Sun in 29 years and 6 months. speed of rotation and revolution of the Moon is almost l Its main feature is the presence of a circular ring around it the same. Therefore, we always see the same portion of which does not touch the surface of the Saturn. the Moon. l Saturn is made up of lighter gases, in which 63% is l Its light reaches the Earth after reflection in 1.3 seconds. hydrogen. l It has no atmosphere. l It has the largest number of satellites. It has 60 satellites. l It revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit. Therefore, l The largest satellite of Saturn is Titan.

Geography l 3 7. Uranus l It rotates along its own axis in 15 hours and 40 minutes l It was discovered in 1781 by Sir William Hershel. and revolves round the Sun in 165 years. l It rotates along its own axis from east to west direction l Due to presence of methane, it appears greenish and is unlike the other planets. called green planet. l Its atmosphere is dense and in it methane gas is found. l It is an extremely cold planet where the maximum l Its satellites revolve in opposite direction. temperature is -200°C. l It has 27 satellites. l It has 13 satellites. l The axis of Uranus has large inclination so that it appears l It was discovered by J Galle in 1846. to be lying down, hence it bears the name “a planet on its Dwarf Planet — Pluto side”. l Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was also considered a 8. Neptune planet. However, in a meeting of the International l It is situated 447 crore km away from the Sun. Astronomical Union, a decision was taken that Pluto, like other celestial objects (2003 UB313) discovered in the recent past, may be called ‘dwarf planet’. Earth and Its Planetary Relations

Various Concepts Regarding the Origin Rotation l The Earth rotates along its own axis from west to east, i.e. of Earth in anticlockwise direction. It takes 23 hours, 56 minutes Theory/Hypothesis Scientist/Philosopher and 4.09 seconds in one rotation. l Gaseous Hypothesis Immanuel Kant l Day and night occur due to this rotational motion. l Nebular Hypothesis Laplace l Due to rotation along its own axis, the Earth is not a perfect l KPlanetesimal Hypothesis Chamberlin & Moulton sphere. l Tidal Hypothesis Jeans & Jeffreys Sidereal day l Binary Star Hypothesis Russell l The period of rotation on the polar axis is called a sidereal l Supernova Hypothesis Hoyle day. l Inter-Stellar Dust Hypothesis Otto Schmidt l Big Bang Theory Georges-Henri Lemaitre Revolution Shape of the Earth l The annual motion of the Earth is called revolution. l Since the path of the Earth is elliptical, the distance l The true form of the Earth resembles a sphere that has between the Earth and the Sun keeps changing. been compressed along the polar axis and made to bulge l The Earth attains four critical positions with respect to the KUNDANSun. This happens due to the inclination of the Earth along slightly around the equator. This form is known as an oblate ellipsoid. its axis. These are equinoxes and solstices. l The oblateness is caused by the centrifugal force of the l On June 21, the Tropic of Cancer receives the vertical rays Earth’s rotation. of the Sun. This condition is known as summer solstice. l Perihelion: Nearest position of the Earth to the Sun. The l At this time the experiences the Earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every year at a longest day while the has the distance of about 147 million km from the Sun. shortest night. l Aphelion: Farthest position of the Earth from the Sun. l On December 22, the Tropic of Capricorn receives the The Earth reaches its aphelion on July 4 every year when vertical rays of the Sun. This condition is called winter the Earth is at a distance of 152 million km. solstice. l There are two positions of the Earth that occur on March Motion of the Earth 21 and September 23, when the Equator receives the vertical rays of the Sun and day and night are equal all over the The Earth has two types of motions: world. 1. Rotation l These positions are known as equinoxes. The vernal 2. Revolution or Annual Movement equinox occurs on March 21 and the autumnal equinox on September 23.

4 l Geography Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes

l Globe is a true model (miniature form) of the Earth. on all latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer and the l To locate any particular place on the globe we need certain Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the points of reference and lines. maximum heat and is called the Torrid Zone. l It can be noticed that a needle is fixed through the globe in l The mid-day Sun never shines overhead on any latitude a tilted manner which is called its axis. Two points on the beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. globe through which the needle passes are two poles – l The angle of the Sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards North Pole and South Pole. the poles. As such, the areas bound by the Tropic of l The Earth moves around its axis, which is an imaginary Cancer and the Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, line. Another imaginary line running on the globe divides and by the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in it into two equal parts. This line is known as the equator. the Southern Hemisphere, have moderate temperatures. l The northern half of the Earth is known as the Northern These are, therefore, called Temperate Zones. Hemisphere and the southern half is known as the l Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole Southern Hemisphere. Latitude is the angular distance of in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and a point on the Earth’s surface. the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere, are very cold. l All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are The Sun does not rise much above the horizon here. Its called parallels of latitude. Latitudes are measured in rays are always slanting. So, these areas are called Frigid degrees. The equator represents the zero degree latitude. Zones. Longitudes

l In order to locate any place precisely, we must find out K how or west these places are from a given line of reference running from the North Pole to the South Pole. These lines of reference are called the meridians of longitude. l Meridians are semi-circles and the distance between them decreases steadily polewards until it becomes zero at the poles, where all the meridians meet. l Unlike parallels of latitude, all meridians are of equal length. The meridian which passes through Greenwich, where the British royal observatory is located, is called KUNDANthe Prime Meridian. Its value is 0° longitude and from it we count 180° eastward as well as 180° westward. l The Prime Meridian divides the Earth into two equal halves — the and the . Important Parallels of Latitude l Local time can be reckoned by the shadow cast by the Sun, which is the shortest at noon and the longest at Besides the equator (0°), there are four important parallels of sunrise and sunset. At any place a watch can be adjusted latitude: to read 12 o’clock when the Sun is at the highest point in (i) Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern Hemisphere. the sky, i.e. when it is mid-day. The time shown by such a (ii) Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern watch will give the local time for that place. Hemisphere. l When the Prime Meridian of Greenwich has the Sun at the (iii) Arctic Circle at 66½° north of the equator. highest point in the sky, all the places along this meridian (iv) Antarctic Circle at 66½° south of the equator. will have mid-day or noon. l As the Earth rotates from west to east, those places east Heat Zones of the Earth of Greenwich will be ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and those to the west will be behind it. l The mid-day Sun is exactly overhead at least once a year

Geography l 5 l The rate of difference can be calculated as follows. The l In , the longitude of 82½° E (82° 30’E) is treated as Earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which means 15° an the standard meridian. The local time at this meridian is hour or 1° in four minutes. taken as the standard time for the whole country. It is l Longitudes have one very important function, i.e. they known as the Indian Standard Time (IST). determine local time in relation to GMT. l Indian standard time is 5.30 hours ahead of GMT. Note: Some countries have a great longitudinal extent and so they have adopted more than one standard time. For example, in Russia, there are as many as eleven standard times. The United States uses nine Standard Time Zones. l The Earth has been divided into twenty-four time zones of one hour each. Each zone thus covers 15° of longitude. International Date Line

l 180° East and 180° West meridians are the same line which is called International Date Line. l It is the longitude where the dates change by exactly one day when it crossed. l A traveller crossing the dateline from east to west loses a day and while crossing the dateline from west to east he gains a day. l The International Date Line in the mid Pacific curves from the normal 180° meridian at the , Fiji, Tonga and other islands to prevent confusion of the day and Standard Time date in some of the island groups that are cut through by the meridian. l KStandard Time is the local time of the Standard Meridian of a country.

Interior of the Earth

l The Earth is an oblate spheroid. The earth’s radius is 6370 l In the Inner Crust, the constituents are Silica and km with average density being 5.5. It is composed of a Magnesium. It is a layer of basalt rock. The constituents KUNDANnumber of different layers as determined by deep drilling are collectively known as SIMA (Silica+ Magnesium). The and seismic evidence. These layers are: average mean density of SIMA is 3 g/cm3. The Crust The Mantle l This is the uppermost and thinnest layer of the Earth. Its l The mantle is almost 2900 km thick and comprises about average depth is up to 33 km. 83% of the Earth’s volume. l In continental area the thickness of the crust is around 40 l The upper portion of the mantle is called Asthenosphere km while the oceanic crust is only 5-10 km thick. (extending up to 400 km). l The crustal part of the Earth is also called Lithosphere. It l It is the main source of magma. comprises two distinct parts: Outer Crust and Inner l It has a density higher than that of the crust (3.4 g/cm3). Crust. l The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called l The outer thinner part of the Earth crust is composed of Lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10 to 200 km. sedimentary rocks. In the Outer Crust, the main l The mantle is believed to have been formed largely of constituents are Silica and Aluminum whose mean average silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium. density is 2.7 g/cm3 and which is collectively called SIAL (i.e. Silica+ Aluminum).

6 l Geography The core solid state. In the outer core, however, the pressure is lesser and the matter is in a liquid state. l Beyond the mantle, the inner part of the Earth is called its Major Elements in the Earth’s Crust core. Element By Weight (%) l It is made mainly of Nickel and Iron, also called NIFE (Nickel Oxygen 46.10 - Ni + Ferrum - Fe). Silicon 28.20 l The core is also divided into two parts: outer core and Aluminium 8.23 inner core. Iron 5.63 l The outer core extends from 2900 km to 5150 km. It is in Calcium 4.15 liquid state. Sodium 2.36 l Beyond 5150 km to the centre is called the inner core. It is Magnesium 2.33 in solid state due to extreme pressure. In this part the Others 3.00 gases are found in solid state. l The density and temperature of the core are 13 g/cm3 and Major Elements on Whole Earth 5500 °C respectively. Element By Weight (%) l The temperature inside the Earth increases with depth. Iron 35 Experiments have confirmed that the temperature increases Oxygen 30 at the rate of 1°C for every 32 metres. Silicon 15 l At this rate of increase, all the matter at the core should Magnesium 13 have been in a molten state, but since the pressure at such Nickel 2.4 great depths is also very high, the melting point is higher Sulphur 1.9 than the prevalent temperature and the inner core is in a Calcium 1.1 K Aluminium 1.1 Rocks and Minerals

l Rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals On the basis of their mode of formation, rocks are mainly and/or mineraloids. The Earth’s outer solid layer, the categorised into three families. These are: lithosphere, is made of rocks. Rocks may be hard or soft (i) Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava; and of various colours. For example, granite is hard, (ii) Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black and quartzite can be fragments of rocks by exogenous processes; milky white. (iii) Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks l The scientific study of rocks is called petrology. undergoing recrystallisation. l KUNDAN Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks. Igneous Rocks Minerals are of different hardness; ten minerals are selected to measure the degree of hardness from 1-10. These are: l These rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification Minerals Hardness of molten magma from the interior of the Earth. Talc 1 l They are the ancestors of all other rocks and make up 85% Gypsum 2 of the Earth’s crust. Calcite 3 l They are relatively hard and do not allow water to percolate. Fluorite 4 Minerals of great economic value are found in these, e.g. Apatite 5 Iron, Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Chromites, Manganese, Feldspar 6 Gold, Diamond and Platinum. Quartz 7 Examples of igneous rocks are basalt, dolerite, granite, Topaz 8 feldspar. Corundum 9 l Batholiths: These are gigantic masses of igneous rocks Diamond 10 that usually lie below the surface of the Earth. They are chiefly composed of granite. Ex: Idaho batholith of USA

Geography l 7 Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks l Rocks formed on the surface of the Earth due to the erosion l The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. It is the and deposition of igneous and metamorphic rocks are change of form or re-crystallization of minerals under the known as sedimentary rocks. These are also known as influence of high temperature and pressure within the stratified rocks because of their layers. earth’s crust. l They comprise only about 5% of the earth’s crust but l These are hardest rocks and do not contain fossils. cover 75% of the total land surface. Important Metamorphic rocks l Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks Basic rocks Metamorphosed are classified into three major groups: Limestone Marble 1. Mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, Sandstone Quartzite limestone, shale, loess, clay, gravels, alluvium etc. Shale/Clay Slate/Schist 2. Organically formed— geyserites, chalk, limestone, Granite Gneiss coal, coral, petroleum etc. Gabbro Serpentine 3. Chemically formed — Dolomite, rock salt, borax, chert, Amphibblite Basic granulite limestone, halite, potash, gypsum, nitrates etc. Basaltic rock Eclogite Note: Most of the petroleum of the world occurs in sedimentary Coal Graphite rocks. K Landform Development The earth’s surface has a distinct shape and origin. Its Ex: The , the Alps, Great dividing range of landforms may be of any of the following three orders: , Rockies and Andies. 1. First order: and ocean basins Note: The in India is one of the oldest fold 2. Second order: Mountains, plateaus and plains mountain systems in the world. 3. Third order: Lakes, rivers, valleys, gorges, waterfalls, l The Indian tectonic plate split from the ancient moraines, sand dunes, etc. of Gondwanaland. The collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate created the Himalaya mountain. Major Types of Landform l Block Mountains are created when large areas are broken and displaced vertically. The uplifted blocks are termed as Mountains Horsts and the lowered blocks are called Graben or Rift KUNDANValley; eg the Black Forest (Germany) and the Vosges in A mountain is any natural elevation of the Earth surface France forming the Rift Valley of the Rhine. rising more or less abruptly to a summit, and attaining an l Volcanic Mountains: They are the result of the altitude greater than that of a hill. accumulation of volcanic material if elevated from the bowls In some mountains, there are permanently frozen rivers of of the Earth. Hence, they are also known as ‘Mountains of ice. These are called glaciers and there are some mountains Accumulation’. not visible as they are under the sea. Ex: Mt Kilimanjaro in and Mt Fujiyama in Japan. The study of mountains is known as orology. l Residual Mountains: The agents of denudation such as There are four types of mountains: wind, rain, frost and running water ceaselessly wear away 1. Fold Mountains the soft rocks of high mountains, leaving behind the harder 2. Block Mountains rocks as remains. These are the Residual Mountains. 3. Volcanic Mountains Note: The Residual mountains are formed out of the existing 4. Residual Mountains mountains — folded, block or volcanic. l Fold Mountains: Mountains which have been thrown into Ex: Nilgiris, Parasnath, Girnar and the Rajmahal Hills massive folds by the Earth movements are known as Fold in India, Sierras of Spain and Cotskill Mountain of Mountains. Most of the mountains on the Earth are Fold New York. Mountains.

8 l Geography Major Mountain Ranges of the World Kyzyl Kum Uzbekistan Range Location Dasht-e-Lut Iran Mojave California (USA) Himalayas-Karakoram-Hindukush South Central Argentina Rub-al-Khali Rockies 2 Great Dividing Range East Australia Note: Sahara (84,00,000 km ) is the largest desert and Great 2 Western Ghats Western India Australian desert (15,50,000 km ) is the next largest. , Asia Islands Alaska USA Alps Europe An island is a part of land surrounded by water bodies. On Apennines Europe the basis of their origin, islands are divided into five Asia categories: 1. Tectonic Islands: These kinds of islands originate due to Plateaus submergence of land blocks, emergence of oceanic crust Plateaus are extensive areas characterised by flat and rough above sea level, etc, when a tectonic movement takes place top surface as well as steep side walls which rise above the on the Earth. Many islands in the Atlantic and the Pacific neighbouring ground surface at least 300 metres. The height Ocean have been formed by this process. of plateaus often varies from a few hundred metres to several 2. Depositional Islands: Such islands are formed due to thousand metres. deposition of debris by various natural agencies such as l Plateaus, like mountains, may be young or old. The Deccan rivers, glaciers and oceanic currents. Plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus. The East 3. Erosional Islands: Soft rocks are eroded easily but relatively African Plateau in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda and the hard rocks remain as islands. For example, Greenland has Western Plateau of Australia are other examples. been formed by glacial erosion. l The Plateau of Pamir in Tibet is the highest plateau in the 4. Volcanic Islands: Lava outflow through oceanic ridge is worldK with a height of 4,000 to 6,000 metres above the sea sometimes so enormous that it appears above sea level level. and looks like an island. Such islands are called volcanic l Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in mineral islands; e.g Hawaii island and Aleutian island deposits. As a result, many of the mining areas in the 5. Coral Islands: These types of island are formed due to world are located in the plateau areas. The African plateau deposition of skeletons of lime-secreting organisms called is famous for gold and diamond mining. coral polyps; eg Lakshadweep and the Maldives in the l In India, huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese are and Bermuda islands in the Atlantic ocean. found in the Chhotanagpur plateau. Largest Islands of the World Deserts Island Location Area (sq km) Greenland 2,175,000 Major deserts Location New Guinea West Pacific 789,900 SaharaKUNDANNorth Africa Ocean Australia Australia (includes Barberton, Borneo Indian Ocean 751,000 Gibson, Great Victoria, Great Sandy, Sturt Stony) (Largest in Indian Ocean) Arabian Arab countries (includes Saudi Madagascar Indian Ocean 587,041 Arabia, Syria, Nefud , Baffin Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 5,07,451 Yemen) Sumatra, Indonesia Indian Ocean 4,22,200 Gobi Mongolia & China Honshu, Japan Northwest Pacific Kalahari Botswana (Africa) 2,30,092 Taklamakan China Great Britain North Atlantic 2,29,849 Sonora USA & Mexico Victoria Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 2,17,290 Namib Namibia Ellesmere Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 1,96,236 Karakum Turkmenistan Thar India and Straits Somali Somalia Straits join two different water bodies and separate two Atacama Chile landmasses. These are area of commercial and strategic

Geography l 9 importance. Berring, Gibraltar, Bab-el-Mandeb, Bosphorus There are railway tunnels which join landmasses through and Torres are straits which separate continents. straits like Tsugaru (Honshu and Hokkaido) and Dover (Britain Gibraltar is known as the ‘key to the ’. and France).

