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Home , Bagar tract, Banawali, Dohan river, Farmana, Mitathal, Siswal

Harappan Settlement System and Economic Status in the Semi‐arid Zone, District,

Narender Parmar1, Appu Sharan2, Vikas Pawar2 and Vijay Kumar1

1. Department of History, Rajiv Gandhi Government College for Women, Bhiwani, Haryana (Email: [email protected]) 2. Department of History, M.D. University, – 124001, Haryana

Received: 07 October 2013; Accepted: 23 October 2013; Revised: 01 November 2013 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 1 (2013): 515‐538

Abstract: The main objective of this paper is to investigate the cause of migration of the Harappans from the fertile land (upper Saraswati basin) to the semi‐arid zone ( of ), in‐depth analysis of the cultural sequence and bring to light the nature of these settlements. In addition to this, the present paper also focuses on cultural transformations, settlement system, economic status, ceramic assemblages and other cultural material of the Harappan civilization in the semi‐arid zone.

Keywords: Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, Late Harappan, Settlement System, Semi‐arid Zone, , ‐

Introduction The of the upper Saraswati basin was most favourite place of the Harappans and also played an important role not only in supporting but also in developing the early farming communities by providing a land that can produce abundantly, proper amenities for irrigation of water and a variety of mineral resources. The region has a large concentration of alluvial deposit and many small rivers and lakes were in existence during the ancient period in the region. These rivers (Saraswati, Drasdwati, , Ghagger, Markanda, Tangri and Kuskiputra) might have played an important role by providing both a high‐quality agricultural land and facilities of irrigation, in addition to the provision of different varieties of wild plants and animals. Nevertheless, as we move away from the fertile region and enter into the dry area of sand dunes and Aravalli outcrops, they become sparse in especially Southern Haryana. The region could not provide good agricultural land as well as irrigation facilities were nominal. However, a good number of Harappan settlements emerged and developed in the region. Questions which need to be answered are: why the Harappan peoples settled in semi‐arid zone? What is the depth of cultural sequence of Harappan settlements in the region? How was the nature of these settlements? The main aim of this paper is to highlight the settlement system, cultural depth and economic status of the Harappan culture in the semi‐arid zone (northern Thar Desert of Rajasthan). ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 1: 2013

Study Area and Its Environs The present investigation carried out in Bhiwani district, which is one of the twenty one districts of Haryana. It includes 442 villages and lies between 28° 19ʹ to 29° 05ʹ north parallels of latitude and 75° 28ʹ to 76° 28ʹ east meridians of longitude with a total geographical area of 5,090 square kilometres (Fig. 1). It is divided into six tehsils viz. Bhiwani, Bawani Khera, , Siwani, , Dadri and ten blocks viz. Bawani Khera, Bhiwani, Dadri I &II, Badhra, Loharu, Bahal, , Tosham and Siwani. It is bounded in the north by the district, in the northeast by the , in the southeast by the , in the south by the Mahendergarh district and the (Rajasthan) and in the west by the and a part of the Jhunjhunu district (Rajasthan).

The region occupies an intermediary place between the Indo‐Gangetic plain and the Thar desert of Rajasthan. The north‐eastern part is representative of the Indo‐Gangetic plain while south‐western part is the Thar Desert of Rajasthan. The Indo‐Gangetic plain is generally flat, well known for cultivation and the topography unit is marked by the termination of distributaries of the system. The desert part is clustered with sand dunes of varying shapes and sizes and topography is marked by irregularities and undulations. The direction of the sand dunes is inconsistent and the dunes which are quite closely spaced are extension of the Thar Desert. The outline of Aravalli hills also play an important role in topographical features and are in occurrence in the Tosham and Dadri‐II blocks of this district. These hills are very well known for varieties of ores and minerals, stones and metals such as copper, tin, tungsten, iron, flexible sandstone, granite, quartz, quartzite, kankar, saltpetre, silica and foundry sand, mica and pyrite mineral (Gupta and Kanwar 1969, Thussu 2006).

Results of Exploration The present exploration carried out led to the discovery of several hitherto unknown sites in addition to the known rich cultural repertoire in the region. An extensive village‐to‐village survey carried out in the study region. As a result of this comprehensive survey, sixty three Harappan settlements were visited in the revenue jurisdiction of Bhiwani district, Haryana (Fig. 2; Table 1 and 2). The material inventory (pottery and other associated finds of different cultures) collected from sites during the exploration was then systematically examined.

Settlement System The earliest settlement remains in the present study region are found to be belonging to those of the Early Harappan period (Eastern Hakra Phase). The cultural remains of Eastern Hakra phase (circa 4000 BC) were found, in the north‐western corner of the study region, from Kanank‐I site. The location of this site is very interesting as it is located in vicinity of the Aravalli hills. Certainly, the people of Eastern Hakra phase seem to have come here in the search of stones, metals and minerals. They were

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successfully trading of the Aravalli stone to other contemporary settlements (Law 2008: 208‐10). The excavations of Kunal (Khatri and Achrya 1997), (Rao 2006), (Shinde et al. 2011a) and Girawad (Shinde et al. 2011b) have thrown light on the life ways style of this phase. The excavation revealed that people lived in pit dwelling complexes and used semiprecious stones, bone objects, metal objects and wheel‐made pottery. They were the first cultivators of wheat, barley and rice in the region (Saraswat and Pokharia 2002‐03:105‐39). They were also involved in the export, import trade and copper melting activities and successfully evolved into the Sothi‐ Siswal phase.