Major straits of the world Name Joins Location 1. Malacca Strait Andaman Sea & South China Sea Indonesia-Malaysia 2. Palk Strait Palk Bay & Bay of Bengal India-Sri Lanka 3. Sunda Strait Java Sea & Indian Ocean Indonesia 4. Yucatan Strait Gulf of Mexico & Sea Mexico-Cuba 5. Mesina Strait Mediterranean Sea Italy-Sicily 6. Otranto Strait Adriatic Sea & Ionian Sea Italy-Albania 7. Bab-el-Mandeb Strait Red Sea & Gulf of Aden Yemen-Djibouti 8. Cook Strait S New Zealand (N & S Islands) 9. Mozambique Strait Indian Ocean Mozambique-Madagascar 10. North Channel Irish Sea & Atlantic Ocean Ireland-England 11. Taurus Strait Arafura Sea & Gulf of Sea Papua New Guinea-Australia 12. Bass Strait Tasman Sea & South Sea Australia 13. Bering Strait Bering Sea & Chuksi Sea Alaska-Russia 14. Bonne-Fasio Strait Mediterranean Sea Corsika-Sardinia 15. Bosporus Strait Black Sea and Marmara Sea Turkey 16. Dardanelles Strait Marmara Sea and Agean Sea Turkey 17. Davis Strait Baffin Bay & Atlantic Ocean Greenland-Canada 18. Denmark Strait N Atlantic and Arctic Ocean Greenland-Iceland 19. Dover strait English Channel & North Sea England-France 20.KFlorida Strait Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean USA-Cuba 21. Hormuz Strait Gulf of Hudson & Atlantic Ocean Oman-Iran 22. Hudson Strait Gulf of Hudson & Atlantic Ocean Canada 23. Gibraltar Strait Mediterranean Sea & Atlantic Ocean Spain-Morocco 24. Magellan strait Pacific and S Atlantic Ocean Chile 25. Makassar Strait Java Sea & Celebeze Sea Indonesia 26. Tsungaru Strait Japan Sea and Pacific Ocean Japan (Hokkaido-Honshu Island) 27. Tatar Strait Japan Sea & Okhotsk Sea Russia (E Russia-Sakhalin Islands) 28. Foveaux Strait S Pacific Ocean New Zealand (South Island-Stewart Island) 29.KUNDANFormosa Strait S China Sea & E China Sea China-Taiwan Important Lakes of the World Largest in Specific Terms Name Countries (a) Volume of fresh water Baikal Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan (b) Freshwater lake Superior Superior USA-Canada (c) Highest navigable lake Titicaca Victoria Uganda-Kenya-Tanzania (d) Deepest lake Baikal Kazakhstan-Azerbaijan (e) Saltiest lake Don Juan Huron USA-Canada (f) Lowest lake Dead Sea Michigan USA (g) Meteoric Crater lake (India) Lonar (in Maharashtra) Tanganyika Burundi-Tanzania-Zambia-Zaire Baikal Russia Great Bear Canada Nyasa Tanzania-Mozambique-Malawi Great Slave Canada Erie USA-Canada Winnipeg Canada Ontario USA-Canada

10 l Geography Volcanoes and Earthquakes

Volcanoes Earthquakes

A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet’s surface or l Any sudden movement of a portion of the earth’s crust crust which allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape due to a natural cause, which produces a shaking or from below to the surface. Volcanic activity involving the trembling, is known as an earthquake. extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like l The science of earthquake is known as seismology. mountains over a period of time. The molten rock material l The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by the within the Earth, together with whatever gases it may contain, seismograph. is called magma. After it rises to the surface, it is spoken of as l The place within the Earth where the vibrations originate lava. is called the seismic focus of the earthquake. Volcanoes have been traditionally differentiated into l The point on the earth’s surface which is vertically above active, dormant and extinct. the focus is called the epicentre. l An active volcano is a volcano which erupts periodically. Ex.: Vesuvius in Italy, Strombali in Italy, Mauna Loa in Earthquake Waves Hawaii, Etna in Sicily (Italy), Mt Cameroon in Africa. Earthquakes generate pulses of energy called seismic waves Cotapaxi in Ecuador, Mt Guallatiri in Chile and Ojos del that can pass through the entire Earth. Three major divisions Salado in Argentina. of seismic waves have been recognised: Note: 1. Mt Ojos del Salado: It is the most active volcano of 1. Primary (P) Waves, of short wavelength and high the world . frequency, are longitudinal waves which travel through 2. Mt Stromboli: It is known as the “lighthouse of the all the mediums, including solid, liquid and gaseous. Their Mediterranean”. average velocity is 8 km/sec. l AK dormant volcano means a “sleeping” volcano. These 2. Secondary (S) Waves, of short wavelength and high volcanoes have shown no sign of activity for many years frequency, are transverse waves which travel through all but they may become active any time. the solid parts of the Earth but not the through the liquid Ex: Fujiyama in Japan, Krakatoa in Indonesia, and Barren part of the core. Their average velocity is 4 km/sec. Island in the Andamans. 3. Long (L) Waves, of long wavelength and low frequency, l An extinct volcano is dead and unlikely to errupt in near are confined to the skin of the earth’s crust, thereby future. causing most of the earthquake’s structural damage. These Ex.: Mt Kilimanjaro in Kenya , Mt Warning in Australia, waves can travel through all the mediums (solids, liquids Mt Popa in Myanmar, Mt Aconcagua (highest extinct and gases). Their average velocity is 3 km/sec. volcanic mountain) in Argentina, Malagasy island in the l The magnitude of earthquakes is measured on the Richter IndianKUNDAN Ocean, and Mt Pelee in the . Scale, invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934. l More than 1500 potentially active volcanoes dot the l The Richter magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale Earth’s landscape, of which approximately 500 are active (base 10). What this means is that for each whole number at any given time. you go up on the Richter Scale, the amplitude of the ground l The Pacific (circum-Pacific belt) has nearly motion recorded by a seismograph goes up ten times. 60% of the total active volcanoes. This region is also prone l The intensity of the earthquake is also measured on to seismic activities (earthquake). Mercalli Scale invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902. l Volcanic soil is very fertile. This scale uses the observations of the people who l Yellow Stone National Park (USA) has the world’s largest experienced the earthquake to estimate its intensity. number of natural springs and geysers. It is known for the Tsunami: A tsunami is a series of waves that are created Old Faithful geyser. when a large volume of a body of water, such as an ocean, is l Barren Island, lying east to the Andaman Island, is the rapidly displaced. Tsunami is a Japanese term which is literally only confirmed active volcano in India. translated into “great harbour wave”. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions, landslides, asteroid impacts, and other mass movements above or below water, all have the potential to generate a tsunami.

Geography l 11 Climatology

Climatology is the branch of science which deals with the l Clouds and various forms of condensation and study of atmospheric components and their characteristics. precipitation occur due to water vapour. Atmosphere Structure of the Atmosphere The atmosphere consists of various concentric layers of air Structure and composition of atmosphere with varying density and temperature. Density is the highest l The thick gaseous layer which surrounds the Earth and is near the surface of the Earth and decreases with increasing sustained by the Earth’s gravity is known as the altitude. atmosphere. On the basis of vertical distribution of temperature, the l The height of the atmosphere is about 16-29 thousand atmosphere can be divided into the following layers: kilometres (according to Strahaller). However, it is 1. Troposphere estimated that 97 per cent of the atmospheric composition l The troposphere is the lowest and most dense layer of the lies within 29 km. atmosphere. It contains almost 75 % of the total weight of l The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of various air. component particles, which include gaseous molecules, l The average height of the troposphere from the Earth’s water vapour and particulates. surface is about 14 km. It extends roughly to a height of 8 Composition of atmospheric air km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. l The thickness of the troposphere at the equator is the Various Gases Volume in % greatest because heat is transported to a great height by 1. Nitrogen 78.8% strong conventional currents. Due to these it is also known 2. KOxygen 20.93 as the convectional layer. 3. Argon 0.93 l Due to the presence of dust particles and water vapour, 4. Carbon dioxide 0.036 almost all weather phenomena like fog, cloud, dew, frost, 5. Neon 0.018 rainfall, hailstorm, cloud-thunder, lightning, etc occur in 6. Helium 0.0005 this layer. 7. Ozone 0.00006 l The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C l Oxygen is an inflammable gas. Nitrogen dilutes Oxygen for every 165m of height. and hence controls the flammable characteristics of Note: Aviators of jet aeroplanes often avoid this layer due to Oxygen. [Oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at a the presence of bumpy air pockets. height of 120 km.] l There is a transition zone between Troposphere and l KUNDANCarbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. It is transparent for Stratosphere which is called Tropopause. solar radiation and opaque for outgoing terrestrial radiation. [Carbon dioxide and water vapour are found 2. Stratosphere only up to 92 km from the surface of the Earth.] l The stratosphere extends up to a height of 50 km beyond l Ozone absorbs most of the ultra-violet rays radiated from the troposphere. the Sun and thus prevents the Earth from becoming too hot. l In the lower part of this layer, i.e. up to a height of 20 km, [Found between 10 and 50 km above the Earth’s surface]. temperature remains constant. Afterwards, it gradually l Water vapour acts like a blanket for the Earth, allowing it increases up to a height of 50 km. neither to become too hot nor too cold. Because it absorbs l The maximum density of Ozone occurs between 20 km and parts of insulation from the Sun and also preserves the 35 km. Therefore it is called the ozone layer. earth’s radiated heat. l Clouds are almost absent in the stratosphere and there is l The sky appears blue due to selective scattering of solar very little dust or water vapour. Hence, it provides ideal radiation. flying conditions for large jet aeroplanes. l From the meteorological standpoint the solid particles are l In the uppermost part of stratosphere the temperature is more important. It is because many of them act as found up to 0°C. hygroscopic nucleii around which water vapour is l The upper limit of the stratopshere is called stratopause. condensed to produce water drops.

12 l Geography 3. Mesosphere called conduction. Transfer of heat by the management of l Beyond the stratosphere lies the mesosphere. It extends a mass or substance from one place to another is called up to 80 km from the stratosphere. convection. l Further, in this layer also, temperature is decreasing with Heat Budget increase in height and at the height of 80 km it stands up l The balance between the amount of insolation received to -100 oC. from the Sun and the outgoing terrestrial radiation is known l The uppermost part of this layer is known as mesopause. as the Earth’s heat budget. 4. Thermosphere The atmospheric layer beyond mesopause is known as Pressure Belts and Wind System thermosphere. In thermosphere, the temperature increases l The gases that comprise air create pressure through their rapidly with increase in height. motion, size, and number. This pressure is exerted on all Thermosphere is divided into two layers: surfaces in contact with the air. The atmosphere exerts an (i) Ionosphere average force of approximately 1 kg/cm2. l Ionosphere extends from 80 km to 400 km. l At sea level, under the influence of gravity, air is l Temperature rises in this layer rapidly and reaches up to compressed and is, therefore, denser near the Earth’s 1000 oC in its uppermost part. surface. It rapidly thins with increased altitude. l The radio waves transmitted from this layer are reflected l The air pressure is measured with the help of an instrument back to the Earth from this layer. known as barometer, which was developed by Torricelli. A more compact design that works without a metre-long (ii) Exosphere tube of mercury is called an aneroid barometer. l The uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond l The distribution of atmospheric pressure is shown on a the ionosphere above to a height of about 400 km is known map by isobars. as the exosphere. Note: An isobar is an imaginary line drawn through places l This layer is extremely rarefied and gradually merges with having equal atmopsheric pressure selected to sea level. the outer space. l The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76 l ThisK layer contains the atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and centimetres. helium. l The units used by meteorologists for this purpose is called Temperature of the Atmosphere millibars (mb). l One millibar is equal to the force of 1 gram on a centimetre. l Insolation is the incoming solar radiation. It is received in It will be called the weight of column of mercury 75 cm the form of short wave. The earth’s surface receives this height. radiant energy at the rate of two calories per square centimetres per minute (2 cal/cm2/minute). This is known Pressure Belts of the Earth as Solar Constant. (a) The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt: At the Equator Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere there is a broad discontinuous belt of low pressure. The Earth KUNDANreceives maximum heat in this region with the result that the l Air, like all other substances, may be heated in three ways: air is always hot and therefore becomes lighter. It is, therefore, Radiation, Conduction and Convection. a belt of rising air, calm and variable winds. It is also referred l Radiation is direct heating of a body or an object by to as the Doldrums. Though it is a region of calm, local transmission of heat waves. This is the only mechanism in thunderstorms occur frequently. which heat can travel through the emptiness of space. (b) The Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts: The two belts This is the most important way of transmission of heat. of sub-tropical highs, sometimes called the Horse Latitude, l Earth receives heat from solar radiation in the form of short lie just outside the Tropics at approximately 30° to 35° north waves and emits energy in the form of long waves, which is and south. They are caused by the piling up of the air due to called terrestrial radiation. the differences in the speed of rotation of the Earth which l The earth’s atmosphere is transparent to insolation but it affects the masses of air moving from the Equator and the is nearly opaque to long-wave terrestrial radiation since poles. The warm air rising up from the Equator blows at high gases such as water vapour and carbon dioxide are good level towards the Poles but a part of it, having cooled, absorbers of long wave radiation. descends in this region. The air blowing from the circum- l The atmosphere is therefore heated more by terrestrial polar low pressure belts also descends in this region, thus radiation than the incoming solar radiation. adding to the already high pressure existing in this region. l Transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity is

Geography l 13 On land it is the belt of deserts, widest in Africa and Asia Types of Wind where there is most land. Winds can be divided into three categories: N.P. 1. Planetary Winds: Planetary winds or prevailing winds that blow throughout the year from one latitude to another 60° in response to the latitudinal differences in air pressure. 2. Periodic Winds: Periodic winds reverse their direction periodically with seasons. For example, monsoon winds. 30° 3. Local Winds: There are certain winds in different parts of the world which flow in comparatively small areas and have special characteristics. These are called local winds and their 0° nomenclature is usually derived from the regional language. Planetary Winds Planetary winds blow over vast areas of the globe. The two 30° most prevalent planetary winds are Trade Winds and Westerly Winds. 60° 1. Trade Winds: The winds blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure belts to the equatorial low pressure belt. These winds are extremely steady and consistent throughout the year. (c) The Circum-Polar Low Pressure Belts (or Sub-Polar 2. The Westerlies: The winds blowing from the sub-tropical Lows) in the vicinity of 60° and 65° north and south are high pressure belts towards the sub-polar low pressure caused largely by the roation of the Earth. Ordinarily it should belts are known as Westerlies. be a high pressure belt because of very cool air. But the air is rising here and the envelope of air is thin chiefly because Periodic Winds rotation swings the bulk of the air towards the equator. Land and sea breeze come under this category. K(d) The High Pressure Belts at the Poles: Beyond the Land and Sea Breezes Sub-Polar Lows, pressure appears to rise with increasing latitudes, so that at the Poles themselves there are high l During the day, the greater heating of the land causes the pressure centres. These are probably caused by extreme cold air to ascend, causing a low pressure area over land and for cold air is dense and heavy. The polar have the cool heavy air from the sea moves in to take its place. permanent ice caps. This is Sea Breeze. l During the night, the land cools quickly so that it is colder Winds System than the sea. A low pressure area is caused over the sea and the cooler heavier air from the land begins to flow l The horizontal movement of air is called wind. It originates towards the sea. This is Land Breeze. due to a horizontal difference in air pressure that creates a KUNDANpressure gradient and air blows from high pressure to low Local Winds pressure areas. Some of the important local winds, their regions of occurrence, Note: The spacing of isobars expresses the rate and direction and their characteristics are given below: of pressure change and it is referred to as pressure l Blizzard (Greenland, Canada, and Antarctica): It is gradient. intensely cold, high wind accompanied by snowing. l The vertical or nearly vertical movement of air is referred l Bora (Adriatic Sea): It descends form the mountains to as air current. Winds and air currents together comprise during the winter season. It blows with a speed of 120 to a system of circulation in the atmosphere. 150 kmph. Its duration may be from three to five days. l Due to rotation of the Earth, winds do not cross the isobars l Brick fielder: It blows from the desert of Australia during at right angles as the pressure gradient force directs but get the summer season (December to February). deflected from their original path. This deviation is the result l Buran ( and ): It is a strong and cold of the Earth’s movements and is called the Coriolis force. north-easterly wind which reduces the temperature up to l According to Ferrel’s Law, the wind in the northern -30oC. hemisphere is deflected towards right hand side and in l Gibli: Blowing from the Sahara desert towards the southern hemisphere towards left hand side. This happens Mediterranean Sea in Libya, it is an extremely scorching due to higher rotating speed at the Equator in comparison local wind. It blows during the summer season. It may last to the Poles. from three to four days.

14 l Geography l Haboob (Sudan): It is a hot wind which blows during by any transverse relief barrier, A similar wind, Norte, summers. affects the coast of Mexico and . l Harmattan: In West Africa, the North-East trade winds l Papagayo: It is a type of dry, strong, cold North-East wind blow offshore from the Sahara Desert and reach the Guinea bringing low temperature and clear weather in winter to coast as a dry wind called the Harmattan. the coast of Mexico. l Karaburn (Tarim Basin-China): It blows from March to l Santa Ana: It is a hot and dry wind blowing from the North May and leads to hazy weather. It is also responsible for and North-East, descending from the Sierra Nevada across the deposition of loess in the Hwang Ho Valley. the deserts of south California. l Loo or hot wind (North-Western India): It blows from l Dust Devil: It is a short live swirling wind round a small April to June. Its temperature ranges between 45°C and low pressure nucleus which is the result of intense local 50°C, which is hot enough to cause sunstrokes. surface heating and convection. It whips up dust to form l Mistral (Rhone Valley of France): It is a cold wind which a rapidly moving pillar. It is found in Sahara, Kalahari, blows during winters with a speed of over 120 kmph. Grape central and western parts of the US and mid-west. orchards are adversely affected by it. l Karaburan: It is a strong dust-laden North-East wind in l Pampero (Pampas of Argentina): It is a cold and dry wind the Tarim basin of central Asia. which blows during the winter season. l Samoon (Iran and Kurdistan): It is a hot wind which blows Moisture in the Atmosphere during summer months. l Moisture in the atmosphere means the water vapour l Simmom (Saudi Arbia): It is a hot wind which blows from March to July. present in the atmosphere. Water may be present in the atmosphere in all the three forms of matter, viz. solid (ice), l Sirocco (Algeria): It blows from the Sahara desert towards Malta and Sicily during the months of April to July. It is liquid (water) and gas (vapour). generally hot and humid. It has other local names: Khamsin l Moisture or water in the atmosphere causes clouds to (Egypt), Chile (Tunisia), Sirocco ((Italy), Leveche (Spain). form, fog to cover the landscape, and humidity to thicken l Berg (Germany): It descends from the Alps Mountains. the air. It also causes rain, snow and hail. It helps in the melting of snow during the winter months. l ChinookK (snow and ice eater): It blows in Colorado, Clouds Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming (USA) l A cloud is a visible mass of droplet or frozen crystals and in Alberta, Manitoba, Mackenzie (Canada) between floating in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth December and March. Warm and dry, it helps in the melting or other planetary bodies. A cloud is also a visible mass of snow and ice. It is also known as ice eater. attracted by gravity. l Fohn (Foehn or Fon): It is the name given to the hot dry l The branch of meteorology in which clouds are studied is wind which blows down the leeward slope of a mountain. nephology or cloud physics. This is best known in the valleys of the northern Alps, for Clouds are classified into the following 10 categories by example, in Switzerland. the World Meteorological Organisation: l or Levanter: It is an easterly or North-East wind 1. Cirrus Clouds: These are high-altitude clouds. They are thatKUNDAN rises in the central Mediterranean or around the composed of tiny ice-crystals. Therefore they do not cause Balearic Islands and blows westwards, reaching its greatest rainfall. These clouds are seen first when cyclones arrive. intensity through the Strait of Gibraltar. 2. Cirro-Stratus Clouds: These clouds are generally white l Tramontana: It is a cold dry North or North-East wind in in colour and spread in the sky like thin sheets. These are the western . The name is applied transparent clouds and create a halo around the Sun and commonly to any wind blowing down from the mountains the moon. These are also an indicator of the arrival of as in Italy and Spain. cyclone. l Southerly Buster: It is a strong dry wind bringing usually 3. Cirro-Cumulus Clouds: These are white-coloured clouds low temperature. It is a dry bitterly cold wind bringing having patches of small globules which are arranged in especially low temperature in winter to parts of Argentina distinct groups or wave-like form. They generally appear and Uruguay. as ripples similar to sand ripples in the desert. l Friagem: It is a type of cold strong wind experienced on 4. Alto-Stratus Clouds: These are thin sheets of grey or the Pampas of Brazil and in East Bolivia. blue clouds having fibrous or uniform appearance. They l Northern Wind: It is cold, dry North winter wind bringing yield widespread and continued precipitation. low temperature to Texas and the Gulf Coast of the USA. It 5. Alto-Cumulus Clouds: These clouds are characterised is a form of polar outbreak where a cold air mass moves by white and gray wavy layers or globular forms. High south across the North American continent, unimpeded

Geography l 15 globular groups of alto-cumulus are sometimes called Forms of Precipitation sheep clouds or wool pack clouds. 6. Stratus Clouds: These are dense, low-lying fog-like clouds Precipitation includes rain, drizzle, snow, sheet and hail. A of dark grey colour, but are seldom close to the ground brief account of the different types of precipitation has been surface. given as under: 7. Cumulo-Stratus Clouds: These are grey and whitish- colour clouds. They are generally composed of globular Rain masses or rolls, which are arranged in lines, waves or l Rain is a type of precipitation. The liquid water particles groups. Generally they cover the entire sky in winter. They are in the form of either drops of more than 0.5 mm diameter are generally associated with fair or clean weather. or smaller widely scattered drops. 8. Cumulus Clouds: These are dense, widespread and dome- shaped clouds with flat bases. They are associated with Types of Rainfall fair or clean weather. 1. Relief (Orographical) Rainfall: This is the most wide- 9. Cumulo-Nimbus Clouds: These are thunderstorm clouds. spread form of rainfall. It occurs when mountains stand in the They are very dark and dense. They show great vertical path of moisture-laden winds and force them to rise. As the development and are spread over a large area. They are air rises, it expands and cools, and rain falls. Relief rainfall associated with heavy rainfall, hailstorm, thunder, etc. may often be heavy, especially where a high, continuous 10. Nimbo-Stratus Clouds: These are clouds of great vertical mountain barrier lies close to a coast and the rain-bearing development. They are low clouds of dark colour and close winds meet it at right angles. to the ground surface. They are associated with heavy 2. Convectional Rainfall: Where due to conduction the rainfall. air near the surface at any place becomes warmer than the surrounding air, it begins to rise in the form of convection Humidity currents. As it reaches the upper layers of the atmosphere, it cools and rain falls. l Humidity is a measure of the water vapour content of the l Convection currents are normally set up in the atmosphere air. The amount of water vapour in the air depends on the as a result of local heating. The currents rise up at the centre controls over evaporation, i.e. depends upon temperature. K and are drawn up at the sides. The very rapid rising of the If the temperature rises then air can hold more water vapour. warm moist air results in the formation of cumulo-nimbus l Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given clouds, which may be several kilometres in depth and may temperature is said to be saturated (when relative humidity give very heavy rain, but the rainfall does not last long. We is 100%). The temperature at which saturation occurs is speak of it as thunder-showers rather than thunder rain. known as dew point. l Convectional rainfall is common within the tropics, There are several ways in which humidity of air can be especially in the equatorial belt, where it occurs almost expressed: every day in the afternoons. 1. Absolute Humidity: The actual amount of water vapour in 3. Cylonic Rainfall: It is associated with a cyclonic a given volume of air at a particular temperature is called circulation. The cyclonic rainfall is more effective for absolute humidity. agriculture as the process of run-off is slow. 2. KUNDANRelative humidity: The ratio of the absolute humidity of a given mass of air to the maximum amount of water vapour Snow it can hold at the same temperature is called relative humidity. l It is a precipitation of white and opaque grains of snow. In 3. Specific humidity: Specific humidity is the weight of water other words, snow is precipitation of solid water. vapour per unit weight of air, expressed as grams per l Generally, in winter season, when temperatures are below kilogram of air. freezing point, the ice crystals falling from the alto-stratus clouds do not melt and reach the ground as snow. Fog Sleet Fog is the dense mass of small water drops on smoke or dust particles in the lower layers of the atmosphere. It is essentially l Sleet is a type of precipitation in the form of a mixture of a cloud on the surface of the Earth. A fog will arise also when rain and snow. It is frozen rain which forms when rain, a warm damp current of air passes over a cold surface. while falling to the earth, passes through a layer of very Precipitation cold air mass or freezes. In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the l Sometimes sleet may grow into hailstorms when violent condensation of atmospheric water vapour that is deposited vertical currents are produced in the atmosphere. on the earth’s surface.

16 l Geography Hail anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in Southern Hemisphere. l Hail consists of the hard pellets of ice which fall from l Tropical cyclones have diameters of 100 to 500 kilometres. cumulo-nimbus clouds and are often associated with These are known by different names in different regions, thunderstorms. They are of various shapes and sometimes such as: they have been known to weigh nearly 1 kg. A severe hail- (i) Hurricanes: These are tropical storms in West Indies storm can cause great damage to growing crops. and Gulf of Mexico which usually occur in August- Dew September. These may bring thunderstorm and torrential rain. Wind blows at 160 to 180 kmph. Dew is the moisture deposited on the earth’s surface, or on (ii) Typhoons: These are tropical storms in the China Sea objects near to the earth’s surface such as blades of grass along the coast of China and Japan. These are similar and small bushes. It occurs at night under calm, clear to Hurricanes of USA, which may bring thunderstorm conditions when radiation from the ground has cooled the and torrential rain. The winds blow at a speed of 160 to lower layers of the atmosphere below the Dew Point and the 180 kmph. water vapour has condensed into drops. Calm weather and a (iii)Cyclones: These are tropical low pressure systems clear sky provide the best conditions for production of dew. occuring on the Indian coast in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. These whirl with a wind speed of 280 to Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones 300 kmph. These also bring thunderstorm and rain. (iv)Willy-Willy: These are tropical storm which originate Cyclones in the coast of North-West Australia. (v) Tornadoes: These are also called Twisters in the USA. Cyclones and anti-cyclones are known as variable winds. A These are very intense and occur in Mississippi- cyclone is a dynamically or thermally caused low pressure Missouri basin in the USA. These are accompanied area of converging and ascending air flow, while an anti- by dark funnel-shaped clouds. Winds are very violent cyclone is a dynamically or thermally caused area of high with speed of 350 to 500 kmph. These are most intense atmospheric pressure with descending and diverging air flow. cyclones. CyclonesK originate as a wave along a front separating two masses of air differing in temperature, density and direction. Anti-cyclones They bring rain because in a cyclone the warm moist air is made to rise over a mass of cold heavier air. An anti-cyclone is an area of high atmospheric pressure A cyclone is always on the move and follows in the which goes on diminishing outward from the centre. The direction of the regular wind system in the particular area. winds are usually light and blow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere). l Cyclones are low pressure zones surrounded by high pressure zones. Air moves inward from high to low pressure The anti-cyclones do not move in any definite direction. zone and, under the influence of Coriolis force, whirrs The weather associated with anticyclones is mainly fine KUNDANand dry in summer. Oceanography

The oceanic part of the Earth is divided into four oceans: excess during summers and daytime and repaying back 1. The Pacific Ocean 2. The Atlantic Ocean during nights and winters. 3. The Indian Ocean 4. The Arctic Ocean l Because of their surface area, the seas receive almost 71 The various seas, bays, gulfs and other inlets are parts of per cent of all incoming Sun energy. these four large oceans. l The seas are much warmer in equatorial latitudes than in polar latitudes. Oceans and Seas l Bromine and Sulphur, which are otherwise rare on land, can be abundantly sourced from oceans. l The oceans comprise more than 70% of the earth’s l Polymetallic nodules of copper, magnesium and cobalt are surface. also found on the sea floor. l They act as savings bank for solar energy, storing the l There are over 90 different possible ways to obtain energy

Geography l 17 from oceans. Prominent among them are wave energy, wind l The deepest is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific, about energy and tidal energy. 10,800 m below sea level. Relief of the Ocean Floor Ocean Reliefs l The floors of the oceans are rugged with the world’s largest mountain ranges, deepest trenches and largest plains. The Pacific Ocean l A proper mapping of the ocean bottom has been possible l This ocean is the largest of all the water bodies. Together by the indirect measurement of ocean depth with the help with its associated seas, it covers about one-third of the of SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging). earth’s surface and exceeds the total land area of the world In general, ocean floors can be divided into four major in size. divisions: l Its shape is roughly triangular with its apex in the north at 1. The Continental Shelf 2. The Continental Slope the Bering Strait. 3. Deep Sea Plain 4. Ocean Deeps l The Pacific is the deepest of all oceans. l The major portion of the basin has an average depth of Continental Shelf about 7,300 metres. l It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average l This vast ocean is dotted with more than 20,000 islands. gradient of 1° or even less. l The Northern Pacific is the deepest part of the ocean. l It is the seaward extension of the continent from the l The Mariana trench is more than 10,000 metres deep. It is shoreline to the continental edge. the world’s deepest and is also known as Challenger l The shallowness of the shelf enables sunlight to penetrate Trench. through the water, which encourages growth of minute plants and other microscopic organisms. The Atlantic Ocean l Continental shelves are, thus, rich in plankton, on which l The Atlantic Ocean has the longest coastline. millions of surface and bottom-feeding fishes thrive. l It is the busiest Ocean for trade and commerce since its l KMarine food comes almost entirely from continental shipping routes connect the two most industrialised shelves. regions, namely and North-East USA. l Continental shelves are the richest fishing grounds in the l It is roughly half the size of the Pacific Ocean and covers world, e.g. the Grand Bank off Newfoundland, the Dogger about one-sixth of the earth’s total area. Bank of North Sea and the Sunda Shelf of South-East l It resembles the letter ‘S’ in shape. Asia. l The Hudson Bay, the Baltic Sea, and the North Sea are l The shelves are also potential mining sites for minerals. A located on the shelves. significant portion of the world production of petroleum l The most striking feature of the Atlantic Ocean is the and natural gas comes from them. presence of the mid-Atlantic Ridge. l The slope of the shelf is usually gentle, but beyond the l The Atlantic Ocean extends from the north to the south, 180-metre line it descends steeply to the bed of the ocean. paralleling the ‘S’ shape of the ocean itself. KUNDANThis line is called the continental edge. It represents the l There are some coral islands such as Bermuda and volcanic former boundary of the continents. islands like Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. l The Labrador current flows along part of east coast of Continental Slope Canada. It meets the warm Gulf Stream at the Grand l The steep slope which descends from the edge of the Banks southeast of Newfoundland and again north of continental shelf to the deep ocean bed is known as the the Outer Banks of North Carolina. The combination of continental slope. these two currents, one hot and the other cold, produces heavy fogs and also creates one of the richest fishing Deep Sea Plains grounds in the world. l The deep sea plains are wide and almost level areas forming most of the ocean floor. They are generally 3 to 5 km below The Indian Ocean sea level. l The two great bays on either side of the peninsula of India, namely, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, Ocean Deeps belong to the Indian Ocean. l In some places these plains plunge to great depths known l The Indian Ocean is dotted with thousands of small islands, as ocean deeps. Most of the deeps occur around the shores some of which are of coral formation, for example, the of the Pacific.

18 l Geography Maldives and Coco islands, while others like the Mauritius l Sri Lanka and Malagasy are continental islands. and the Reunions are volcanic. l The principal rivers draining into it are the Zambezi, the Indus, the Ganga and the Irrawaddy.

Deepest Sea Trenches SI. Name Ocean Deepest Point Depth (in m) 1. Mariana Trench West Pacific Challenger Deep 11,034 2. Tonga-Kermadec Trench South Pacific Vityaz 11 (Tonga) 10,850 3. Kuril-Kachatka Trench West Pacific — 10,542 4. Philippine Trench North Pacific Galathea Deep 10,539 5. Puerto Rico Trench West Atlantic Milwaukee Deep 8,648

Salinity & Temperature l The oceans in the Northern Hemisphere record relatively higher average temperature than in the Southern Hemisphere. Salinity l The maximum temperature of the oceans is always at their l The major characteristic feature of oceans and seas is surface because they directly receive the heat from the their salinity. Sun and the heat is transmitted to the lower sections of l The imaginary line joining the places of same salinity is the oceans through the process of convection. called isohaline. l The instrument with which salinity of the sea water is Coral Reefs measured is called salinometer. l Coral reefs are formed due to accumulation and l The salinity of the inland seas and lakes is very high solidification of skeletons of lime-secreting organism because of the regular supply of salt by the rivers falling known as coral polyps. into them. Their water becomes progressively more saline l Coral reefs are formed in the tropical seas (25°N to 25°S) dueK to evaporation. up to a depth of 200-300 ft along some islands or coasts l Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, on the submarine platforms, where the Sun’s rays reach. temperature, absorption of isolation, evaporation and l The ideal temperature for their growth is 20°-25°C. humidity. l High salinity and fresh water both are harmful for their Most Saline Water Bodies growth. Great Salt Lake (USA) Types of Coral reefs Dead Sea (West Asia) 1. Fringing Reef: Coral reefs developed along the coasts Lake Van (Turkey) are called fringing reefs. Examples: Gulf of Mannar (India), Composition of Sea Water Southern Florida (USA), etc. Of theKUNDAN total salt contents found in seawater, the most abundant 2. Barrier Reef: The coral reefs of the coastal platforms are salt is Sodium Chloride (NaCl) – about (78%). called barrier reefs. There is extensive but shallow lagoon Salt Percentage between the coastal land and the reef. Great Barrier Reef, Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 77.8 located parallel to the east coast of Australia, is the largest

Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) 10.9 of all the barrier reefs of the world. It stretches to a length

Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4) 4.7 of 1200 miles.

Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3.6 3. Coral Ring or Atoll: A ring of narrow-growing corals of

Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4) 2.5 horseshoe shape is called atoll. It is generally found around Others 0.5 an island or in elliptical form on a submarine platform. There is a lagoon in the middle of the coral ring. Examples: Temperature Fiji Atoll, Funafuti Atoll, etc. l The temperature decreases according to the increasing depth of the ocean. Currents of Oceans l On an average, the temperature of surface water of the l Ocean currents can broadly be divided into two classes: 0 oceans is 26.7 C and the temperature gradually decreases warm currents and cold currents. from the Equator towards the Poles. l Generally, the currents flowing from the equator to the

Geography l 19 poles are warm and those flowing from the poles to the Falkland Current Cold equator are cold. Benguela Current Cold l Another point to remember is that the Coriolis force caused Currents of Indian Ocean by the rotation of the Earth results in ocean currents Current Nature following curved paths. Mozambique Warm l Sargasso Sea, situated between 20°-40° N and 35°-75° W, Agulhas Warm is a sea surrounded by currents, i.e. it does not have any S-W Monsoon Current Warm and unstable coast. This is the warmest and most saline part of the N-E Monsoon Current Cold and unstable Atlantic Ocean. Somali Current Cold and unstable Currents of Pacific Ocean West Australian Cold and Stable Current Nature South Indian Ocean Current Cold Kuroshio Warm Oyashio or Kuril Cold Tides Okhotsk Cold Alaskan Warm l Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the California Cold combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by East Australian Warm the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. The Peruvian/Humboldt Cold sea wave tides are also called tidal waves. Counter Equatorial Warm l The sea water rises regularly twice a day at constant South Equatorial Warm intervals. El Nino Warm l The Moon exerts the strongest influence on tides because Antarctica Cold of its closeness to Earth. North Equatorial Warm l Spring tides: They are the high tides when the Moon, the Earth and the Sun are in a straight line. They occur during Currents of Atlantic Ocean the new moon and the full moon. KCurrent Nature l Neap tides: The position is in quadrature, i.e. the Sun, the Gulf Stream Warm Earth and the Moon are in a right angle. They occur during Florida Warm the moon’s first and third quarter. The gravitational forces North Atlantic Drifts Warm of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to one another Norwegian Current Warm (with respect to the Earth) and thus low tide is formed. Irminger Current Warm Rennell Current Warm Facts about Tides Labrador Current Cold (i) It takes 24 hours and 52 minutes for the rotating Earth Canary Current Cold to bring the same meridian vertically below the Moon Eastern Greenland Current Cold everyday. Hence, tides occur at regular intervals of 12 South Equatorial Current Warm hours and 26 minutes. KUNDANBrazilian current Warm (ii) Generally, tides occur twice a day. But Southampton, Antilles Current Warm along the southern coast of England, experiences tides South Atlantic Drifts Cold four times a day.

Biomes

A biome is often referred to as a global-scale community of biomes of the world have been divided into the following five plants and animals and is the largest subdivision of the categories: biosphere. It may contain various smaller ecosystems. 1. Forest Biome 2. Savanna Biome Major biomes of the world 3. Grassland Biome 4. Desert Biome On the basis of availability of soil, water and temperature, the 5. Tundra Biome

20 l Geography 1. Forest Biome (v) Mid-Latitude Deciduous Forests It is further divided into two broad groups and six sub-groups. l These forests are found in the colder coastal parts of the continents. These forests cover the parts of north-eastern A. Evergreen Forests USA, southern Chile etc. (i) Tropical Evergreen Rainforests l Major trees of these forests are oak, birch, walnut, maple, ash, chestnut etc. l Due to heavy rainfall and abundant heat throughout the year, very dense, high and most diverse forests are found (vi) Tropical Deciduous or Monsoon Forests in the equatorial and tropical coastal regions . l These forests cover the monsoon regions of Asia, Brazil, l The trees of these forests include mahogany, rosewood, Central America and Northern Australia. The regions and mangroves in the deltaic regions. Twelve per cent of covered with these forests have a distinct dry season the earth’s surface is covered with these forests. after which the rainfall occurs. l These are the most biologically diversified forests on the l Major trees of this biome are sal, teak, bamboo etc. Earth. l Major regions of these forests are , Congo 2. Savanna Biome basin, Guinea coast of Africa, Java and Sumatra. l Wet-dry tropical climate is found in this biome. This is a l In Brazil, these forests are called Selvas. parkland region dominated by grasslands. (ii) Mid-Latitude Evergreen Forests l Africa, India, Brazil and eastern Australia are the major regions where this biome is found. l These are the rainforests on the eastern coasts of the continents in the temperate regions. Note: Savanna is known as the natural zoo of the world. l Broad-leaf trees like oak, laurel, magnolia and eucalyptus 3. Grassland Biome are the major trees of these forests. l Major areas covered with these forests are southern China, This biome is further divided into two categories: Japan, southeast USA, southern Brazil etc. (i) Semi-Arid Continental Grasslands l These grasslands are called Veld in South Africa, Pampas (iii) Mediterranean Forests in Brazil and Steppe in North America, Europe and Russia. l TheseK forests are found on the western margin of the (ii) Mid-Latitude Wet Grasslands continents in the temperate regions, where rainfall generally l These are the regions of high and dense grass in wet occurs in winter season. temperate climate. l Major tree species of these forests are cork, oak, olive, l These are called Prairies in North America, Pampas in chestnut, pine etc. South America, Downs in Australia, Canterbury in New (iv) Coniferous Forests Zealand and Pustaz in Hungary. l They are also known as Taiga. 4. Desert Biome l These are the soft-wood tree forests found around the North Pole in the mountainous parts of Europe, Asia and l This biome is normally devoid of vegetation. Only short North America. shrubs, cacti, acacia and date trees are found here. l MajorKUNDAN trees of these forests are fur, hamlock, spruce, deodar, pine etc. The growth of these trees is restricted 5. Tundra Biome only to the summer season. l The only vegetation in this region is lichen, algae, moss B. Deciduous Forests and small herbs. l The people inhabiting this biome are called Eskimos.