Table 1: Chronological Sequence of Harappan Sites in Bhiwani District

Period Cultural Phase Sites Period‐I Early Harappan Culture Eastern Hakra Phase 01 (>4000‐2600 BC) (>4000‐3200 BC) Sothi‐Siswal Phase 35 (3200‐2600 BC) Period‐II Mature Harappan Culture 36 (2600‐1900 BC) Period‐III Late Harappan Culture 47 (1900‐1300 BC)

Table 2: Harappan Sites in the Study Area

Sl. Name of the Co‐ordinates Block Cultural Size in No. Site Sequence Hectares 1. Achina‐I 28° 38ʹ 27.4ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH 3.00 76° 22ʹ 55.7ʺ 2. Achina‐II 28° 39ʹ 39.3ʺ Dadri‐I MH, LH 2.50 76° 21ʹ 51.2ʺ 3. Alkhpura 29° 01ʹ 15.7ʺ Bawani EH, MH, LH 3.20 76° 03ʹ 15.1ʺ Khera 4. Alkhpura 28° 54ʹ 12.7ʺ Tosham EH, MH, Med. 4.00 75° 56ʹ 54.4ʺ 5. Ajitpura 28° 43ʹ 14.2ʺ Bhiwani LH, Hist., E. 3.00 76° 10ʹ 31.6ʺ Med. 6. Balayali 28° 53ʹ 25.0ʺ Bawani LH, Med. 5.00 76° 00ʹ 00.1ʺ Khera 7. Bawani Khera‐I 28° 59ʹ 04.2ʺ Bawani LH, Hist. 4.00 76° 00ʹ 18.5ʺ Khera 8. Bawani Khera‐II 28° 55ʹ 57.0ʺ Bawani LH, Hist., Med. 3.00 75° 59ʹ 42.6ʺ Khera 9. Bhagavi 28° 37ʹ 24.3ʺ Dadri‐I MH, LH 2.00 76° 22ʹ 30.1ʺ

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Sl. Name of the Cultural Size in Co‐ordinates Block No. Site Sequence Hectares

10. Bhani Jattan 29° 01ʹ 49.1ʺ Bawani EH, PGW, Med. 3.00 76° 05ʹ 44.3ʺ Khera 11. Bhurtana‐I 28° 54ʹ 47.1ʺ Bawani EH, MH 2.00 75° 57ʹ 28.7ʺ Khera 12. Bhurtana‐II 28° 54ʹ 33.1ʺ Bawani LH 1.50 75° 58ʹ 02.6ʺ Khera 13. Bohal 28° 57ʹ 37.3ʺ Bawani EH, Hist., E. Med 2.50 75° 56ʹ 04.2ʺ Khera 14. Chang‐I 28° 53ʹ 00.2ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH, LH 5.00 76° 13ʹ 17.5ʺ 15. Chang‐II 28° 53ʹ 13.3ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH, LH 1.50 76° 13ʹ 25.8ʺ 16. Chang‐III 28° 51ʹ 42.5ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH, LH 1.40 76° 15ʹ 01.5ʺ 17. Chang‐IV 28° 51ʹ 46.5ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH 76° 12ʹ 48.1ʺ 18. Chortapur 29° 03ʹ 41.8ʺ Bawani EH, E. Med. 2.00 75° 59ʹ 24.1ʺ Khera 19. Dhanana 28° 54ʹ 25.6ʺ Bhawani MH, LH 2.00 76° 09ʹ 11.3ʺ 20. Dhang Khurd‐I 28° 52ʹ 20.8ʺ Tosham LH 1.00 76° 00ʹ 06.4ʺ 21. Dhang Khurd‐II 28° 50ʹ 58.6ʺ Tosham LH, Med. 2.50 75° 59ʹ 55.7ʺ 22. Dohki 28° 40ʹ 02.1ʺ Dadri‐II EH, MH, LH, 3.00 76° 09ʹ 47.0ʺ Hist. 23. Durjanpur 29° 02ʹ 08.0ʺ Bawani LH 2.00 76° 00ʹ 44.8ʺ Khera 24. Fategarh 28° 39ʹ 33.8ʺ Dadri‐II LH 1.00 76° 15ʹ 08.5ʺ 25. Hindol 28° 41ʹ 57.6ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH, 1.80 76° 15ʹ 28.1ʺ Hist. 26. Jatu Luhari‐I 28° 52ʹ 05.0ʺ Bawani LH 3.00 76° 03ʹ 15.9ʺ Khera 27. Jatu Luhari‐II 28° 54ʹ 56.6ʺ Bawani LH 1.00 76° 05ʹ 30.7ʺ Khera 28. Jhinjhar 28° 39ʹ 21.0ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH, 10.00 76° 21ʹ 04.9ʺ Hist. 29. Jitakheri 29° 00ʹ 43.0ʺ Bawani LH 1.50 75° 54ʹ 42.2ʺ Khera