Geography l 21 Agriculture

Major crops of the world and 3. Sericulture: Rearing of silk worms, including plantation of mulberry trees their producer countries 4. Horticulture: Production of various fruits 5. Oliviculture: Cultivation of olives Crops Producer countries 6. Arboriculture: Cultivation of various types of trees and 1. Rice China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, shrubs Vietnam, Thailand 7. Apiculture: Rearing of honeybees for the production 2. Wheat China, India, USA, Russia of honey 3. Barley Russia, Australia, Ukraine 8. Floriculture: Cultivation of various types of flowers 4. Oat Russia, Canada, USA 9. Silviculture: Activity related to the conservation and 5. Maize USA, China, Brazil, Mexico development of forests 6. Oil-Seeds USA, China, India 10. Vegiculture: It is the primitive type of agriculture 7. Soyabean USA, Brazil, China practised by the early man of south-eastern Asia 8. Sugarcane Brazil, India, China, Thailand 11. Olericulture: Cultivation of vegetables 9. Sugar beet France, Germany, USA 12. Mariculture: Raring of organisms (shrimps, oysters etc) 10. Tea China, India, Sri Lanka 13. Vermiculture: Rearing of earthworms 11. Coffee Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia 14. Moriculture: Cultivating of mulberry for silkworm 12. Cocoa Ivory Coast, Costa Rica, Ecuador 15. Aeroponics: Plantation of trees, without surface, in air 13. Cotton China, USA, India, Pakistan 16. Pomology: Science of fruits 14. Tobacco China, USA, India, Brazil 15. Rubber Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Major Products of Animal Husbandry KChina 16. Pulses India, Brazil and China Milk and Milk Products Shifting Cultivations of the World l India is the largest producer of milk and milk products. l Other producing countries of milk products: USA, Canada, Name Region Russia, Australia and New Zealand. 1. Ray Vietnam and Laos Meat 2. Caingin Philippines 3. Taungya Myanmar l Meat is mainly obtained from cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat 4. Tamrai Thailand and pig. 5. Chena Sri Lanka l Argentina, Australia and New Zealand are famous for their 6. KUNDANLadang Java and Malaysia meat production. 7. Humah Java and Indonesia Wool 8. Tavi Madagascar l Wool is obtained from sheep, goat, camel, llama etc. In 9. Roka Brazil terms of productivity and quality, wool obtained from sheep is the most important. Some Scientific Terms for Cultivation l Australia, New Zealand, Argentina and South Africa are 1. Viticulture: Cultivation of grapes important wool-producing countries of the world. 2. Pisciculture/Aquaculture: Breeding of fish l Best-quality wool is obtained from Merino.

22 l Geography World’s Resources

Mineral Resources Major mining centres l Mexico: Chihuahua, Hildaho 1. Iron ore l Canada: Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec l USA: Utah, Montana, Arizona, Colorado Main ores are magnetite, haemetite, limonite, siderite and Major producer countries pyrite. Mexico, Peru, USA, Australia Major mining centres l Ukraine: Magnetogorsk mountain and Kujnets 7. Tin l Brazil: Minas Gerais region (Itabira hills) Major mining centres l China: , Shantung and Xhansi l Malaysia: Salangore, Penang island, Jelubu valley l USA: Lake Superior region (Mesabi range) and Alabama l Indonesia: Banka, Malacca strait State l China: Yunnan, Hunnan Major producer countries Major producer countries China, Brazil, Australia, Russia, India China, Indonesia, Peru 2. Manganese 8. Lead Major mining centres Main ore: Galena l Georgia: Chiatura in Black Sea region Major mining centres l Brazil: Amapa region l Australia: Broken Hill, Mt Isa (Queensland) l Gabon: Maod mine l Canada: Sadburry l S Africa: Postmasburg region, Kimberley Major producer countries Major producer countries Australia, China, USA China,K South Africa, Gabon 9. Zinc 3. Copper Main ore: Calemine Major mining centres Major mining centres l Chile: Mt Chuquicamata l Australia: Broken Hill and Mt Isa l USA: Arizona state, Butte region of Montana state l Canada: British Columbia l Canada: Sudbury district of Ontario Major producer countries Major producer countries China, Australia, Canada Chile, USA, Indonesia, Australia 10. Diamond 4. Aluminium Major mining centres MainKUNDAN ore: Bauxite l South Africa: Kimberley (Johannesburg), Cape Town Major mining centres l Zaire: Katanga plateau l Australia: Cape York peninsula, Waipa region l India: Panna and Golconda mines l USA: Saline county region of Arakansas state Major producer countries Major producer countries (bauxite) Congo Republic, Botswana, South Africa Australia, China, Brazil, India 5. Gold Power Resources Major mining centres 1. Coal l South Africa: Johannesburg, Boksburg and Orange Free State, Kimberley Types: Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite, Peat, etc Major mining centres l USA: Salt Lake region and Alaska l USA: Appalachian coal region l Australia: Mount Morgan, Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie Major producer countries l China: Shansi, Shensi, Szechwan Basin China, South Africa, Austria, USA l Australia: New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria Major producer countries 6. Silver China, USA, India Main Ore: Argentite

Geography l 23 2. Petroleum Major producer countries Major mining centres Russia, USA, Canada l USA: Appalachian region, Gulf Coast region, California 4. Atomic minerals region Canada, USA, Zaire and South Africa are the major l Saudi Arabia: Dammam, Ghavar and Dhahran (oil refinery producers of atomic minerals. centre at Rasantura) Main source: Uranium and thorium l Kuwait: Burghan hill (World’s largest reserve) Major producer countries (Uranium) l Iran: Lali, Karamshah, Naffad Safid, Haft Khel, Gach Saaran l Canada: Uranium city near Lake Athabaska and Port l Venezuela: Maracaibo region, Orinoco basin and Apure Radium near Lake Great Bear basin l USA: Colarado plateau Major producer countries l S Africa: Witwatersrand hills Saudi Arabia, Russia, USA, Iran Major producer countries (Uranium) 3. Natural Gas l Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan Natural gas and petroleum are found in same places. However, Major producer countries (Thorium) natural gas is also found in independent form. l India, Turkey, Brazil, Australia

Major Industrial Centres of the World Country Industrial Centres Industry USA Pittsburgh (Steel Capital of the World) Iron & Steel Los Angeles (Hollywood) Films and Aircraft Chicago Meat Processing Detroit Automobiles San Francisco (Silicon Valley) Oil refineries, Computer & Technology industries, Ship-building KSeattle (Most important industrial region) Lumbering, Aluminium Smelting Canada Montreal Ships and Aircraft Ottawa Paper Hamilton (Bermingham of Canada) Iron & Steel, Engineering Toronto Engineering and Automobiles Birmingham Iron & Steel Britain Manchester Cotton textile Liverpool Ship-building and oil refining Bradford Woollen textile London Engineering and transport Derbyshire Woollen textile FranceKUNDANParis Aircraft and transport Lyon Village Iron & Steel Germany Dortmund Iron & Steel, Chemical Frankfurt Engineering & Transport Russia Moscow and Gorki Iron & Steel, Chemicals Magnitogorsk Iron & Steel, Oil refining Leningrad (St Petersburg) Textile, Chemicals, Paper Moscow-Ivanovo (Manchester of Russia) Cotton textile Ukraine Krivoy Rog-Rostogo Iron & steel, Heavy machinery Netherlands Rotterdam Marine Engineering, Ship-building Amsterdam Diamond polishing Denmark Copenhagen Dairy Italy Milan (Manchester of Italy) Silk textile Turin (Detroit of Italy) Automobiles Sweden Stockholm Ship-building Brazil Sao Paulo Textile, Coffee Rio de Janeiro Textile, Coffee

24 l Geography Argentina Buenos Aires Ship-building Chile Santiago Wine and liquor Venezuela Maracaibo Oil refining Morocco Casablanca Chemical industry Egypt Cairo and Alexandria Cotton textile Japan Nagoya (Detroit of Japan) Aircraft, Automobile and machinery Osaka (Manchester of Japan) Ships, Iron & Steel, Textile Kobe and Kyoto Ship-building, Iron & Steel, Textile Nagasaki Iron & Steel, Ship-building, Machinery Tokyo Engineering, Textile China Shanghai Textile, machinery Beijing Textile, machinery Anshan-Mukden (Pittsburgh of China) Iron & Steel Australia Vienna Glass Water Transport

Important Sea Routes waterway. Volga river drains into the Caspian Sea. Moscow region has been connected to this waterway 1. The Northern Atlantic Sea Route: It links North- through Volga-Moscow canal. Navigation is possible eastern USA and . It is the busiest up to Black sea through Volga-Don canal. sea route in the world and is called the Big Trunk Route. 2. Suez Canal: It is the largest canal of the world, 2. The Mediterranean–Indian Ocean Sea Route: This sea connecting Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea, where Kroute passes through the heart of the . Port navigation is possible. French engineer Ferdinard de Said, Aden, Mumbai, Colombo and Singapore are some Lasseps played an important role in constructing this of the important ports on this route. This trade route canal. Completed in 1869, it separates the lower part of connects the highly industrialised Western European the Nile basin and the Sinai Peninsula. The region with West Africa, South Africa, South-east Asia northernmost port on this canal is Port Said and the and the commercial agriculture and livestock economies southernmost port is Port Suez. In the middle, Port Faud, of Australia and New Zealand. Port Taufique and Ismailia are the important ports. This 3. The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route: This sea route is canal is 162 km long. In 1956, this canal was another important one across the Atlantic Ocean which nationalised by the Egyptian government. connects West European and West African countries 3. Panama Canal: This canal has been constructed by KUNDANwith Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay in South America. cutting across the Panama isthmus, connecting the 4. The North Pacific Sea Route: This sea route links the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. On the Pacific ports on the west coast of North America with those of coast is located the Panama port and on the Caribbean Asia. These are Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, San coast is located the Colon port. The 72-km-long canal Francisco and Los Angeles on the American side and shortens the distance between New York and San Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila and Francisco by 13,000 km by sea. Singapore on the Asian side. 4. Kiel Canal: This canal in Germany connects the North 5. The South Pacific Sea Route: This sea route connects Sea with the Baltic Sea. Western Europe and North America with Australia, New 5. Stalin or White Sea-Baltic Canal: This canal joins Zealand and the scattered Pacific islands via the Baltic Sea with the Arctic Ocean. Panama Canal. Honolulu is an important port on this 6. Rhine-Maine-Danube Canal: This canal connects North route. Sea with Black Sea. 7. Soo Canals: The two canals join the L. Superior and L. Shipping Canals Huron. 8. Erie Canal: This canal connects L. Erie and L. Huron. 1. Volga Canal System: This is an important navigable 9. Wellend Canal: This canal reduces the distance canal system of the world, with 11,200 km navigable between L. Erie and L. Ontario.

Geography l 25 Continents

The seven continents can be ranked according to their Chief Mountain Ranges and Peaks size or area as Kilimanjaro, Ruwenzori, Atlas, Drakensberg, Tibesti Massif. 1. Asia 2. Africa l Chief Rivers: Nile, Congo, Niger, Zambezi, Orange, Kasai, 3. North America 4. South America Limpopo, Senegal. 5. Antarctica 6. Europe l Chief Deserts: Sahara (largest in the world) in the north; 7. Australia Kalahari and Namib in the south. l Mineral Resources: Gold, diamonds, bauxite, copper, iron Brief survey of continents ore, cobalt, manganese, uranium, lead, zinc, asbestos, phosphate. Asia l The highest temperature in the world has been recorded at Al-Aziziyah (Libya) as 58°C, making it the hottest place It is the largest continent of the world both in terms of in the world. population and area. l The Nile is the longest river in the world. It has two Chief mountain ranges and peaks tributaries, viz. Blue Nile and White Nile. Blue Nile Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlun, , Tien Shan, originates from Lake Tana in Ethiopia whereas White Nile Elbruz, Altai, Taurus, Sulaiman, Ural. originates from Lake Albert in Uganda. Blue Nile and White l Highest Point: Mt Everest (8848 m) in the Himalayas Nile meet at Khartoum (capital of Sudan) and flow in the l Chief Rivers: Yangtze , Huang He or Yellow River, Amur, name of Nile from thereon. It falls in Mediterranean Sea, , , Mekong, Yenisei, Irtysh, Indus, Brahmaputra, forming a large delta. Irrawaddy. l Ostrich is a flightless, fast running bird which is found in l Irrawaddy river is known as the lifeline of Myanmar. Kalahari desert. (It is similar to rhea of South America and l KHuang He or the Yellow river is known as the sorrow of emu of Australia.) China. l Cocoa is one of the important crops of Africa. Ghana & l Chief Lakes: Aral, Baikal, Balkash, Tungting, Tonle Sap. Nigeria are the largest producers of cocoa in the world. l Johannesburg and Witwatersrand in South Africa are l Chief Deserts: Gobi, Takla Makan, Kara-Kum, Thar, Kyzyl- Kum. famous for gold and Kimberley is famous for diamond. l Zanzibar is the largest producer of cloves in the world l Mineral Resources: Coal, iron, manganese, tin, antimony, gold. followed by Pemba Islands. l Myanmar is called the Land of Mountains and Rivers. North America l Myanmar is famous for its beautiful Buddhist temples called Pagodas. It is known as the Land of Golden Pagodas. North America is less than half the size of Asia. l KUNDANPakistan is called the country of canals. l Mountain Ranges: The Rocky Mts. (extend more than l Bangladesh is called the country of rivers and tributaries. 4800 km), Alaska Range, Sierra Madre, Saint Elias Mts. l Turkey is called the Sickman of Europe. l Chief Rivers: Missouri, Mississippi, Yukon, Rio Grande, l Lebanon is called the Switzerland of . Arkansas, Colorado, Red, St Lawrence. l Bhutan is called the Land of Thunder Dragons. l Chief Lakes: Superior, Huron, Michigan, Great Bear, Great l Thailand is called the Land of White Elephants. Slave, Winnipeg, Ontario. l South Korea is called the Land of Morning Calm. l Mineral Resources: Coal, iron ore, petroleum, gold, silver, l Japan is called the Land of Rising Sun. copper. l Osaka is called the Manchester of Japan. l Grand Bank near Newfoundland is very famous for fishing. Tuna and salmon are the main variety of fish catches. Africa l New York is called the city of skyscrapers. l Hartsfield Jackson Atlanta Inernational Airport (Atlanta) Africa is the world’s second largest continent and three times of USA is busiest airport of the world. larger than Europe. It straddles the Equator. It is the only l Chicago railway junction is the busiest railway junction continent to have both the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of the world. of Capricorn passing through it and having almost the same l North America produces 1/5 of the world’s wheat. Prairries distance north and south of the Equator. of the USA are very famous for wheat and maize. Prairies are called world’s bread basket.

26 l Geography South America l Antwerp (Belgium) is the world’s biggest diamond trading centre. South America is the fourth largest continent. It is triangular l Finland is known as the land of thousand lakes. in shape and somewhat smaller and less favoured for l Dogger Bank in UK is a famous fishing ground. settlement than North America. The most striking feature of the relief is the mountain chain, the Andes, which runs through Australia the whole length of the continent. l Chief Rivers: Murray (2,500 km) is the longest river. Its l Chief Mountain Ranges: Andes (highest peak, Aconcagua), Brazilian Highlands, Guiana Highlands. chief tributaries are Darling and Murrumbidgee. l Mineral Resources: Gold, silver, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, l Chief Rivers: Amazon, Parana, San Francisco, Orinoco, Rio Negro, Paraguay, Uruguay, La Plata. bauxite, copper, uranium and tungsten. l MacDonnell and Musgrave ranges lie in Central Australia. l Chief Desert: Atacama in the south. l The Tasmania Sea separates Australia from New Zealand. l Chief Lakes: Maracaibo, Titicaca, Mirim. l Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the l Mineral Resources: Petroleum, iron ore, silver, gold, copper, tin, lead, zinc. world. l Equatorial rain forests of the Amazon are the storehouses of hard wood such as mahogany. However, the lightest Antarctica wood in the world balsa also comes from these forests. l It was discovered in 1820. l The rubber tree is native to South America (Amazon basin). l Roald Amundsen was the first man to reach Antarctica. l Carnauba palm trees (Brazil), Cinchona bark (used for l It is called the continent for science because it provides medicine quinine) and Chicle (used for chewing gum) are a unique opportunity to scientists to learn more about the products of the equatorial rain forests of South America. the world. l South America, Mexico, Central America and West Indies l Bharati is an Indian station for research at Antarctica. are collectively known as . l It is the only continent which is completely frozen. It is, Europe threfore, known as the White Continent. K Highest Peaks of Continents l Chief Mountain Ranges: Caucasus, Alps, Pyrenees, Sierra Continent Peak Height Country Nevada. (in mts.) l Chief Rivers: Volga, Danube, Dnieper, Don, Pechora, Asia Mt. Everest 8,848 Nepal Dniester, Rhine. S. America Mt. Aconcagua 6,960 Argentina l Chief Lakes: Ladoga, Onega, Vaner. N. America Mt. McKinley 6,194 Alaska l Mineral Resources: Coal, Iron Ore, Mercury, Bauxite. Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro 5,895 Tanzania l Scotland, Wales and England are together known as Great Europe Mt Elbrus 5,663 Russia Britain. Antarctica Mt Vinson 5,140 Antarctica l Great Britain and Northern Ireland are jointly called as Australia Mt Kosciuszko 2,230 Australia UnitedKUNDAN Kingdom. Longest Rivers of the World Sl. Name Source Outflow Length (in km) 1. Nile Lake Victoria, Africa Mediterranean Sea 6,690 2. Amazon Glacier-fed lakes, Peru Atlantic Ocean 6,296 3. Mississippi-Missouri Red Rock, Montana (USA) Gulf of Mexico 6,240 4. Yangtze Kiang Tibetan Plateau, China China Sea 5,797 5. Ob Altai Mountains, Russia 5,567 6. Yellow River (Huang He) Eastern part of Kunina Mts., Gulf of Chihli 4,667 West China 7. Yenisel Tannu-Ola Mts., Western Arctic Ocean 4,506 Tuva, Russia 8. Parana Confluence of Paranaiba and Rio de la Plata 4,498 Grande rivers, Brazil 9. Irtish Altai Mountains, Russia Ob River 4,438 10. Congo Confluence of Lualaba and Atlantic Ocean 4,371 Luapula rivers, Zaire

Geography l 27 Classification of Vegetation Rotterdam The Netherlands Nieuwe Maas l Tropophyte: Forest and grassland vegetation of the tropical Stalingrad Russia Volga belt. Shanghai China Yang-tse-kiang l Hydrophyte: Vegetation growing on the surface of water Sydney Australia Darling bodies. Saint Louis USA Mississippi l Hygrophyte: Vegetation found in the areas of high Tokyo Japan Arakava humidity. Vienna Austria Danube l Xerophyte: Vegetation found in the tropical deserts. Warsaw Poland Vistula l Mesophyte: Temperate taiga vegetation Washington DC USA Potomac l Cryophyte: Tundra vegetation like lichen and algae. Yangon Myanmar Irrawaddy l Halophyte: Vegetation of saline soil like mangroves. l Lithophyte: Vegetation growing on hard rocks. Important waterfalls of the world l Pyrophyte: Fire-resistant vegetation (found in Savanna Angel Venezuela region). Tugela Natal, South Africa Cuquenan Venezuela Important Cities on River Banks (World) Sutherland New Zealand City Country River Ribbon California, USA Amsterdam Netherlands Amsel Niagra USA-Canada Border Ankara Turkey Kazil Della Canada Bangkok Thailand Chao Praya Gavarnie South-West France Baghdad Iraq Tigris Vettisfoss Norway Berlin Germany Spree Jog India Bonn Germany Rhine Victoria Zambia (Africa) Budapest Hungary Danube Bristol UK Avon Famous tribes of the world BuenosK Aires Argentina Rio de la Plata Abhors People of Mongoloid blood living between Cairo Egypt Nile Assam and eastern tribes Dublin Ireland Liffey Afridis Tribes residing in the North-West Frontier Hamburg Germany Elbe Province (Pakistan) Kabul Afghanistan Kabul Bantus Negroes living in the Central and South Africa Karachi Pakistan Indus Boers Dutch settlers of South Africa Khartoum Sudan Confluence of Cossacks People living in the southern and eastern Blue & White Nile frontiers of Russia Lahore Pakistan Ravi Eskimos Inhabitants of Greenland and Arctic regions Leningrad Russia Neva Flemish A term used for the people of Belgium LishanKUNDANPortugal Tagus Hamites Inhabitants of North-West Africa Liverpool England Messey Khirgiz People Living in Central Asia London England Thames Kurds Tribes living in Kurdistan (Iraq) Moscow Russia Muskova Magyars Inhabitants of Hungary Montreal Canada St. Lawrence Maoris Inhabitants of New Zealand Nanking China Yang-tse-kiang Negroes Mostly found in Africa New York USA Hudson Pygmies Short-sized people found in Congo basin in Ottawa Canada Ottawa Africa Paris France Seine Red Indians Original inhabitants of North America Perth Australia Swan Semites Caucasian people of ancient times Prague Czech Republic Vitava Zulus People of South Africa living in certain parts Quebec Canada St. Lawrence of Natal Rome Italy Tiber

28 l Geography Indian Geography

Introduction Across the Indian Ocean also there are two island neighbours of India — Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Sri l According to geographical extension, India is the seventh Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait. largest country of the world after Russia, Canada, China, l The 9° Channel separates Minicoy island from other smaller USA, Brazil and Australia, with an area of about 3.28 million islands of Lakshadweep, and between Maldives and sq km, which is almost 2.4 per cent of the geographical Minicoy is the 8° Channel. The 10° Channel separates area of the world. the Andaman from the Nicobar. The channel between the l Politically, it makes boundary with China, Pakistan, Indira Point and Indonesia is the Great Channel. Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Afghanistan.

India: Geographical Extremes Feature Description 1. Area 3.28 million km2, which is 2.4% of the World’s area 2. Length (N-S) 3214 km 3. Width (E-W) 2933 km 4. Length of Land Frontier 15200 km 5. Length of Coast Line 7516.6 km 6. Latitudinal Extent (main land) 8° 4´ N to 37° 6´ N 7. KLongitudinal Extent 68° 7´ E to 97° 25´ E 8. Southernmost Point of Indian Main Land 8° 4´ N, known as Kanya Kumari or Cape Comorin 9. Southernmost Point of India 6½° N, known as Indira Point or Pygmalion point in Great Nicobar 10. Highest Peak Mt K2 known as Godwin Austin or Qagir (8611 m) 11. Highest Dam Bhakra (226 m) on river in 12. Highest Waterfall Doodh Sagar on river Mandovi, Goa (600 m). The earlier known highest waterfall was Jog (Gershoppa) on R. Sarawati (Karnataka). 13. Longest River Ganga (2510 km) 14. KUNDANLongest Dam Hirakud on Mahanadi river in Odisha 15. Longest Coast Line coast followed by Andhra coast 16. Longest Canal , also called Canal 17. Longest Beach Marina beach in Chennai 18. Coldest Place Drass in J&K (–45°C) 19. Hottest Place Briyawali in Bikaner district of Rajasthan (56° C) 20. Wettest Place Mawsynram in Meghalaya (1220 cm/year) 21. Largest Plateau Deccan Plateau 22. Largest Riverine Island Majuli Island on Brahmaputra river in Assam 23. Indian Standard Meridian 82½° E longitude: it passes through Naini near Allahabad 24. Tropic of Cancer 23½° N latitude: it passes through eight states (Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripura & Mizoram)

Geography l 29 Neighbouring countries Indian states forming boundary Pakistan Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat Afghanistan Jammu & Kashmir China Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh Nepal Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim Bangladesh Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, Meghalaya and West Bengal Bhutan Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh Myanmar Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram Important International Boundary Lines Boundary Line Countries 1. Durand Line (drawn in 1896) Pakistan and Afghanistan 2. Radcliffe Line (drawn in 1947) India and Pakistan 3. McMahon Line (drawn in 1914) India and China (Arunachal Pradesh Region) 4. 24th Parallel Pakistan claims that it is the boundary between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch 5. 17th Parallel North Vietnam and South Vietnam 6. 38th Parallel North Korea and South Korea 7. 49th Parallel Canada and USA 8. Maginot Line Germany and France 9. Seigfried Line Fortification between Germany and France

Length of India’s border with The Himalayas its neighbouring countries l Means abode of snow. Country Length of border in km % of total border K l Total length is about 5000 km. Bangladesh 4,096 26.95 l These are huge fold mountains of tertiary period which China 3,917 25.55 were folded over Tethys Sea due to inter-continental Pakistan 3,310 21.78 collision. Nepal 1,752 11.53 l These extend for about 2500 km between the Indus and Myanmar 1,458 9.89 Brahmaputra gorges from west to east in an arc shape. Bhutan 587 3.86 l The Pamir, popularly known as the , is Afghanistan 80 0.52 the connecting link between the Himalayas and the high l India’ area is almost equal to the area of Europe (excluding range of Central Asia. Russia), one-third of Canada, one-fifth of Russia, eight The Himalayas can be divided into three zones: times of Japan and 12 times of United Kingdom. KUNDAN1. Outer Himalayas Geological Structure and l Its Vedic name is Sivalik. l Its height varies between 600 m and 1200 m, but rarely Physical Division of India exceeds 650 m. In India, of the total land mass 2. Middle Himalayas or Lesser Himalayas Plains : 43.3% Plateaus : 27.7% l Average height 3700-4500 m. Hills : 18.6% Mountains: 10.4% l It Vedic name is Himachal. On the basis of its geological structure India can be broadly l Most of the hill stations such as Dalhousie, Manali, Shimla, divided into five parts: Nainital, Mussoorie, Ranikhet and Darjeeling are located 1. The Himalayan range of mountains in this range. 2. The Peninsular plateau l The Middle Himalayas are divided into following ranges: 3. The Great plain of India (i) Pir Panjal range (J&K): It is longest range of the 4. The Coastal plains Middle Himalayas. 5. The Islands of India (ii) Dhauladhar range (Himachal Pradesh) (iii) Mussoorie range (Uttarakhand) l The , which is about 150 km long and 80 km

30 l Geography wide, lies between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar ranges. Kashmir in the Karakoram range. It is the highest peak of India. 3. Inner Himalayas or Greater Himalayas (c) Mt Kunchenjanga (8598 m): It is the third highest l Its Vedic names are Himadri and Bahirgiri. It is the peak of the world and the second highest of ndia highest mountain range of the world. Its average height is located in Sikkim. 6100 m. Trans Himalayas Important peaks in the Inner Himalayas: l This region lies to the north of the Greater Himalayas. (a) Mt Everest (8848 m): It is know as Sagarmatha in l It includes the glacier Siachen in Nubra Valley, which is Nepal and Chomolangma in China. It is the highest the biggest glacier in the world. peak of the world located in Nepal. Note: The highest peak of ranges, Mt Rakashposhi, (b) Mt K2 (Godwin Austin – 8611 m): It is the second lies in the Trans Himalayas. highest peak of the world located in Pak-Occupied

Important Passes in the Inner Himalayas Area Location Connectivity 1. Karakoram pass J&K India to China 2. Burzil pass J&K Kashmir Valley to Central Asia 3. Zojila pass J&K Srinagar to Leh 4. Bara Lacha-la pass Himachal Pradesh Mandi to Leh 5. Shipki-la pass Himachal Pradesh Shimla to Garetok (Tibet) 6. Mana pass Uttarakhand Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati 7. Niti pass Uttarakhand Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati 8. Lipulekh pass Uttarakhand Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati 9. Nathu La pass Sikkim Entry to Chumbi Valley 10. Jelep La pass Sikkim Kalingpong (West Bengal) to Lhasa (Tibet) 11. KBomdila pass Arunachal Pradesh ———— 12. Yang-Yap pass Arunachal Pradesh Entry of Brahmaputra river 13. Pangsad pass Arunachal Pradesh Dibrugarh to Myanmar 14. Pir Panjal pass Banihal Rohtang Note: Karakoram pass connects India to China.

The Peninsular Plateau Nilgiri Hills is Dodabetta situated near Ootacamund. l Eastern Ghats: These are located along the easter coast l It covers an area of about 16 lakh sq km. in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Important ranges and Plateau l Mahadeo hills: These are located in MP. l KUNDANl Cardamom hills: These are the southernmost hill ranges Aravali range: The Aravali range lies in the North-West. It is one of the oldest mountain ranges of the world. of India. l Vindhya Range: The Sone, flowing towards east, and the Narmada, flowing towards west, are two important rivers Important Hills of India of the range. It separates South India from . Hill Range Peak Location l Satpura Range: It lies between Narmada and Tapti. The Aravali Gurushikhar Rajasthan highest point of Satpura range is Dhupgarh in Panchmarhi. Western Ghats Anaimudi Kerala l Chhotanagpur plateau ends in Rajmahal Hills. It includes (Annamalai hills) the Jharkhand plateau and the eastern fringe of Eastern Ghats Deodimunda Odisha Chhattisgarh. Parasnath in the east rises to 1,366 m. Rajmahal hills Parasnath West Bengal l Western Ghats (Sahyadris): These are located on the Note: The highest peak of South India is Annaimudi (2,695 m) west coast in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and on Annamalai Hills. Tamil Nadu. It reaches Kanyakumari and joins the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiri Hills. The Deccan Plateau l The Nilgiri hills of India are block mountains which are This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India. This also known as ‘blue mountain’. The highest peak of the triangular plateau is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya

Geography l 31 in the northwest, the Mahadev and the Maikal in the north, the l Tamil Nadu coast is called Coromandel coast while Odisha Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east. and West Bengal coast are called Northern Circars coast. l The region of Mahanadi delta is called the Utkal Plain. Important Passes in South India Pass Metre Connectivity State/UT with Longest Coastline Thalghat 580 Bombay-Nasik State/UT Length of coastline Bhorghat 520 Bombay-Pune 1. Andaman & Nicobar Islands 1,962 Palghat 510 Kochi-Coimbatore 2. Gujarat 1,215 Shenkota pass 280 Thiruvananthapuram-Madurai 3. Andhra Pradesh 974 4. Tamil Nadu 907 The Great Plain of India 5. Maharastra 653 l It is formed by the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers. The Islands of India l It mainly consists of alluvial soils. India has nearly 247 islands, most of which are located in l It covers an area of over 7 lakh sq km. Important two groups: characteristics incude Bhabar (unassorted sediments), (i) Andaman and Nicobar group Terai (marshy tract), Bhangar (older alluvium) and Khadar (ii) Lakshadweep group (newer alluvium). 1. Andaman & Nicobar group The Great Northern Plains consists of the following l There are nearly 203 islands in Andaman group whereas regions: the Nicobar group of islands consists of seven big and 12 1. The Punjab- Plains: These fertile plains include small islands. the Bari (between Ravi and Beas rivers) and Bisht l Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman group from Doab (between Beas and Satluj). Nicobar group. l The Rajasthan Plains: It includes the Marusthali of Thar l Duncan passage separates Little Andaman from South desert and Bagar tract west of the Aravalis. River Luni is Andaman. Konly an inland drainage river. l Middle Andaman is the largest (areawise) while the capital l The Ganga Plains: The Ganga plains of UP, West Bengal Port Blair is located in South Andaman. and Bihar occupy an area of 3.57 lakh sq km. The Bengal l Saddle peak (737 m) is the highest peak of Andaman & basin is mainly composed of the Ganga delta. Nicobar and is lcoated in North Andaman. l The Brahmputra Plains: The Brahmputra plains contain l Indira Point (Pygmalion point) is the southernmost point alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra. This is also known of Indian territory (6½° N), which is located in Great as the Brahmaputra valley or Assam valley or Assam plain Nicobar. as most of the Brahmputra valley is situated in Assam. 2. Other Important Islands The Coastal Plains l Newmore Island: It is located in Bay of Bengal on the mouth of Ganga. 1. WestKUNDAN Coastal Plain l Pumban Island: It is located in the Gulf of Mannar between l The West Coastal Plain is narrower than the East Coastal India and Sri Lanka. Plain. l The West Coastal Plain is divided into following parts: Drainage System of India (i) Konkan coast (Mahrashtra coast) - Gujarat to Goa (ii) Kannara coast (Karnataka coast) - Goa to Mangalore  The flow of water through well-defined channels is known (iii) Malabar coast (Kerala coast) - Mangalore to as drainage. The network of such channels is called a Kanyakumari drainage system. 2. East Coastal Plain  On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics, the Indian drainage system may be l The east coast is mainly emergent type, i.e. its outline is regular and is characterised by offshore bars, sea beachers, classified into the Himalayan drainage and the sand ridges and lagoons. Peninsular drainage.  Three major river systems – the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra — comprise the Himalayan river system.

32 l Geography Rivers and Their Tributaries River Source Total length (km) Tributaries Indus Tibet near Mansarovar 2880; 709 km in India Zanskar, Astar, Dras, Shyok, Skardu, Swat, Kurram, Shigar, Gilgit, Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej

Jhelum From a mountain spur 400 in India Kishanganga at Verinage Chenab Chandra Bhaga stream of HP (near Lahaul) 1180 in India Ravi Kulu Hills of HP 725 Beas HP (Rohtang Pass) 460 Sutlej Mansarovar (Rakash Lake) 1050 in India Beas joins at Harike

 Sutlej river forms the boundary between India and Pakistan near Ferozpur.  Beas joins Sutlej at Harike (Punjab). Indira Gandhi Canal takes off from the Harike barrage, which is the longest irrigation canal of India. It runs up to Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.

Ganga and Its Tributaries River Sources Total length (km) Tributaries Ganga Alaknanda (Gangotri) 2526 Yamuna, Ram-Ganga, Gandak, Koshi, Ghaghara, Gandak, Gomti, Bhagirathi, Son, Triveni. Yamuna Yamunotri 1380 Chambal, Betwa, Sarda. Ram Ganga Near Nainital 596 Khos, Anil-Koshi. Ghaghara Near Mansarovar Lake 1080 Rapti, Sharda, joins Ganga near Chapra K (Bihar) Gandak Central Him. 730 In Nepal called “Narayani”, Near Tibet (in India) joins Ganga at Monghyr. Son Amarkantak Plateau 784 It joins Ganga upstream of Danapur in Patna district of Bihar. Kosi From Tibet/Nepal 730 (in India) Kosi, Arun, Tamur Damodar Chotanagpur Plateau 541 Joins Hoogly below Kolkata near Tori Konar, Jomunia Chambal South-West of Mhow Hills 1050 Banas Gomti East of Pilibhit 940 Sai, Barma, Saryu, joins Ganga near Ghazipur (UP) ShardaKUNDAN or Kaliganga Kumaon Himalaya 602 Sarayu; it joins Ghaghra which meets Ganga near Chapra (Bihar)

 Bhagirathi is joined by Alaknanda (originates from Badrinath) at Devprayag. Alaknanda and Bhagirathi flow in the name of Ganga below Devprayag.  Ganga is the longest river of India. In Bangladesh it is known by the name of Padma.  States covered by Ganga — UP, Bihar, Uttarakhand, W. Bengal  Total length of the Ganga river is 2525 km, of which 1,140 km is in UP, which is the largest length.  Yamuna joins Ganga at Allahabad.  Kosi is known as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.  Numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal valley.

Geography l 33 Brahmaputra and its tributaries River Source Total length (km) Tributaries Brahmaputra and 2580 Joins Ganga near its tributaries Ghazipur (UP) Brahmaputra Chemayungdung glacier, 885 (in India) Rajo-Tsngpo, Lihotse- Dzong, Ngang chu, in the Kailash range Kyi chu, Glamdu-chu, Lohit, Dihang, of Himalayas Disang, Dhansiri, Tista, Torsa.

 It is known as Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang or Siang in Arunachal Pradesh, Jamuna in Bangladesh.  Brahmaputra forms the world’s largest riverine island Majuli.  Brahmaputra is volume-wise the largest river of India, whereas length-wise Ganga is the largest.  Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Brahmaputra along with the Ganga forms the largest delta of the world.  The delta is made of a web of distributaries and islands and is covered by dense forests called the Sunderbans.

West Flowing Peninsular Rivers Narmada Amarkantak Plateau (MP) 312 Burhner, Balyar, Sher, Duchi, Shakkar, Tawa, Hiran, Tendoni, Barna, Kotar, Anjal, Machak, Kundi, Goi, Karyan Tapti Near Multai in Betul Districts 724 Purna, Betul, Wards, Vaghur, Patki, Gangal, Dathranj, Bohad, Bori, Anbhora, Khuru, Kapra, Sipra, Garja, Khokri, Utaols, Bhokar, Subi, Mor, Mautri, Gull, Aner, Anunavati, Gomati, Harki, Valer. Mahi Vindhyam range 533 Son, Anasi, Panam LuniK (Salt river) From Annasagar in Ajmer 450 It disappears in Rann of Kutch Sabarmati Aravali Hill 416 Wakai, Jawal, Mitri, Sei, Harnov, Hathmathi, Watrak, Meshwa.  The peninsular rivers which fall into the ‘Arabian Sea’ do not form ‘deltas’, but only estuaries.  There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada, of which ‘Aliabet’ is the largest.  Tapti is know as the twin river of Narmada. Note: Trans-Himalayan river — There are only three Trans-Himalayan rivers originating in the high Tibetan Plateau that cut across the mighty Himalayan ranges: the Satluj, the Indus, the Brahmaputra. KUNDANImportant Lakes of India Lakes Related State 16. Jaisamand Rajasthan 1. Dal Jammu & Kashmir 17. Didwana Rajasthan 2. Wular Jammu & Kashmir 18. Devtal Uttarakhand 3. Bareenag Jammu & Kashmir 19. Naukuchital Uttarakhand 4. Manas Bal Jammu & Kashmir 20. Kolleru Andhra Pradesh 5. Rajasmand Rajasthan 21. Chilka (India’s largest lake) Odisha 6. Pichhala Rajasthan 22. Lonar Maharashtra 7. Sambhar Rajasthan 23. Vembanad Kerala 8. Saat-tal Uttarakhand 24. Cholamu Sikkim 9. Rakashatal Uttarakhand Note:  Lonar lake was formed due to volcanic activity. 10. Hussainsagar Andhra Pradesh  Chilka, Pulicat and Kolleru are lagoon lakes. 11. Pulikat Tamil Nadu  Largest freshwater lake in India – Wular 12. Loktak Manipur  Asia’s largest brackish water lake – Chilka 13. Nagin Jammu & Kashmir  Sambhar lake is India’s largest salt lake. 14. Sheshnag Jammu & Kashmir  India’s highest lake – Cholamu 15. Anantnag Jammu & Kashmir

34 l Geography Major Waterfalls of India Waterfall Place River Jog/Garsoppa/Mahatma Gandhi Karnataka Sharavati river Yena Mahabaleshwar Yena river Shivsamudram Karnataka Cauveri river Hundru Jharkhand Suvarnrekha river Gokak Karnataka Gokak Chulia Rajasthan Chambal river Punasa Rajasthan Chambal river Pyakara Tamil Nadu Pyakara river Kapildhara Narmada Dhuandhar (It is known as “the smoke that thunders”) Jabalpur Narmada river