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Sl. Name of the Cultural Size in Co‐ordinates Block No. Site Sequence Hectares

30. Kalinga‐I 28° 53ʹ 05.3ʺ Bhiwani LH, E. Med 6.00 76° 17ʹ 45.9ʺ 31. Kalinga‐II 28° 53ʹ 44.5ʺ Bhiwani LH, PGW, E. 5.00 76° 20ʹ 22.0ʺ Med 32. Kamod‐I 28° 38ʹ 39.8ʺ Dadri‐I LH, Hist. 3.00 76° 17ʹ 07.8ʺ 33. Kamod‐II 28° 38ʹ 45.8ʺ Dadri‐I MH, LH 1.00 76° 16ʹ 31.0ʺ 34. Kasni‐I 28° 40ʹ 27.7ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH 1.50 76° 15ʹ 00.9ʺ 35. Kasni‐II 28°40ʹ 25.8ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH 2.00 76° 14ʹ 24.6ʺ 36. Khanak‐I 28° 54ʹ 26.5ʺ Tosham EH, MH 1.50 75° 52ʹ 08.9ʺ 37. Khanak‐II 28° 54ʹ 16.5ʺ Tosham EH, MH, Med. 2.00 75° 52ʹ 05.5ʺ 38. Kharak 28° 50ʹ 49.8ʺ Bhiwani LH 2.00 76° 17ʹ 14.4ʺ 39. Khatiwas‐I 28° 37ʹ 18.6ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH 4.00 76° 19ʹ 05.1ʺ 40. Khatiwas‐II 28° 38ʹ 54.1ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH 4.00 76° 18ʹ 40.8ʺ 41. Kheri Daulatpur‐ 28° 58ʹ 46.0ʺ Bawani EH, MH 3.50 I 76° 03ʹ 13.7ʺ Khera 42 Kheri Daulatpur‐ 28° 58ʹ 41.7ʺ Bawani EH, MH 2.00 II 76° 03ʹ 40.7ʺ Khera 43. Kungar 29° 00ʹ 03.0ʺ Bawani EH, MH, LH, 8.00 76° 06ʹ 00.2ʺ Khera E. Med. 44. Mailkpur 29° 02ʹ 43.9ʺ Bawani LH 5.00 75° 59ʹ 17.2ʺ Khera 45. Mandhana 28° 54ʹ 00.0ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH, LH 1.70 76° 07ʹ 49.7ʺ 46. Manheru‐I 28° 57ʹ 49.9ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH 6.00 76° 19ʹ 40.0ʺ 47. Manheru‐II 28° 42ʹ 41.0ʺ Bhiwani LH, Hist. 2.00 76° 14ʹ 21.1ʺ 48. Morwala 28° 38ʹ 06.0ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH 2.00 76° 24ʹ 45.9ʺ 49. Mirch‐I 28° 39ʹ 57.4ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, Hist., 3.00 76° 16ʹ 20.3ʺ Med.

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Sl. Name of the Cultural Size in Co‐ordinates Block No. Site Sequence Hectares

50. Mirch‐II 28° 39ʹ 21.4ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH 2.00 76° 16ʹ 11.0ʺ 51. Misri‐I 28° 40ʹ 50.5ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH 2.50 76° 16ʹ 23.0ʺ 52. Misri‐II 28° 40ʹ41.0ʺ Dadri‐I EH, MH, LH 2.00 76° 15ʹ 25.6ʺ 53. 28° 52ʹ 39.9ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH, LH 10.00 76° 11ʹ 10.8ʺ 54. Pur‐I 28° 58ʹ 10.1ʺ Bawani LH 4.00 76° 04ʹ 33.4ʺ Khera 55. Pur‐II 28° 56ʹ 28.1ʺ Bawani LH, Hist., Med. 4.00 76° 06ʹ 28.5ʺ Khera 56. Rasiwas 28° 40ʹ 44.2ʺ Dadri‐II LH 2.00 76° 08ʹ 02.1ʺ 57. Ravaldhi 28° 38ʹ 04.7ʺ Dadri‐I MH, LH, Med. 5.00 76° 10ʹ 10.2ʺ 58. 29° 00ʹ 16.7ʺ Bawani EH, E. Med. 3.00 75° 54ʹ 45.8ʺ Khera 59. Samspur 28° 36ʹ 35.7ʺ Dadri‐I MH. LH, Hist. 2.50 76° 19ʹ 34.7ʺ 60. Sui 28° 52ʹ 16.5ʺ Bawani EH, E. Med. 2.00 76° 04ʹ 13.9ʺ Khera 61. Talu 28° 59ʹ 39.6ʺ Bhiwani LH, E. Med 2.00 76° 10ʹ 12.3ʺ 62. Tigrana‐I 28° 53ʹ 25.9ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH, LH 5.00 76° 08ʹ 08.8ʺ 63. Tigrana‐II 28° 57ʹ 25.6ʺ Bhiwani EH, MH, LH, 3.00 76° 09ʹ 20.9ʺ E. Med. EH – Early Harappan, MH ‐ Mature Harappan, LH‐ Late Harappan, PGW‐ Painted Grey Ware, E. Hist. ‐ Early Historical, Hist.‐ Historical, E. Med. ‐ Early Medieval, Med. – Medieval