Climate of India l The momentary state of the atmospheric conditions over (iii) Norwesters: There are dreaded evening thunderstorms an area at any point of time is known as the weather of in Bengal and Assam. Their notorious nature can be that area while climate refers to the average of the weather understood from the local nomeclature of ‘Kalbaisakhi’, conditions over a longer period of time. a calamity of the month of Baisakh. These showers are l India Meteorological Department (IMD) has recognised useful or tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these the following four distinct seasons: storms are known as “Bardoili Chheerha”. (i)KCold weather season (Winter): December to Feb (iv) Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the (ii) Hot weather seaon (Summer): March to May Northern plains from Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity (iii)South-West Monsoon Season (Rainy): June to between Delhi and Patna. September (iv)Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn or Cool South-West Monsoon (Rainy) Season season): October to November The south-west monsoon approaches the landmass in Cold Weather Season two branches: (i) The Arabian Sea branch l During this seaon, the north-east trade winds prevail over (ii) The Bay of Bengal branch the country. They blow from land to sea. l During summer, South-West monsoon winds [The Arabian l AlthoughKUNDAN the total amount of winter rainfall locally known Sea Branch] strike suddenly on the coast of Kerala, which as ‘Mahawat’ is small, they are of immense importance for is called burst of moonsoon. the cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops. l South-West monsoon advances progressively from the 1st of June and covers entire India by 15th of July. Hot Weather Season l The rainfall brought by the monsoon decreases away from the sea. l With the apparent northward movement of the Sun towards l Monsoons play a pivotal role in the agarian economy of the Tropic of Cancer in March, temperature starts rising in India because over 3/4 of total rain in the country is North-India. received during South-West monsoon season. l Some famous local storms of hot weather season Note: The Arabian Sea branch is more powerful than the Bay (i) Mango Shower: Towards the end of summer, there are of Bengal branch. pre-monsoon showers which are a common phenomena l This season has the maximum number of rainy days as a in Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are result of which it is called the ‘wet season’. known as mango showers since they help in the early l The Bay of Bengal branch, after crossing the deltaic region, ripening of mangoes. enters the Khasi Valley (Meghalaya) and strikes Cherapunji (ii) Blossom Shower: With this shower, coffee flowers and Mawsynram in a perpendicular direction. blossom in Kerala and nearby areas. Mawsynram, located on the crust of Khasi Hills, receives

Geography l 35 the highest average annual rainfall in the world. l Jet streams are formed when pressure gradient force l Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season because becomes equal and opposite to Coriolis force. it lies in the rain shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch of l Jet streams are a kind of Geo-Strophic Winds. Westerly the South-West monsoon. Jet Streams of Northern Hemisphere affect Indian climate during winter and produce little rainfall (2-5 cm). Season of Retreating Monsoon or North-East Monsoon in Winter Annual Rainfall Rainfall regions may be classified in two categories: l During winter, while retreating back, winds become north- 1. Regions of heavy rainfall (more than 300 cm per annum): east and such winds, when they cross the Bay of Bengal, (i) Western slopes of Western Ghats become moist and produce rainfall in east Tamil Nadu and (ii) Eastern part of India, including Meghalaya hills Andhra Pradesh. Such winds are called N-E Monsoon 2. Regions of very low rainfall (less than 50 cm per annum): winds. These produce 40-60 cm rain on Tamil Nadu coast (i) Western Rajasthan () during winter. (ii) Leh and Ladakh region of J&K l N-W India, including parts of J&K, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Uttarakhand, also recieves winter rain due to the Percentage of the Amount of annual influence of: total land area rainfall (cm) (i) Jet streams (ii) Western disturbances 11 above 200 Jet Streams 21 125 to 200 l These are strong waves of air circulating on the Earth at 37 75 to 125 an altitude of 6 to 10 km with a speed of 250 to 400 kmph. 24 35 to 75 These are 2 to 4 km thick, hundreds of km wide and thousands of km long. 7 below 35 K Note: The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm. Soil

Classification of Soils drained locations or where soil-forming processes have not operated for a sufficiently long time due to environmental The World Reference Base for Soil resources: In 1998, the restrictions. International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) officially adopted (iii) The Azonal order includes the new soils and they are theKUNDAN World Reference Base for Soil Resoruces (WRB) as the not considered to be mature soils. Generally they represent Union’s system for soil correlation. The structure, concept the parent material which may be converted into mature soils and definitions of the WRB are strongly influenced by the if sufficient time is available. philosophy behind and experience gained with the FAO- Zonal soils can be classified as follows: UNESCO Soil Classification System. 1. Laterite Soil 2. Red Soil The first format system of soil classification was 3. Red and Yellow Soils 4. Black Soil introduced in the US by Curtis F Marbut. The modified 5. Red Desert Soil 6. Tundra Soil Marbut System divides the soil into three broad groups or zonal orders. Classification of the Indian Soils (i) Zonal soils are those which occur over large areas or climatic zones having geographical characteristics of their Owing to vast regional variations and on the basis of own, sited on well-drained undulating land, having well- genesis, colour, composition and location, the Indian Council developed profiles and other properties, developed on parent of Agricultural Research has classified the soils of India into material which has remained in its original place for a 8 categories: sufficiently long time to have been affected by climatic and (i) Alluvial soils (ii) Black soils organism processes. (iii) Red and Yellow soils (iv) Laterite soils (ii) The Intrazonal order includes soils developed in poorly (v) Forest soils (vi) Arid soils (vii) Saline and Basic soils (viii) Peaty soils

36 l Geography Alluvial Soils the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau. l Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, a long l Alluvial soils are deposotional soils transported and stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and deposited by rivers and streams. It is spread over 15 lac red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and km2 area of the country, which constitutes about 40 per Chhattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle Ganga cent of total land area of the country. plain. l This is the most widely spread and important soil. In fact, l Red and yellow soils are normally fertile. They are generally the entire Northern Plains are made of alluvial soil. poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus, and rich in l These have been deposited by three important Himalayan potash. river systems - the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. l These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of l These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat through iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. They look yellow a narrow corridor. when they occur in a hydrated form. l The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move inland towards the river valleys, Laterite Soils soil particles appear somewhat bigger in size. l Laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and l Apart from the size of their grains or components, soils are also described on the basis of their age. According to high rainfall. their age, alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial l These soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house (Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). construction. Actually laterite has been derived from the Latin word later, which means brick. l The Bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules than the Khadar. It has more fine particles and is l These soils have mainly developed in the higher areas of more fertile than the Bangar. the Peninsular Plateau and are suitable for tree crops like cashewnut. l Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime, which are ideal for the growth l Laterite soils are suitable for cultivation with adequate of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse doses of manure and fertilizers. crops. Due to their high fertility, regions of alluvial soils l The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, are intensively cultivated and densely populated. Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha K and Assam. l Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile. Black Soils Forest and Mountainous Soils l These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas l Black soil is formed by the weathering and erosion of volcanic lavas. It is known as ‘Regur’. It is of black colour where sufficient rain forests are available. 2 and best suited for cultivation of cotton. Therefore, it is l These soils are spread over an area of about 2.85 lakh km . also known as ‘Black Cotton Soil’. Variations are found in these soils due to various climatic 2 and ecological conditions in which they are found. l It spreads over about 5.46 lakhs km area. It covers most of the Deccan Plateau, which includes Maharastra, l These are deficient in potash, phosphoric acid and lime. Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts Arid Soils ofKUNDAN Tamil Nadu. l Its black colour is due to the presence of magnetite, iron, l Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are compounds of aluminium, aluminium silicate, etc. generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. l During the dry season, these soils develop wide cracks. l Due to dry climate and high temperature, evaporation is Thus, there occurs a kind of ‘self-ploughing’. faster and the soil lacks humus and moisture. l The black soil has high moisture-retaining capacity for a l After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as very long time, which helps the crops, especially the rain- has been the case of western Rajasthan. fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season. l Cotton, coarse grains, sunflower, oil seeds, vegetables Saline and Basic Soils and citrus fruits are grown in it. It is rich in aluminium, l Saline soils are also known as Usara soils. These soils are calcium and magnesium, iron, lime and potash but poor in found in about 1.7lakh km2 area of arid and semi-arid part. nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon compounds. Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile, Red and Yellow Soils and do not support any vegetative growth. l Red soil spreads over an area of about 5.18 lakh km2. It l They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and develops on crystalline igneous rocks of low rainfall in poor drainage. They occur in arid and semi-arid regions,

Geography l 37 and in waterlogged and swampy areas. Thus, a large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates l Saline soils are more widespread in western Gujarat, deltas in these areas, and this gives a rich humus and organic of the eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal. content to the soil. l These are locally known as Reh, Kallar, Rankas, Oosar, l Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per Karl, Choppen, etc. cent. These soils are normally heavy and black in colour. At many places, they are alkaline also. Peaty Soils l These soils are found widely in the northern part of Bihar, l These soils are found in areas of heavy rainfall and high southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation. Bengal, Odisha and Tamil Nadu.

Forests of India l According to International conventions, every country Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests should have about 33% of its area under forests. The These forests are found in the western slope of the Western world average of forest cover is 26.6%. Ghats, hills of the northeastern region and the Andaman l India’s forest cover in 2007 is 6,90,899 km2, which is and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and humid 21.02% of the geographical area. areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean l Mangroves in India are about 0.14% of the geographical annual temperature above 22°C. In these forests, trees reach area of country and are found in deltaic plains. great heights up to 60 m or above. As such these forests l Madhya Pradesh has got the largest forest cover in the appear green all the year round. Species found in these forests country followed by Aruncahal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, include rosewood, mahogony, aini, ebony, etc. The semi- Maharashtra and Odisha. evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these l KArunachal Pradesh has got the largest area of very dense regions. Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist forest cover and Andhra Pradesh has got the largest area deciduous trees. Main species are white cedar, hollock and of scrub. kail. The oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced l In terms of percentage forest cover with respect to its by pine (chirs), which was needed to lay railway lines. geographical area, Mizoram (91.27%) is at the top followed by Lakshadweep Islands (82.75%), Nagaland (81.21%), Tropical Deciduous Forests Andaman and Nicobar Islands (80.76%), Arunachal Pradesh (80.43%), Manipur (77.40%), Meghalaya (77.23%) These are the most widespread forests in India. They are also and Tripura (76.95%). called the monsoon forests. They spread over regions which l India’s tree cover has been estimated as 92,769 km2 receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the KUNDANconstituting 2.82% of the geographical area of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into country. Tree cover constitutes the largest area in moist and dry deciduous. The moist deciduous forests are Maharashtra (9,466 km2) followed by Gujarat (8,390 km2), more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between Rajasthan (8,274 km2) and Uttar Pradesh (7,381 km2). 100-200 cm. These forests are found in the northeastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Types of Forest Western Ghats and Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum and sandalwood are the main species of On the basis of certain common features such as these forests. Dry deciduous forests cover vast areas of the predominant vegetation type and climatic regions, Indian country, where rainfall ranges between 70-100 cm. These forests can be divided into the following groups: forests are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the (i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen forests plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, (ii) Tropical Deciduous forests khair, axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these forests. (iii) Tropical Thorn forests (iv) Montane forests Tropical Thorn Forests (v) Littoral and Swamp forests Tropical thorn forests occur in areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes semi-arid areas of southwest Punjab,

38 l Geography Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Pradesh. In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part Karnataka. The temperate forests are called Sholas in the of the year and give an expression of scrub vegetation. Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other trees of Important species found are babool, ber, wild date palm, khair, this forest of economic significance include, magnolia, laurel, neem, khejri, palas, etc. cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges. Montane Forests In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with Littoral and Swamp Forests increasing altitude leads to a corresponding change in natural India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70 per cent vegetation. Mountain forests can be classified into two types: of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation. The total the northern mountain forests and the southern mountain area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. The country's wetlands forests. The Himalayan ranges show a succession of have been grouped into eight categories, viz. (i) the reservoirs vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which change with of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of and other wetlands of the southern west coast; (ii) the vast the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet temperate type of saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kutch; forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill (iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards ranges of northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya Uttaranchal, evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oak and Pradesh; (iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons of India's east chestnut are predominant. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests coast (Chilka Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the are also well-developed in this zone, with pine as a very useful Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the commercial tree. Deodar, a highly valued endemic species, marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan range. Himalayan foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the mountain Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in construction activity. region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the mangrove forest Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone. Nicobar Islands. At many places in this zone, temperate grasslands are Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, alsoK found. But in the higher reaches, there is a transition to tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries. They consist of a number Alpine forests and pastures. Silver fir, juniper, pine, birch, of salt-tolerant species of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of rhododendron, etc. occur between 3,000-4,000 m. However, stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a these pastures are used extensively for transhumance by wide variety of birds. In India, the mangrove forests spread tribes like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas and the over 6,740 sq km, which is 7 per cent of the world's mangrove Gaddis. The southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a thicker forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and vegetation cover because of relatively higher precipitation Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other than the drier north-facing slopes. At higher altitudes, mosses areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the and lichens form part of the tundra vegetation. The southern Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being encroached upon, mountain forests include the forests found in three distinct and hence, need conservation. areasKUNDAN of Peninsular India, viz the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas Note: West Bengal has nearly half of the country’s Mangroves. and the Nilgiris. As they are closer to the tropics, and only Under the promotional measures, the govt has identified 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the 28 mangrove areas for intensive conservation & higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the management. Biosphere Reserves in India

The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated under the The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in 'Man & Biosphere' (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971. 1979. Since then, the network of biosphere reserves has The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to increased to 564 in 109 countries across the world (MAB, conserve in situ all forms of life, along with its support system, 2010). Presently, there are 17 existing biosphere reserves in in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for India. monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems.

Geography l 39 Biosphere Reserves in India (as on January 1, 2012)

S. No. Name Date of Notification Area (in km2) Location (State) 1. Achanakamar - 2005 3835.51 (Core 551.55 Covers parts of Anupur and Amarkantak & Buffer 3283.86) Dindori districts of M.P. and parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattisgarh State. 2. Agasthyamalai 12.11.2001 1828 Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoining areas in Kerala. 3. Cold Desert 28.08.2009 7770 Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal and Sarchu & Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh 4. Dehang-Dibang 02.09.98 5111.50 (Core 4094.80 Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in & Buffer 1016.70) Arunachal Pradesh. 5. Dibru-Saikhowa 28.07.97 765 (Core 340 & Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts Buffer 425) (Assam) 6. Great Nicobar 06.01.89 885 (Core 705 & Southernmost islands of Andaman And Buffer 180) Nicobar (A&N Islands). 7. Gulf of Mannar 18.02.89 10,500 km2 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between Total Gulf area India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu). (area of Islands 5.55 km2) 8. Kachchh 29.01.2008 12,454 km2 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar K and Patan Civil Districts of Gujarat State 9. Khangchendzonga 07.02.2000 2619.92 (Core 1819.34 & Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Buffer 835.92) Sikkim. 10. Manas 14.03.89 2837 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, (Core 391 & Buffer 2,446) Nalbari, Kamprup and Darang districts (Assam) 11. Nanda Devi 18.01.88 5860.69 (Core 712.12, Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and Buffer 5,148.570) & Bageshwar districts (Uttarakhand). T. 546.34) 12.KUNDANNilgiri 01.09.86 5520 (Core 1240 & Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur Buffer 4280) and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka). 13. Nokrek 01.09.88 820 (Core 47.48 & Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya). Buffer 227.92, Transition Zone 544.60) 14. Pachmarhi 03.03.99 4926 Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh. 15. Seshachalam Hills 20.09.2010 4755.997 Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh 16. Simlipal 21.06.94 4374 (Core 845, Buffer Part of Mayurbhanj district (Odisha). 2129 & Transition 1400 17 Sunderbans 29.03.89 9630 (Core 1700 & Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra Buffer 7900) river system (West Bengal).

40 l Geography Agriculture of India

l Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian economy. l India is the largest producer of mango, banana, turmeric, l Agriculture & allied sectors contribute nearly 14.4% of spices, cashew nut and ginger. GDP of India. While about 58.2% of the population is l India is the third largest producer of coconut. dependent on agriculture for their livelhiood. l India is the largest producer of pulse. l Total area coverage under foodgrains in 2010-11 has been l Kerala is known as ‘spice state of India’. reported at 125.73 million hect areas. l MP being the leading producing state of India contributes l The area coverage under wheat during 2010-11 was to around 75% of the total Indian production and is also estimated at 29.25 million hectares. While rice is estimated called the Soyabean bowl of India. at 42.56 million hectare. l India is the second largest consumer and second largest producer of tobacco in the world, second only to China. Food Crops of India Crop Temperature Rainfall Major Producer States Rice Early growing stage 150-300 cm W. Bengal, Punjab, UP 16°C-20°C (heavy) Ripening stage 18°C-32°C Wheat Growing stage 50 cm-100 cm Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana 10°C-15° C Ripening stage K 25°C-28°C Maize 21°C-27°C; 50 cm-100 cm Madhya Pradesh cannot stand frost Sunshine promotes growth. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka at any stage Cool, dry conditions necessary at ripening stage Jowar, High Temperature Known as dry crops; Maharashtra, Karnataka, M.P. Pulses 20°C-30°C 50-75 cm Rajasthan, Maharashtra Note: India is the largest producer, consumer and importer of pulses. It produces 25% of pulses in the World.

CashKUNDAN Crops of India Crops Area and State Crops Area and State Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tobacco AP, Gujarat, Karnataka, UP Andhra Pradesh Black Pepper Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Cotton Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab Bajra Rajasthan, Gujarat, UP Turmeric Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu Ginger Kerala and Meghalaya Jute West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Assam Cardamom Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka Tobacco Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Soyabean M.P. (Soyabean State), Rajasthan, Tamil Maharashtra and Bihar Nadu Tea Assam Hills, W. Bengal (Darjeeling), Groundnut Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh H.P. and U.P. Mustard Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana Coffee Karnataka, T.N. and Kerala Rubber Kerala (75%), Tamil Nadu (20%), Karnataka (3%), Andaman and Nicobar islands (2%)

Geography l 41 Cropping Seasons in India Green Revolution

Different cropping seasons are: l During the 1960s wheat and rice production increased (i) Kharif: Crops are sown at the beginning of the South- drastically. American scientist Dr William Gaude termed West Monsoon (June) and harvested at the end of the it as Green Revolution. A number of new hybrid seeds South-West Monsoon (October). Important kharif crops were imported from Mexico. are jowar, bajra, rice, maize, cotton, jute, groundnut, l In India credit for it goes to Dr MS Swaminathan. He is called tobacco etc. the Father of Green Revolution. Besides him, American (ii) Rabi: Crops need relatively cool climate during the period Professor Norman Borlaug also played an important role in of growth but warm climate during the germination of their it. seeds and maturation. Sowing season is October- November and harvesting season is March-April. Major Agriculture Revolutions Important rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, masoor, peas and potatoes. Green Revolution Food grains (iii) Zaid: Crops which may be raised throughout the year White Revolution Milk with the help of artificial irrigation, especially in summer. Yellow Revolution Oil seeds Important zaid crops are watermelon, tori, cucumber, leafy Golden Revolution Fruits (Apple) and other vegetables. Pink Revolution Prawn Grey Revolution Fertilizers Fruits and Vegetables Brown Revolution Non-conventional energy Silver Revolution Chicken/Egg l India is the world’s second largest producer of fruits and Food chain Revoluion Saving food, vegetables & fruits vegetables and is next to China in fruit production from decaying excluding melons. Rainbow Revolution Amalgamation of all the above l India’s share in world fruits and vegetables production is revolutions 10 per cent and 13.28 per cent respectively. Black Revolution Production of crude (petroleum) l KIndia is the largest producer of mango, banana, bapota Blue Revolution Fish production and acid lime. l India occupies first position in the production of cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world. KUNDANIrrigation in India Sources of Irrigation Top three states using tank irrigation l Mainly three types of sources are used for irrigation l Tamil Nadu purposes in India. These are wells (including tubewells), l Andhra Pradesh tanks and canals. l Odisha l 55.68% of the total irrigated area is irrigated by wells Top three states using canal irrigation (including tubewell and pumping sets). l J & K l Canals irrigate about 32.04% of the total irrigated land. l Haryana l Tanks contribute 5.8%, and 6.47% is countributed by other l Karnataka sources. Top three states using well irrigation l Uttar Pradesh has the largest number of tubewells in the l Gujarat country. l Uttar Pradesh l Rajasthan