The next stage of cultural evolution can be noticed in the Sothi‐Siswal phase. Some features of the ceramic assemblage of the Eastern Hakra phase (external light incised design and chocolate slipped ware) seem to be continued in the Sothi‐Siswal phase at Manheru‐I, Misri‐I, Jhinjhar and Morwala sites (these sites are located in the south‐ eastern side of the study region). These types of ceramics were found in the earlier level (Siswal A) of Sothi‐Siswal phase (Bhan 1975). These evidences are clearly indicative of the fact that these sites were established in the earlier stage (circa 3200 BC) of Sothi‐Siswal phase. This, in a way, also suggests that the people were moving from the north‐west to south‐east direction. A good number of sites such as Mitathal and its neighbouring sites were also established in the later period (circa 2800 BC) of this

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phase (Late Siswal culture). The earlier ceramic assemblage of Siswal A was found to be totally absent here. On the contrary, only evolved stages of ceramic assemblages (Siswal B) were found at the site of Mitathal (Bhan 1975). Over all, during the Sothi‐ Siswal phase a good number of the settlement were established beyond the Saraswati‐ Drasdwati valley.

The Mature Harappan period did not show any drastic change in the region. Most of the Early Harappan settlements seem to be continued during the Mature Harappan period also. These settlements were found to be survived in the rural condition and revealed majority of the elements of the Early Harappan culture. The sites of Mitathal and Manheru played vital roles by acting as regional centres as was witnessed in the previous period. Both seem to have evolved from the manufacturing activities of faience and steatite. It appears that these settlements supplied the raw material and manufactured/finished items to the bigger Mature Harappan settlements located in the main Saraswati‐Drasdwati valley. However, the typical change of the Mature Harappan period can be observed in the region. The settlement of Mitathal revealed twin mounds in the form of citadel and lower town, a typical feature of the Mature Harappan town planning. The classical Mature Harappan ceramics were also found but limited in number. The prosperity of the cultural material is clearly indicative of the fact that the economic condition was much better in this period as compared to the Early Harappan period.

The type settlements of the Late Harappan culture were evolved in this region. Mitathal was one of the largest settlements of this period located in the upper Saraswati basin. It is representative of all the Late Harappan settlements in this region. Sites like Chang‐I, Tigrana‐I and Jhinjhar were also established as regional centre. In addition, a large number of small settlements were also situated in this area. These settlements not only played an important role in the agricultural economy but also controlled the industrial scheme of the Late Harappan period. However, the Late Harappan period is generally assumed to be representative of the lessening in the subsistence activities. The external trade also seem to be gone down and consequently the local products come into demand. These settlements were already active in the production of local items. Faience objects were the most preferred items as ornaments during the Late Harappan period. Mitathal was a major centre of faience production and must have supplied the faience and other related objects to the other Late Harappan sites (Shinde et al. 2008). These settlements, in return, might have supplied the raw material (Aravalli stone) and might also have been acted as links between the Harappan culture and the ‐Jodhpura culture (Agrawal and Kumar 1982). Therefore, the study region provided ideal conditions for the Late Harappan people. The Late Harappan settlements of this region seem to have been in good economic condition in compared to other .

Settled Area‐wise Distribution Only a single site, Khanak‐I represents the Eastern Hakra phase in the study region.

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This site was important trade centre during the Harappan period. It falls in the vicinity of the Aravalli foothills and has an area of about 1.5 hectare. During the exploration, the material culture of Eastern Hakra phase was recovered from whole site. Hence, it is a possibility that the Eastern Hakra phase occupied entire area of the site. The other Eastern Hakra phase sites located in the neighbouring regions are also found of the same dimensions as is this site. The settlement data for the Eastern Hakra and other phases of Harappan culture are given in Table 3.

Table 3: Settlement Data of the Study Area

Eastern Hakra Sothi‐Siswal Mature Late Phase Phase Harappan Harappan Phase Phase Total Sites 01 site 35 sites 36 sites 47 sites Sites with accurate 01 site 06 sites 08 sites 27 sites size Settled area of sites 1.5 hectares 14 hectares 23.5 hectares 73.8 hectares with known sizes Sites with sizes 00 site 29 sites 28 sites 20 sites unknown Estimate of settled 00 hectares 101.6 hectares 94.6 hectares 72.3 hectares area of sites (without size) Average site size 1.5 hectares 3.30 hectares 3.28 hectares 3.10 hectares Total estimated 1.5 hectares 115.6 hectares 118.1 hectares 146.1 hectares settled area

During the exploration, thirty five sites of Sothi‐Siswal phase were visited in the study region. Most of these sites have multicultural sequence. Hence, it is really difficult to identify the actual size of the Sothi‐Siswal sites only on the basis of this exploration. Only six sites reveal the actual size which falls in the range of 14 hectares. These evidences clearly indicate that people of the Sothi‐Siswal survived in the small villages. The estimate of total floor area occupied during this phase was 115.6 hectares and average size was 3.30 hectares. The settlement data for the Sothi‐Siswal phase are given in Table 3.