42 l Geography Important Irrigation and Power Projects Name of the Project Location State Purpose Nagarjuna Sagar River Krishna AP Irrigation Multipurpose Project Hydroelectricity Pochampad Project River Godavari AP Irrigation Lower Sileru Project River Sileru (Godavari) AP Hydroelectricity Kakarpara Project River Tapti Gujarat Irrigation Kothagudam Project Singareni Coalfields AP Thermal Power Kosi Project River Kosi Bihar Flood control, Irrigation Gandak Project River Gandak UP, Bihar Irrigation, Hydroelectricity Dhuvaran Power Station Kheda District Gujarat Thermal Power Sabarigiri (Pambakakki) Project River Pamba-Kakki Kerala Hydroelectricity Idukki Project Rivers Periyar, Kerala Hydroelectricity Cherutheni, Idukki Chambal Project River Chambal Rajasthan, MP Irrigation, Hydroelectricity Tawa Project River Tawa (Narmada) MP Irrigation Korba Project Near Korba Coalfields Chhattisgarh Thermal Power Koyna Project River Koyna Maharashtra Hydroelectricity Nagpur Power Station Koradi, Near Nagpur City Maharashtra Thermal Power Tungabhadra River Tungabhadra Karnataka, AP Irrigation, Multipurpose Project Hydroelectricity Upper Krishna Project River Krishna Karnataka Irrigation Sharavati Project River Sharavati Karnataka (near Hydroelectricity Jog falls) Hirakud River Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation MultipurposeK Project Hydroelectricity Mahanadi Delta Project River Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation Talcher Power Station Near Talcher Odisha Thermal power Bhakra-Nangal River Sutlej HP, Punjab, Irrigation, Multipurpose Project Haryana Hydroelectricity Indira Gandhi Canal River Sutlej in Punjab Rajasthan, Haryana, Irrigation Project Punjab Kundah Project River Kundah Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity Neyveli Power Station Neyveli Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity Ramganga Chuisot stream near Uttarakhand Irrigation, Multipurpose Project Kalagarh Hydroelectricity RihandKUNDAN scheme River Rihand UP Hydroelectricity Obra Power Station Obra UP Thermal Power Damodar Valley Project River Damodar Jharkhand shared Flood control, with West Bengal Hydroelectricity Ukai Project River Tapti Gujarat Irrigation Mahi Project River Mahi Gujarat Irrigation Ghataprabha Project River Ghataprabha AP and Karnataka Irrigation Bhima Project River Bhima Maharashtra Irrigation Sardar Sarovar Project River Narmada Gujarat and MP Irrigation and Hydroelectricity Bana Sagar Project River Sone Chhattisgarh, MP, Irrigation UP and Jharkhand Dulhasti Project River Chenab J & K Hydroelectricity Salal Project River Chenab J & K Hydroelectricity Thein Dam Project River Ravi Punjab Irrigation, Hydroelectricity Malaprabha Project River Malaprabha Karnataka Irrigation Jaykwadi Project River Godavari Maharashtra Irrigation

Geography l 43 Beas Project River Beas Punjab and Haryana Hydroelectricity Sharda Shayak River Ghaghra UP Irrigation Mayurakshi Project River Mayurakshi West Bengal Irrigation, Hydroelectricity Rana Pratap Sagar River Chambal Rajasthan Hydroelectricity Suratgarh Super Suratgarh Rajasthan Thermal Power Thermal Project Mettur River Cauvery Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity Pallivasal River Mudirapuzha Kerala Hydroelectricity Papanasam Project River Thamiraparani Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity Tehri Project River Bhilangana (Ganga) Uttarakhand Hydroelectricity Farakka Project Ganga West Bengal Irrigation Note: Damodar Valley Project was the first multi-purpose project of India. This project has been successful in controlling disastrous floods, has turned the “River of Sorrow” (Damodar River) into “river of plenty” and brought agricultural prosperity. Industry in India

Textile industry Silk textile industry l The textile sector is the second largest provider of l India is the second largest producer of natural silk, after employment after agriculture in India. China, and is the only country producing all four varieties or natural silk, viz. mulberry, Tasar (Tropical Tasar & Oak K Tasar), Eri and Moonga. Of these, Golden Yellow Moonga Cotton textile industry Silk is unique in India. l Its origin dates back to 1818 when the first cotton textile Note: The famous ‘Silk Route’ passed through India, and mill was started at Fort Glaster near Calcutta. Indian silk found markets worldwide. l The first modern cotton textile mill was established in l Karnataka is the largest silk producer state of country, Bombay in 1854 by a local Parsi entrepreneur. accounting for about 70 per cent of the total production. l India is the second largest producer of cotton in the world Major silk producing centres in the state are Tumkur, after China. Dodballapur, Bangalore and Mysore. l Maharashtra is the largest producer of cotton textiles followed by Gujarat. Jute textile industry

KUNDANl Leather industry Jute manufacturing existed in Bengal as handloom industry but the large-scale industry started in 1859 at Rishra near l Leather industry is known for its consistency in high Calcutta. export earnings. l India accounts for 85% of the world’s jute production. l The leather Industry is bestowed with an affluence of raw l Jute is also known as the ‘Golden Fibre of Bengal’. materials as India is endowed with 21% of world’s cattle l India is the largest producer and second largest exporter and buffaloes and 11% of world goat and sheep population. of jute goods. l India is the second largest producer of footwear and leather l There are 79 composite jute mills in the country. Out of the garments in the world. total 79 jute mills, 62 jute mills are located in West Bengal. l Agra and Kanpur are major centres of footwear industry in India. Tea industry

Woollen textile industry l Tea cultivation in India was first started in the mid-19th century in Darjeeling, Assam and Nilgiris. l The first woollen textiles mill was set up in 1876 at Kanpur. l Nearly 98% of the tea production comes from Assam, West l Indis is the 6th largest producer of wool and contributes Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala while the rest of it comes 3% of total world production.

44 l Geography from Karnataka, terai region of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal l Presently aluminium industries are located at Muri Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura. (Jharkhand), Alwaye (Kerala), Renukoot (UP), Mettur l India is the second biggest producer of tea after China. (Tamil Nadu), Korba (Chhattisgarh), Koyana (Maharastra) l India is the largest producer and consumer of black tea in and Belgaum (Karnataka). the world. Iron and steel industry Paper industry l The first iron and steel unit on modern lines was l The first paper mill in the country was set up at Serampore established in 1830 at Porto Novo in Tamil Nadu. It could (Bengal) in 1832, which failed. In 1870, a fresh venture was not succeed. started at Ballygunge near Calcutta. The planned l The real beginning of modern iron & steel industry was development of paper industry began after independence. made in 1907 only when Tata Iron & Steel Company l The paper industry in India is ranked among 15 top global (TISCO) was set up at Jamshedpur (Sakchi at that time). paper industries. l During the Second Five Year Plan, three public sector units l Andhra Pradesh, with 18% of the country’s output, is the were established at Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Durgapur (West leading producer of paper in India followed by Bengal) and Rourkela (Odisha). Maharashtra and West Bengal. l Bokaro Steel Plant was established during the Third Five Year Plan with the help of Soviet Union. Major Paper Mills in India l Rourkela and Bhilai steel plants were set up with l The National Newsprint and Paper Mills Ltd is located in collaboration of Germany and USSR respectively and Nepanagar (Madhya Pradesh). Durgapur with the collaboration of Britain. l Hindustan Paper Corp, Vellore. l Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL): Established in l Mysore Paper Mill, Bhadravati. 1973, SAIL is a govt undertaking and is responsible for Note: Ballarpur (Maharashtra) is the largest paper mill of the the managment of steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela country with annual capacity of 85,000 tones. and Bokaro. l Andhra Pradesh: Rajahmundry and Sirpur. l Three more steel plants were planned during the Fourth l Maharashtra: Mumbai, Pune, Ballarpur and Kamptee. Five Year Plan in order to meet the requirements of steel. l WestK Bengal: Titagarh, Raniganj, Naihati, Baranagar, These plans are located at Salem (Tamil Nadu), Kolkata. Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Vijaynagar. Raw material for paper industry Major Steel Plants in India Bamboo 70% 1. Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd. Salai Wood 12% 2. Essar Steels Ltd. Sabai Grass 9% Bagasses 4% 3. Jindal Steels Ltd. Waste Paper & Rags 5% 4. KVS Ispat 5. Daitari Steel Plant RubberKUNDAN industry 6. Dolvi Steel plant l The most important segment of rubber industry is 7. Monnet Ispat & Energy Ltd. constituted by tyres and tubes. 8. POSCO (Pohang Steel Co.) l Kerala has almost monopoly in rubber production, of Korea accounting for more than 90% of the country’s output 9. Bhushan Steel Ltd. and the rest comes from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. 10. Neyveli Plant l India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber with Note: POSCO of Korea has entered into a Memorandum of a share of 8.2% in world production 2010. Understanding (MoU) with Odisha Govt. for setting up a steel plant at Paradip with a total investment of Rs 51,000 Aluminium industry crore. The project with a capacity of 12 million tonnes per l The availability of bauxite ore and electricity plays the annum will be completed by 2016. It is billed as the biggest most significant role in localisation of this industry. FDI in Indian history. l In 1937, the first aluminum industry was set up in India at J K Nagar, which was mainly a coal region. Further, in 1938, the second industry was established at Muri, which is a bauxite mining region.

Geography l 45 Fertilizers industry l Madhya Pradesh: Katni, Jarnul, Satna, Durg, Maihar, Neemach. l The Indian fertilizers industry had a very humble beginning l Andhra Pradesh: Vijayawada, Karimnagar, Cementnagar, in 1906, when the first manufacturing unit of single super Krishna, Adilabad. phosphate was set up in Ranipet near Chennai. l Rajasthan: Chittorgarh, Udaipur. l Fertilizers Corporation of India (FCI) in Sindri (Jharkhand) was the first large-sized fertilizer plant set up with a view Glass industry to establishing an industrial base to achive self-sufficiency in food grains. l UP: Firozabad (bangles), Bahjoi, Hathras, Naini, Shikohabad. l India today is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilizers in the world, only behind China and USA. l Maharashtra: Mumbai, Talegaon, Pune, Sitarampur. l Tamil Nadu: Tiruvottiyar. l National Fertilizers Limited (NFL) l Fertilizer Corporation of India Ltd. (FCI) l Brahmaputra Valley Fertilizer Corporation Ltd. (BVFCI) Sugar industry l The Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Ltd. (FACT) l Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of sugar. l Pyrites, Phosphates and Chemicals Ltd. (PPCL) l The districts of Darbhanga, Saran, Champaran and l KRIBHCO (Krishak Bharti Cooperative Ltd.) Muzaffarpur are the leading producers of sugar in Bihar. Note: India is largely import-dependent for meeting the requirements of potassic (K) and Phosphatic (P) Salt industry fertilizers. l India holds third position in the production of salt in the Cement industry world after China and US with an average annual production of about 200 lakh tones and second largest l The first successful plant was set up in Porbandar in 1914, producer of iodised salt (60 lakh tones) next to China. although production of cement was started in 1904 in KChennai. Transport in India

Rail Transport 4278 km in about 82 hours, 40 minutes (3 days 10 hours 40 minutes). l The first train in India was started by Lord Dalhousie on Note: The train was rechristened Vivek Express after the April 16, 1853 between Bombay and Thane (34 km). name of the great Indian saint Swami Vivekananda. l KUNDANIn 1924-25 the Railway Budget was separated from the l The oldest steam engine Fairy Queen still runs on rails. General Budget. l Longest run in terms of distance and time: Vivek Express l Indian Railway Board was established in 1905. between Dibrugarh (Assam) and Kanyakumari covering l Indian Railways was nationalised in the year 1950. 4278 km in about 82 hours, 40 minutes (3 days 10 hours 40 l At present Indian Railways consists of 1,13,617 total track minutes). km. Note: The train was rechristened Vivek Express after the l Indian Railways is the second largest of Asia (after China) name of the great Indian saint Swami Vivekananda. and fourth largest of the world after USA, Russia and l Fastest train in India: Bhopal Shatabdi Express (having China. maximum speed of 140 km/h on Faridabad-Agra section) l About 43% of the total routes of Indian Railways is l The ‘Palace on Wheels’ is a specially designed train, electrified. frequently hauled by a steam locomtive, for promoting l Total number of Railway Zones is 17 and the largest tourism in Rajasthan. Railway Zone is North Zone. Kolkata Metro was declared l World’s longest railway platform: Kharagpur Station as the 17th zone of the Indian Railways in early 2011. l The world’s longest railway, the Trans-Siberian Railway l The oldest steam engine Fairy Queen still runs on rails. in Russia, is 9.438 km long. It runs from St Petersburg to l Longest run in terms of distance and time: Vivek Express Vladivostok. between Dibrugarh (Assam) and Kanyakumari covering

46 l Geography Indian Railway Zones & Headquarters Roadways Railway Zones Headquarters l Indian road network of 41 lakh km (approx) is the second Central Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus largest in the world and consists of National Highways, Eastern Kolkata State Highways, major/other district roads and village/ Northern New Delhi rural roads. North-Eastern Gorakhpur l National Highways [NHs]: Though the NHs, which are North-East Frontier Maligaon-Guwahati the responsibility of the Central Govt, have about 70,934 Southern Chennai km length and comprise only 1.7% of the total length of South-Central Secunderabad roads, it caries over 40% of the total traffic across the South-Eastern Kolkata length and breadth of the country. Western Mumbai Churchgate l The National Highways Development Project (NHDP) is East Coast Bhubaneswar the largest highway project ever undertaken in the country. East-Central Hajipur The NHDP is being implemented mainly by the National North-Central Allahabad Highways Authority of India (NHAI) in Phases I to VII. North-Western Jaipur l The Golden Quadrilateral consists of 5846 km and South-Western Bengaluru (Hubli) connects four major cities, viz., Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai West-Central Jabalpur and Kolkata. [Under NHDP Phase I; Chennai to Kolkata is South-East Central Bilaspur the largest side, which is 1684 km long.] l Konkan Railway: Konkan railway has the administrative l The North-South and East-West [NSEW] corridor status of a zone of the Indian Railways, but is not normally comprise a length of 7,142 km. It connects Srinagar in the considered a zone for operational purpose. north to Kanyakumari in the south, and Silchar in the l The Konkan Railway was the missing link between India’s east to Porbandar in the west [under NHDP Phase-II]. commercial capital, Mumbai, and Mangalore. The 760-km l Grand Trunk (GT) Road, which was contructed by Sher line connects Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka states. Shah Suri, connected Peshawar to Kolkata. It joined l The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. It was Amritsar to Kolkata after the Partition of India. introducedK in 1929 between Bombay and Pune. l Maharashtra has the maximum length of surfaced road in l The 10.96-km-long Pir Panjal railway tunnel is India’s India. longest and Asia’s second longest, aimed at reducing the l UP has the maximum length (7818 km) of National travel distance between Qazigund and Banihal to only 11 Highways in India. km and providing a hassle-free travel up to Baramulla. The National Highways/Expressways 70,934 km tunnel is part of the ambitious ‘Udhampur – Srinagar – State Highways/Expressways 1,54,522 km Baramulla’ rail link project of Northern Railways. Other Road Highways/Expressways 38,84,136 km l The world’s highest railway bridge, five times the height l Road transport carries about 80% of total transport. of Qutub Minar and 35 metres taller than the Eiffel Tower, l NH1 and NH2 are collectively called as the Grand Trunk will come up over the Chenab river on the under- Road. constructionKUNDAN rail link to the Kashmir Valley. The bridge will l The Jawahar Tunnel (at Banihal Pass) is situated on NH rise 359 metres over the Chenab, 65 km from Katra, on the 1A. This highway connects Jalandhar with Uri via Jammu 73 km Katra-Dharam section, of the ambitious Udhampur- and Srinagar. Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link Project. l The smallest National Highway of India is NH 47A. l Most of the tunnels are located in the Western Ghats. l The highest roadway of the world is the Manali-Leh l Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified system Highway. in the world after Russia. Some important national highways l Kolkata Metro Rail: The Metro Railway Kolkata was constructed progressively from 1972 to 1995. It extends National Highway Route from Dum Dum near Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose airport, NH 1 Delhi-Amritsar Kolkata, to Tollygunj over a length of 16.45 km. NH 2 Delhi-Kolkata NH 3 Agra-Mumbai Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited NH 4 Thane-Chennai l It is a joint venture of the Government of India and the NH 5 Bahragora-Chennai (with the eastern Delhi Government with equal equity. coast) l Construction started in 1998, and the first section, on the NH 6 Dhule-Kolkata Red line, opened in 2002 [Rithala to Dilshad Garden].

Geography l 47 NH 7 Varanasi-Kanyakumari (the longest in 8. Ahmedabad International Airport the country) 9. Kochi International Airport NH 8 Delhi-Mumbai (via Rajasthan-Gujarat) 10. Srinagar International Airport NH 15 Pathankot-Samakhiali (along the Indo- Pak border) Water Transport NH 17 Panvel-Edapalli (along the Western Coast) l The water transport is the cheapest mode of transport. NH 28 Delhi-Lucknow Water transport can be broadly divided into two groups: inland water transportation and shipping. Shipping, in Air Transport turn, can again be divided into two categories: coastal shipping and overseas shipping. l Air transportation in India made a humble beginning in l Inland water transport includes natural modes like 1911 when air mail operation commenced over a little navigable rivers and artificial modes like canals. distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini. National Waterways: l The Indian National Airways was formed in 1933 and it The govt. has declared the following waterways as national introduced air service between Karachi and Lahore. waterways: l In 1953, the air transport was nationalised and two l Allahabad - Haldia stretch (1620 km) of the Ganga- corporations were formed: Air India International and the Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system (NW-1) in 1986. Indian Airlines. l Sadiya - Dhubri stretch (891 km) of Brahmaputra river l In 2007, the Government of India announced that Air India (NW-2) in 1988. would be merged with Indian Airlines. As a part of the l Kottapuram - Kollam stretch of West Coast Canal along merger process, a new company called the National with Champakara Canal and Udyogmandal Canal (205 km) Aviation Company of India Ltd. (NACIL) was formed. (NW-3) in 1993. l The ‘Maharaja’ is Air India’s official mascot. l Kakinada - Puducherry stretch of canals and the Kaluvelly l Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd., the national helicopter Tank, Bhadrachalam - Rajahmundry stretch of River company of India, was incorporated in 1985. It was Godavari and Wazirabad - Vijayawada stretch of River Kincorporated with the primary objective of providing Krishna (1028 km) in 2008. helicopter support services to the oil sector for its off- shore exploration operations, services in remote and hilly l Talcher - Dhamra stretch of river Brahmani, Geonkhali - areas and charter services for promotion of tourism. Charbatia stretch of the East Coast Canal, Charbatia- Dhamra stretch of Matai river and the Mangalgadi - l Apart from Air India and its subsidiaries, there are at present six private scheduled operators, viz Jet Airways (India) Paradip stretch of the Mahanadi River Delta (585 km) in Ltd., Jetline Airlines, Go Airlines (India) Pvt. Ltd., 2008. Kingfisher Airlines, Spice Jet Ltd. and Inter Globe Aviation The major ports are controlled by the central Government Ltd. (IndiGo). while the medium and minor ports are included in the Concurrent List of the Constitution and are managed and l The Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi was set up at Fursatganj, Rae Baraeli (UP) to bring about a quantum administered by the respective states. KUNDANMajor ports are: improvement in the standards of flying and ground training of commercial pilots in the country. 1. Kandla (Gujarat): Kandla is tidal port. It is in Kuchchh and was the first port developed soon after Independence l Airport Authority of India (AAI) came into existence on 1 April, 1995 with the merger of the then two authorities to ease the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in the (National Airports Authority and International Airports wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition. Authority of India.) 2. Mumbai: Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour. l AAI manages 115 airports, including 23 civil enclaves. 3. Nhava Sheva (Mumbai): The Nhava Sheva or Jawaharlal Important International Airports of India Nehru port was planned with a view to decongest the 1. Jawaharlal Nehru Airport (Santacruz Airport, Mumbai) Mumbai port and serve as a hub port for this region. 2. Subhas Chandra Bose Airport (Dum Dum Airport, This is the most modern and the largest artificial port of Kolkata) the country. 3. Indira Gandhi International Airport (Delhi) 4. Marmagao (Goa): Marmagao port is the premier iron-ore 4. Rajiv Gandhi International Airport (Hyderabad) exporting port of the country. This port accounts for 5. Meenambakkam International Airport (Chennai) about fifty per cent of India’s iron ore export. From here, 6. Thiruvananthapuram International Airport the iron-ore is exported to Iran. 7. Bangalore International Airport

48 l Geography 5. New Mangalore (Karnataka): It caters to the export of 12. Haldia (Kolkata): Haldia port was developed as a iron ore . subsidiary port in order to relieve growing pressure on 6. Kochi (Kerala): It is known as the ‘Best port in the East’. the Kolkata port. 7. Tuticorin: The extreme south-eastern port Tuticorin is The important minor and medium ports of India are: in Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour and rich State/UT Ports hinterland. Gujarat Okha, Dwaraka, Porbandar, Veraval, 8. Chennai: Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of Bharoch, Surat, Piprav the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the Maharashtra Ratnagiri volume of trade and cargo. Karnataka Karwar (Navy port) 9. Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh): Visakhapatnam is the Tamil Nadu Ennore, Mahabalipuram deepest landlocked and well-protected port. Andhra Pradesh Muchhlipattanam, Kakinada 10. Paradip (Odisha): It specialises in the export of iron ore. Puducherry Yaman (Andhra Prdesh region), 11. Kolkata: Kolkata is an inland riverine port. Being a tidal Karaikal (Tamil Nadu region), Mahe port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly. (Kerala region)

Population of India l The study of population is called demography. Karl Marx Highest Growth Rates (2011) is the Father of Demographic Studies. States/Union Territories Percentage l First census was held in 1872, but it was not a synchronised census. First synchronised census was 1. Meghalaya...... 27.82% held in 1881. Since then, census is conducted every ten 2. Arunachal Pradesh...... 25.92% years. The last census was conducted in 2011, which 3. Bihar...... 25.07% K Union Territories Percentage was the 15th census in this continuous series recorded from 1872 and the seventh census since independence. 1. Dadra & Nagar Haveli...... 55.5% l The Census schedules for the Census 2011 were printed 2. Daman & Diu...... 53.45% in sixteen languages and the manual instructions for filling 3. Puducherry...... 27.72% up the schedules, in eighteen different languages. Lowest Growth Rates (2011) l Census 2011 was the 15th National census of the country. l Dr C. Chandramouli was the sole in-charge of the Census States/Union Territories Percentage 2011. He is the current Registrar General and Census 1. Nagaland 0.47% Commissioner of India. 2. Kerala 4.86% 3. Goa 8.17% GrowthKUNDAN Rate Union Territories Percentage 1. Andaman & Nicobar 6.68% l 2001-2011 is the first decade (with the exception of 1911- 2. Lakshadweep 6.23% 1921) which has actually added lesser population l UP constitutes 16.49% population of India and India compared to the previous decade. constitutes 17.5% population of world. l The percentage decadal growth during 2001-2011 has registered the sharpest decline since independence — a The biggest countries in the world decrease of 3.90 percentage points from 21.59 to 17.64 Population % of World Area- per cent. wise Population wise l Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in the country. 1. China 19.4% Russia Its population is more than the population of Brazil. 2. India 17.5% Canada l Longleng and Kiphire districts of Nagaland registered 3. USA 4.5% China the lowest growth rate of population as -58.39% and 4. Indonesia 3.4% USA -30.54% respectively. 5. Brazil 2.8% Brazil l The growth rate was negative in Census 1921. The year 6. Paskistan 2.7% Australia 1921 is known as the year of demographic divide. 7. Bangladesh 2.4% India l The growth rate was maximum in Census 1971.

Geography l 49 Population % of World Area- Literacy wise Population wise 8. Nigeria 2.3% Argentina l Serchhip (Mizoram) and Aizawl (Mizoram) are the most 9. Russia 2.0 Kazakhstan literate districts of India with percentages of 98.76 and 10. Japan 1.9 Algeria 98.50 as per census 2011 respectively. l Alirajpur (Madhya Pradesh) and Bijapur (Chhattisgarh) The Largest States (2011) are the least literate districts of India with percentages of Population wise Area-wise 37.22 and 41.58 as per census 2011 respectively. 1. Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan Literacy 2001 2011 2. Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh National Aveerage Literacy 65.83% 74.04% 3. Bihar Maharashtra Male 75.85% 82.14% 4. West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Female 54.16 65.46% 5. Andhra Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Highest literate states: 2011 1. Kerala...... 93.91% The Smallest States (2011) 2. Mizoram...... 91.58% 3. Tripura...... 87.75% Population wise Area-wise 4. Goa...... 87.40% 1. Sikkim Goa 5. Himachal Pradesh...... 83.78% 2. Mizoram Sikkim Least literate states: 2011 3. Arunachal Pradesh Tripura 1. Bihar...... 63.82% 2. Arunachal Pradesh...... 66.95% Sex Ratio 3. Rajasthan...... 67.06% l World average sex ratio is 984 (2011), whereas India’s Highest literate UTs: 2011 average in census 2011 is 940. 1. Lakshadweep...... 92.28% l Mahe (Puducherry) and Almora (Utarakhand) are the 2. Daman & Diu...... 87.07% Ktwo districts having maximum sex ratio of 1176 and 1142 3. Puducherry...... 86.55% as per census 2011 respectively. Least literate UTs: 2011 1. Dadra & Nagar Haveli...... 77.65% Highest sex ratio in states : 2011 2. Andaman & Nicobar...... 86.27% 3. NCT of Delhi ...... 86.34% Kerala 1084 Most densely populated states: 2011 Tamil Nadu 995 1. Bihar ...... 1102 Andhra Pradesh 992 2. West Bengal ...... 1029 Haryana 877 3. Kerala ...... 859 J&K 883 KUNDANSikkim 889 Mineral resources of India

Coal (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher), Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (Rewa, Korba, Betul). l Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India Note: Coal is also known as black gold. followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc. Coal Gradations: Manganese 1. Anthracite (more than 80% carbon content) 2. Bituminous (60 to 80% carbon content) l India has world’s second largest reserves of manganese ore. 3. Lignite (40 to 60% carbon content) l India is the sixth largest producer of manganese ore. 4. Peat (less than 40% carbon content) l Manganese ore is an important ingredient in the l Major coalfields:West Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, manufacture of iron and steel. Bankura, Purulia, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling), l Found in: Odisha, Jharkhand (Singhbhum), Maharashtra Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih, Hazaribagh and Palamau), Odisha (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Karnataka (Shimoga, Bellary)

50 l Geography Copper village located in Kadapa of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Results from a research conducted by Atomic l Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri: oldest Energy Commission of India in 2011 made the analysts copper mine of India), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, conclude that this mine might have one of the largest Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg, Hassan) reserves of uranium in the world. Note: Singhbhum district of Jharkhand has the largest copper l Uranium is also found in Jaduguda mine of Jharkhand. ore resource in Asia. Oil Refining Mica Important oil refineries in India: l Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), Bihar (Gaya, 1. Digboi (oldest refinery of India) Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool), 2. Koyali Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur) 3. Mumbai (two refineries) l India has world’s largest reserves of mica. 4. Barauni Note: The Gaya-Hazaribagh belt, with Koderma forest area, 5. Haldia contributes a large part of the country’s mica production. 6. Mathura 7. Visakhapatnam Petroleum 8. Chennai 9. Kochi l Assam (Digboi: oldest field in India, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, 10. Bongaigaon Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat (Ankleshwar : ‘fountain of 11. Trombay prosperity’, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai, Krishna-Godavari 12. Jamnagar (Reliance, largest refinery of India) basin, Kharmbat basin, Bombay High, Bassein (South of 13. Panipat Bombay High), Rajasthan (Bhagyam, Mangla). 14. Bina Iron Natural Gas IronK ores are of four types: l Over 3/4th of the production of natural gas comes from 1. Magnetite (Black ore): Iron content is 72%. Mumbai High. Gujarat accounts roughly for 10% of gas 2. Haematite (Red ore): Iron content is 70%. production. 3. Limonite (Brown ore): Iron content is 60%. l Distribution of free gas resources: Natural gas in free form is 4. Siderite (Grey ore): Iron content is 45%. derived from the following regions: l India possesses haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. 1. The largest reserves come from the offshore Mumbai l Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Dhanbad), Odisha (Badampahar High. group of mines in the Mayurbhanj district and in Keonjhar). 2. Cambay basin in Gujarat 3. Tripura Bauxite 4. Kaveri offshore basin in Tamil Nadu 5. Krishna-Godavari Basin (K-G Basin, Reliance Petroleum) l Bauxite is an ore of Aluminium metal. KUNDANNote: The gas discovered by Reliance Industries in deep waters l Odisha (Kalahandi, Koraput), Jharkhand (Hazaribagh), of the Krishna-Godavari off-shore basin has brought the Andhra Pradesh (Nellore), Bihar (Gaya), Rajasthan (Ajmer). sector into sharp focus. It is reported to be the largest Gold discovery of natural gas in the world in the year 2002. l Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri Atomic power plants and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittoor and Anantapur 1. Tarapur (Maharashtra): Atomic power plant in India based districts respectively). on US design. 2. Rawatbhata (Rajasthan): Based on Canadian design. Silver, Zinc and Lead 3. Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu): The only atomic power plant l Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh located in a coal-rich region. (Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines). 4. Narora (Uttar Pradesh): The only atomic power plant used for agricultural purpose. Uranium 5. Kakrapara (Gujarat) 6. Kaiga (Karnataka) l The Tummalapalle mine is a uranium mine in Tumalapalli 7. Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu): Fuel supplied by Russia

Geography l 51 The breakup of electricity generation through different l But, in terms of present production, Tamil Nadu comes first sources is as follows: among the Indian states. Thermal 82.0% l The largest wind energy centre in Asia is at Mandvi in Kutch Hydroelectric 14.9% district of Gujarat. Nuclear Power 3.4% l The largest wind farm group of Asia is at Muppandal in Tamil l The estimated potential of wind energy in India is the highest Nadu. in Gujarat followed by Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.

Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks in India

l Corbett National Park was the first national park of India. l Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh have the maximum number of national of parks in India. Name Location Important Species 1. Bandipur National Park Mysore, Karnataka Elephant, Tiger, Bear, Sambhar, Panther 2. Balpakram Sanctuary Garo Hills, Meghalaya Tiger, Elephant, Bison 3. Chandraprabha Sanctuary Varanasi, UP Asiatic Lion, Tiger, Panther, Indian Gazelle, Sloth bear 4. Corbett National Park Nainital, Uttarakhand Elephant, Tiger, Sloth bear, Nilgai, Panther, Sambhar 5. Dachigam Sanctuary Jammu and Kashmir Kashmir stag (Hangul) 6. Dudhwa National Park Lakhimpur Kheri, UP Tiger, Panther, Sambhar, Nilgai 7. Ghana Bird Sanctuary Bharatpur, Rajasthan Siberian Crane, Spoonbill, Heron teal, Stork 8. KGir National Park Junagarh, Gujarat Asiatic Lion, Panther, Sambhar, Nilgai, Crocodile, Rhinoceros 9. Hazaribagh National Park Hazaribagh, Jharkhand Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar, Chital 10. Jaldapara Sanctuary West Bengal Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar, Chital 11. Kanha National Park Mandla and Balaghat, MP Tiger, Panther, Antelope, Barking Deer, Nilgai 12. Kaziranga National Park Jorhat, Assam Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros, Wild Buffalo, Sambhar, Tiger 13. Keoladeo Ghana Bharatpur, Rajasthan Birds 14. Manas Barpeta, Assam Tiger, Elephant, Panther, Wild Buffalo, One-horned Rhinoceros 15. Mudumalai Sanctuary Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu Elephant, Dear, Pigs 16.KUNDANNamdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh Tiger and Elephant 17. Palamau Daltonganj, Jharkhand Tiger, Elephant, Panther, Leopard 18. Parkal Warangal, AP Tiger, Panther, Chital, Nilgai 19. Periyar Idukki, Kerala Elephant, Tiger, Panther, Wild boar, Gaur, Sambhar 20. Pench Maharashtra Leopard 21. Ranganthitoo Bird Sanctuary Karnataka Birds 22. Rohila National Park Himachal Pradesh Royal Stag 23. Shivpuri National Park Shivpuri, MP Tiger, Birds 24. Sunderbans West Bengal Tiger, Wild boar, Crocodile, Deer 25. Silent Valley National Park Kerala, Tamil Nadu 26. Sariska Rajasthan Tigers 27. Simlipal Odisha Elephants, Tigers 28. Vendanthangal Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu Birds 29. Sultanpur Birds Santuary Hariyana Aquatic Birds 30. Wild Ass Sanctuary Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat Wild Ass, Wolf, Nilgai, Chinkara 31. Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary Goa Birds

52 l Geography l Project Tiger is the most famous wildlife conservation Old and New names of countries and cities project of India. It was launched on 1 April, 1973 to protect New Name Old Name the diminishing population of Indian tigers. Japan Nippon l Project Elephant was launched in 1992. It was aimed at Ho Chi Minh City Saigon ensuring long-term survival of identified viable population Surinam Dutch Guyana of elephants in their natural habitat. Hawaii Island Sandwich Island Sobriquets of Places (India) Iran Persia Iraq Mesopotamia Sobriquet Place Malawi Nyasaland The City of Golden Temple Amritsar Lesotho Vasutoland The Land of Five Rivers Punjab Ghana Gold Coast The Blue Mountains Nilgiri hills Ethiopia Abyssinia The Sorrow of Bengal R. Damodar Thailand Siam The Gateway of India Mumbai Taiwan Formosa The Garden City of India Bangalore Kozhikode Calicut The Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi St Petersburg Leningrad The Venice of East Kochi Chennai Madras The Pink City Jaipur Cambodia Campuchia, Khamer The Spice Garden of India Kerala Djibouti French Somaliland The Switzerland of India Kashmir Zambia North Rhodesia The Diamond Harbour Kolkata Zimbabwe South Rhodesia The City of Seven Islands Mumbai Istanbul Constantinople The Twin Cities Hyderabad-Secunderabad Varanasi Benares, Kashi The City of Lakes Srinagar Allahabad Prayagraj (Prayag) The City of Temples and Zaire Republic of Congo Banks (Ghats) Varanasi Madagascar Malagasy TheK City of Nawabs Lucknow Myanmar Burma The Backbone of the Economy Java Suvarnadweep and Yavodweep of Northern India Ganga Patna Pataliputra The Sorrow of Bihar Kosi Bangladesh East Pakistan The Scotland of East Meghalaya Malaysia Malaya The Hollywood of India Mumbai Harare Salisbury The Steel City Jamshedpur The Queen of Chhotanagpur Netarhat (Jharkhand) Tribes of India The Queen of Mountains Mussoorie States Tribes The Child of Sea Lakshadweep Andhra Pradesh Chenchus, Gonda, Kolam The Kashmir of South Kerala KUNDANArunachal Pradesh Apatanis, Mishmi The Manchester of India Ahmedabad Assam Naga, Mikir, Kuki The Paris of India Jaipur Gujarat Bhil, Banjara, Kali The Pittsburgh of India Jamshedpur Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Gujjar The Abode of God Allahabad Maharasha Varli, Kol, Banjara The Manchester of North India Kanpur Jammu & Kashmir Gaddi, Gujjar, Bakkarwal The Heart of India Delhi Kerala Bhil, Mopla [Muslims of The Southern Ganga Godavari the Malabar district in The City of Festivals Madurai Kerala], Urali, Kadar The Pearl of Karnataka Mysore Madhya Pradesh Bhura, Baigar, Birhor, The Basket of Fruits Himachal Pradesh Muria, Gonda, Kathari, The Thermopile of Rajasthan Haldighati Kharia, Khond, Bhotia, Bhil, The Paris of East Jaipur Kol The Pride of Rajasthan Chittorgarh Manipur Naga, Kuki, Angami The Gateway of Rajasthan Bharatpur Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Mihir The Mini-Switzerland of India Khojjiyar (Chamba valley, Mizoram Mizo, Lushai, Kulri Himachal Pradesh)

Geography l 53 Nagaland Naga, Mihir, Sema, Ao Lines in Maps Odisha Santhal, Khond l Isohypse: The lines joining the points of both equal height Rajasthan Mina, Bhil and equal barometric pressure. Sikkim Lepcha l Isobath: The lines joining the points of equal depth of Tamil Nadu Toda (Miligin), Badaga, sea-water. Kota, Kanikar, Irula l Isobar: The lines joining the points of equal atmospheric Tripura Kuki, Tripuri pressure. Uttarakhand Tharu, Khas, Bhotia l Isobathytherm: The lines joining the ocean regions having West Bengal Santhal, Bhomi equal temperature. Jharkhand Santhal, Munda, Ho, Korba, l Isodopane: Lines of equal transportation costs. Gonda, Bhumisi, Birhor l Isogeotherm: The isotherms under the surface of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands Sentinelese, Shompen, Earth. Onges l Isolialine: The lines joining the ocean regions of equal Important Indian towns on rivers salinity. l Isohel: The lines joining the points of equal period of Town River insolation. Allahabad At the confluence of the Ganga l Isohyets: The lines joining the regions receiving equal and Yamuna precipitation. Patna Ganga l Isonif: The lines joining the regions of equal snow. Varanasi Ganga l Isoneph: The lines joining the regions of equal average Kanpur Ganga cloud overcast. Haridwar Ganga l Isophyte: The lines joining the points of equal height Badrinath Alaknanda vegetation. Agra Yamuna l Iso-seismal: The lines joining the points of equal Delhi Yamuna earthquake intensity. Mathura Yamuna K l Isotherm: The lines joining the points of equal temperature Ferozpur Satluj reduced to sea level. Ludhiana Satluj l Isonomal: The lines showing equal thermal anomaly. Srinagar Jhelum l Isocline: The lines of equal magnetic dip. Lucknow Gomti l Isogloss: The lines separating linguistic areas of a region. Jaunpur Gomti l Isopract: A specialised chart prepared for population Ayodhya Saryu study purposes. Bareilly Ramganga l Isoganic Line: The lines of similar magnetic dip. Ahmedabad Sabarmati l Agonic Line: The lines of zero magnetic dip. Kota Chambal l Loxodrome or Rhumb Line: The line crossing all Jabalpur Narmada meridians of longitude at the same angle. PanajiKUNDANMandavi l Plumb Line: The line joining the surface and the centre of Ujjain Kshipra the Earth. Surat Tapti l Iso-stasy: Equilibrium state or balance on Earth’s surface Jamshedpur Subarnarekha which is found between the light rock materials on the Dibrugarh Brahmaputra Earth and the heavy rock materials inside the Earth. Guwahati Brahmaputra l Isotach: The line in the weather maps, showing points of Kolkata Hooghly equal wind velocity. Sambalpur Mahanadi l Isobront: The line joining the regions of equal thunder- Cuttack Mahanadi storms. Serirangapatnam Cauvery l Isogonals: The lines joining the points of equal magnetic Hyderabad Musi depression. Nasik Godavari Vijaywada Krishna Kurnool Tungabhadra

54 l Geography