The total number of the Mature Harappan sites is thirty six in the study area. More or less a same situation was noticed during the Early Harappan period and, it seems that almost same number of settlements continued from the Early Harappan to Mature Harappan period. The only difference, one can notice, is the immersion of regional centres here. The estimated total settled area was found to be 118.1 hectares and 3.28 hectares was average size of the sites. Only eight sites have accurate settled size with a range of 23.5 hectares. Twenty eight sites show multicultural sequence which falls in

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the range of 94.6 hectares. The settlement data for the Mature Harappan period are given in Table 3.

In the Late Harappan period, a total of forty seven settlements were situated in the study region. It shows an increase in the number of settlements in comparison to other periods and the region contains some of the largest Late Harappan sites in the upper Saraswati basin. The estimated total floor area occupied during this period was 146.1 hectares and the average settlement size is 3.10 hectares. Twenty seven sites show accurate size which falls in the range of 73.8 hectares. Twenty sites have revealed multicultural sequence which falls in the range of 72.3 hectares. The settlement data for the Late Harappan period are given in Table 3.

Soil Zone‐wise Distribution Most favourite soil zone of the Harappan people seem to be the alluvial plain (Haryana tract) in the present study region (Table 4). A large number of the settlements (84%) were situated in the alluvial plain. While some of the Harappan settlements were found to be located on the outer periphery of Thar Desert (Dadri tract), not even a single settlement was found in the typical Thar Desert (Bagar tract). In addition, few Harappan settlements were located in the region of the little sand‐dune, situated between the alluvial plain. Only 16% of total Harappan settlements were found in the Sand‐dune region

As illustrated above, the alluvial plain seems to be the most favourite location and most of the Early Harappan settlements were located in this type of soil zone. Ninety one percent of explored Early Harappan settlements (32 sites) were located in alluvial plains and falls in the range of 107.6 hectares (93%). The average area of these settlements is found to be 105.6 hectares (91%). A comparison of the Early Harappan and the Mature Harappan settlements shows that while the number of settlements is almost same, one can notice a gradual decrease in the total percentage. The Mature Harappan people were settled in an area of 107.6 hectares (91%) and average area was 105.2 hectares (89%). Although an increase has been noticed in the number of Late Harappan settlement in the alluvial plain, a further decrease in the total percentage can be seen. The percentage drops down to 85% from 89% during the Late Harappan Period. The total area was 126.6 hectares (87%) in the alluvial plain and average area was 124 hectares (85%).

A different picture emerges when one compares the sites located in the sand‐dune region. Only three Early Harappan settlements were situated in the sand‐dune region, which forms a total percentage of 9. These settlements were located on the outer periphery of the Thar Desert. The settlement area falls in the range of 8 hectares (7%) having an average area of 9.9 hectares (9%). During the Mature Harappan period, a total of 4 settlements were located in the same region and the percentage also increases (from 9 to 11%). This is contrary to the situation as was noticed in the alluvial plains, where a decrease in the percentage was noticed. The settlement area of the Mature

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Harappan period settlements falls in the range of 10.5 hectares (9%) having an average area of 13.1 hectares (11%). The percentage in the number of sand‐dune settlements further increases (15%) during the Late Harappan period. A Total of seven Late Harappan settlements were located in the Sand‐dune region. These Late Harappan settlement area falls in the range of 19.5 hectares (13%) having an average area of 21.7 hectares (15%).

Table 4: Distribution of the Harappan Settlements in Various Soil Zones

Cultural Period No. of settlements Total area in No. of Total area in in alluvial plain alluvial plain settlements sand‐dune in sand‐dune Early Harappan 32 (91%) 107.6 03 (9%) 8 hectares hectares (7%) (93%) Mature Harappan 32 (89%) 107.6 04 (11%) 10.5 hectares hectares (9%) (91%) Late Harappan 40 (85%) 126.6 07 (15%) 19.5 hectares hectares (13%) (87%)

Nature‐wise Distribution Two different types of Harappan settlements can be noticed in the study region viz. i) factory sites and ii) trader’s camp sites (Parmar 2011: 59). A majority of the settlements survived in the form of small villages. These settlements were not only involved in the agricultural activities but also supplied the raw material to the bigger Harappan settlements located in the main Saraswati‐Drasdwati valley. A few big villages and small towns were also in existence in the study region (Table 5). They played important roles as regional centres and were also involved in the manufacture of precious items.

During the Early Harappan period, twenty nine settlements were less than 5 hectares in the size in the study region. Nevertheless, sites such as Jhinjhar (10 hect.), Kunger (8 hect.), Chang‐I (5 hect.) and Tigrana‐I (5 hect.) revealed an area of more than 5 hectares. However, it is important to note here that these sites have multicultural sequence. Jhinjhar was a good settlement of the Historical period while Kunger also yielded a great deposit of the Early Medieval period. During the exploration, limited cultural material of the Early Harappan period was found from these sites. Chang‐I and Tigrana‐I had 5 hectares land during the Late Harappan period. It is more possible that these sites might have less than 5 hectares in size during the Early Harappan period and might have survived as the small villages. The sites of Mitathal and Manheru played a vital role as regional centre during the Early Harappan period. Mitathal falls in the 10 hectares land and consist into the two mounds. The excavations at Mitathal have shown that the material of the Early Harappan period is found from only mound‐

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I, which is near about 5 hectares (Bhan 1975). Manheru was an important centre of the steatite manufacturing activities during the Early Harappan period. It falls in the 6 hectares and has good deposit (1.5 metres) of the Early Harappan period (Thakran et al. 2012). Hence, during the Early Harappan period thirty three sites seem to have survived as the small villages and two sites (Mitathal and Manheru) as the big village category in the study region.

Almost same condition can be noticed during the Mature Harappan period. Twenty nine settlements were less than 5 hectares in size. In addition, five small village settlements (Jhinjhar 10 hect., Kungar 8 hect., Rawadhi 5 hect., Chang‐I 5 hect. and Tigrana‐I 5 hect.) also increased in size to more than 5 hectares in settled area in the later cultural period. Mitathal and Manheru were situated as regional centre (big village category). Most of the settlements were rural in nature and revealed a majority of the Sothi‐Siswal cultural material. Over all, thirty four sites survived as the small villages and only two sites (Mitathal and Manheru) as the big villages during the Mature Harappan period.

During the Late Harappan period, a good number of small village settlements were increased in the region. Forty three Late Harappan settlements were less than 5 hectares and survived in the form of small villages. Three small Late Harappan villages (Kungar 8 hect., Kalinga 6 hect. and Baliyali 5 hect.) were also found to be survived as big villages during the Historic and the Medieval period. The largest Late Harappan settlements of the upper Saraswati basin were also emerged in the study region. Chang‐I, Tigrana‐I and Jhinjhar settlements were related to big village’s category. Mitathal was the biggest settlement of this region and falls in the range of 10 hectares. It is representative of the all Late Harappan sites in the upper Saraswati basin. Thus, during the Late Harappan period one town, three big villages and forty three small settlements were situated in the study region.

Table 5: Nature‐wise Distribution of the Harappan Settlements

Period City Town Big Village Small Village (25‐50 ha.) (10‐25 ha.) (5‐9.99 ha.) (0‐4.99 ha.) Early Harappan 00 00 02 (6%) 33 (94%) Mature Harappan 00 00 02 (6%) 34 (94%) Late Harappan 00 01 (2%) 03 (6%) 43 (92%)

Settlement System on the Bank of Rivers It is believed that the Harappan settlements were mostly located on the banks of the river and its tributaries. However, if we consider the hydrography of the study region, the picture is not that much clear. According to Bhan (1970: 1‐4), the old course of Yamuna river flowed to the west of present course and one channel, which bifurcates from the western Yamuna canal at Uklana and flows via Sink, Baghru, Karsola, Paoli, Farmana, Seman, Singhwa, Chang, Mitathal, Tigrana and Tosham should have been

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there in the past. Ahead of Tosham, it expands and reduced to almost nothing in the sand‐dune of Thar Desert. Bhan (1970: 2) also noticed the coarse grey sand (similar to the Yamuna sand) in the cutting section of the walls at Tosham, Mitathal and Paoli etc.

During the present field exploration, two main flows of dried ancient stream and two big lakes (Riwasa and Achina lakes) were noticed in the study region. One is the tributary of Drasdwati river and enters in the Bhiwani district from northern side of Kalinga village. While the natural channel is almost completely damaged by railway tracks, modern canals, roads and agricultural activities. The depression of this stream can be clearly seen near the Chang, Mitathal, Guskhani, Tigrana and Pramnager villages. It is approximately 300 metre in the width and completely gets filled up by water during the rainy season. Along the course, a big chain of the Harappan settlements were located such as Kalinga‐I, Chang‐I, Chang‐II, Chang‐III, Mitathal, Tigrana‐I, Tigrana‐II, Jatu Luhari‐I, Sui, Baliyali, Dhang Khurd‐I, Dhang Khurd‐II, Bhurtana‐I, Bhurtana‐II, Alakhpura, etc. in the Bhiwani District (Parmar 2008‐09, 2011). A large number of settlements are located between the Drasdwati river and this stream valley. In the literature, one finds the mention of the Kausiki river which flowed south of the Drasdwati river. This river flowed between Rohitaka (present Rohtak) and the Drasdwati river and joins the Drasdwati river near region (Dukhi 1986: 21‐23). This fact also gets support from the location of the Harappan settlements most of which were located on the bank of this stream. Most probably, this stream was meeting in the Drasdwati river near the Hansi region. One big lake (known as famous Riwasa lake now days) can be seen in the vicinity of the Aravalli hills and southern side of this stream. However, not a single Harappan settlement is found in the surrounding area of this lake. It is a probability that the flow of this stream was frail and weak in the later period. It seemed to have moved towards southern side of the original flow. As the high sand‐dunes and the Aravalli hills were located on this side of the region the stream did not get the chance to move ahead with its flow and consequently converted in the form of a lake. The twenty one Early Harappan sites (60%) and the seventeen Mature Harappan sites (47%) were located inside this valley. The twenty seven settlements (57%) were found during the Late Harappan period.

Second was the seasonal stream and tributary of the Shabhi river. The course of this stream is totally disturbed by modern activities. However, the sequence of the river sand deposit, high ground water level and fertile land is very helpful to identify the ancient course of this stream. It was flowing into the Manheru, Sonf, Mirch, Komad, Jhinjhar, Achina and Morwala villages then enter in to the Jhajhar district and finally meets Shabhi river. It is also mentioned in the earlier study that the was flowed in this region near the Kiliana hills (Jain and Dandona 2012). Most probably, it was ancient course of the Dohan river. A chain of the Harappan settlements also can be noticed on the bank of this stream. The large and important Harappan settlements were situated along this stream course. A few Harappan burial sites are also found on the bank of this stream. A big lake (taal) was situated on the course of this stream near to Achina village in the ancient time. The Harappan settlements are located in the

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vicinity of this lake. The antiquity of the lake is however difficult to determine without any dating evidences. During the Early Harappan period, fourteen settlements (40%) were found in the catchments of this stream. Nineteen Mature Harappan (53%) and twenty Late Harappan settlements (43%) were also situated on the bank of this stream.

Cultural Material The Early Harappan ceramic assemblages consist of two different phases viz. Eastern Hakra ceramic tradition and Sothi‐Siswal ceramic tradition. The Eastern Hakra phase is representing of earliest ceramic assemblages of this region and evolved stage can be noticed at the Sothi‐Siswal phase. The Eastern Hakra ceramic assemblage can be broadly divided into red, grey and buff ware. Most of the ceramic assemblages are red ware industry, besides grey ware (nearly one percent) and painted buff ware (less than one percent) are also yielded in limited number (Rao 2006:38, Shinde et al. 2008:123). A good number of sherds of the Eastern Hakra ceramic assemblage are recovered from Kanank‐I include mud appliqué, incised and chocolate slipped wares (Fig. 3). The Sothi‐Siswal ceramic assemblage is wheel made, well fired, medium to thin fabric, having a red and chocolate slip and painted with black colour (Fig. 4). The red ware found in large scale and is quite similar to ‐I fabric A to D. This recent exploration also brought to light the buff ware (Fabric E) and grey ware (Fabric F), though limited in number and without any painted designs. The main motifs noticed on the Sothi‐Siswal pottery include horizontal, vertical and curved lines, zig‐zag pattern, wavy rope and loop designs. The painted designs were found, over the red slip, to be generally located at rim, neck and shoulder portions. A few sherds having incised decoration on the outer surface are also found from sites like Manheru, Sofh, Mirch and Kasni, which is quite similar to Siswal A (Bhan 1975: Pl. XXXII, B). The main shapes of Sothi‐Siswal phase includes dish‐on‐stand, dish, globular vase, basin, jar, bowl and storage jar.

The Mature Harappan ceramic assemblages can be divided into the two groups. First group is related to the classical Harappan ceramic. These ceramics were introduced in the Mature Harappan period for the first time and includes beaker, perforated jar, beaded rim vase, nail headed rim dish, recurved base dish on stand, projected rim shallow dish on stand, pointed base vase, and storage jar with wide mouth and projected rim, etc. (Bhan 1975:23). The second group is associated with Sothi‐Siswal ceramic. These are also found along with the classical Harappan ceramics in the Mature Harappan period. The Mature Harappan settlements revealed mostly the characteristic feature of Siswal culture. Elements generally associated with the classical Mature Harappan were limited in number beyond the Saraswati‐Drasdwati valley. The Mature Harappan pottery collected from the sites was made on fast wheel, well fired, having a red slip, painted with black colour and are medium to fine in fabric (Fig. 5). The main shapes include perforated jars, goblets, dish‐on‐stand, basin, vase, storage jars and dish. The painted designs are generally geometrical with black colour on the fine red surface.

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The Late Harappan ceramic assemblage is symbolized of devolutionary tradition in the ceramic industry of Harappan civilization. During this period, the fabric and forms of the Mature Harappan ceramic are dominated but in general it shows degradation in the form of fabric, designs and also in decoration (Fig. 6). A few shapes of Mature Harappan ceramic like beaker, perforated jar, storage jar with flanged rim and dish on stand with nail headed rim, etc. were found to be totally absent during this period except in some rare cases where these make their appearance (Bhan 1975: 33). The Late Harappan settlements of this region also suggest standard specimen of ceramic assemblages of the Late Harappan culture in upper Saraswati basin. On the basis of this collection, the Late Harappan ceramic can be divided into the five groups viz. dull red ware, rusticated ware, incised ware, gray ware and black on red ware. Dull red ware is found in the large scale in forms such as, dish, dish on stand, bowl, jar, vase and basin. The dull red slip and light red slip are also noticed in the large scale during the exploration. Rusticated ware is one of the important features in the Late Harappan period. Rustication is found mostly on lower part of vase and storage jar and looks like horizontal wavy lines. It has mostly medium and thick fabric. Incised ware is also another popular feature of the Late Harappan period. Generally, it is found on the shoulder part of ceramic. The main designs of incised pottery are horizontal line, vertical line, oblique line, mat design and wavy design. These lines are light deep and drawn with pointed edged instrument. Gray ware is found in limited number. It is characterised by medium fabric, fine surface, well fired and undecorated. Black on red ware is also found in large scale in the region. Mostly pots are treated with dull red slip and painting with black colour. Mostly, geometric designs noticed in this period include horizontal and vertical line, zig‐zag pattern, dots, latticed and loop designs. A different shaped type of dish, dish on stands, vases, bowls, storage jar, basins and handled pots, such as flaring, flat topped, flanged, collared, beaded and dropping rims, are recovered during the exploration.

The Harappans used mainly gold, silver, lead, copper and bronze as ornaments, tools and weapons, etc. The gold ornaments are reported in the region but limited in number (Kumar et al. 2011). During the exploration, two gold beads are also found from Mitathal (Fig. 7). Silver and lead objects are totally absent in this region other than the copper objects were extremely ordinary. A good number of copper objects are reported in the Mature and Late Harappan period from Mitathal while only one fragment of bangle is found in the Early Harappan period (Bhan 1975:62). Similar observations are made in Manheru excavation, where not a single object is found in the Early Harappan period and the copper objects, slag and crucible are reported in the Mature Harappan period only (Thakran et al. 2012). In addition, the copper hoard implements also survived in the region along with these. The important finding of harpoon, celt and parasu are reported from Mitathal (Bhan 1975:62). The copper content of Mitathal objects (98.13 to 98.64 %) are quite similar to Bisauli and Ganeshwar (Sahi 2006‐07:162). It is possible that these objects came from Ganeshwer‐Jodhpura culture. However, the number of crucibles is indicative of producing of copper melting at Harappan sites in the region. Other factors such as the raw material of copper were easily available in the

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region (Gupta and Kanwar 1969: 50‐51, Kochhar 1982: 51‐52, Thussu 2006: 80‐82). Therefore, the copper objects are more popular in the region and it shows that most of the Harappan settlements were involved in the process of copper melting.

The beads of carnelian, agate, flint and lapis lazuli are recovered from the excavations of the Mitathal (Bhan 1975: 75) and Manheru (Thakran et al. 2012) (Fig. 8). Carnelian and agate were most popular semiprecious stones in the region. During the Early Harappan period, the micro carnelian beads were very common at Manheru while long barrel shaped and etched beads found in the Mature Harappan period (Thakran et al. 2012) and long barrel shaped carnelian beads continued in the Late Harappan period at Mitathal (Bhan 1975: 73). The different types of agate bead are reported from Mitathal including long barrel elliptical, standard barrel lenticular, long barrel tabloid and biconical circular etc. In addition, one flint bead is found in unstratified level at the site of Mitathal (Bhan 1975: 75) and three lapis lazuli beads are also recovered from the Mature Harappan level at Manheru (Thakran et al. 2012).

Faience and Steatite objects were played an important role in the Harappan ornaments. Both are found very frequently at Harappan sites in the region. The evidences of manufacturing activities of these objects are reported at the sites of Mitathal and Manheru (Shinde et al. 2008: 150‐55, Thakran et al. 2012: 1‐14). The raw material of these objects is also easily available in the Aravalli and Siwalik ranges (Law 2008: 331, Parbhakar et al. 2010: 55‐57). Mitathal excavations uncovered a good amount of the faience objects such as 71.60 percent occupied in the total amount of bangle and 40.35 percent in the beads (Bhan 1975: 70‐76). In addition, a miniature faience pot, decorated faience handle of cup and decorated faience marble are also reported from Mitathal (Bhan 1975: 79). Furthermore, the remains of faience manufacturing activities (kilns) and raw material (white quartz) are also available at Mitathal (Shinde et al. 2008: 150‐ 55, Prabhakar et al. 2010: 55). During the Early Harappan period, the faience objects were rarely used in the study region. Only few faience beads and bangles are found in the upper level of Early Harappan period at Manheru while not a single faience object is reported from Mitathal in the same level. The excavations of these sites have revealed that the faience objects were normally used in the Mature Harappan period. Although, these objects extremely dominated during the Late Harappan period. At Mitathal, the 80 percent amount of the faience objects recovered in the Late Harappan period (Mitathal IIB). The presence of large number of faience objects (Figs. 9 and 10) indicates that it was the most preferred material in the Late Harappan period and was gradually replacing the objects made up of semiprecious stones. Steatite objects (Fig. 11) were continuing during the Early Harappan to Mature then to the Late Harappan period. The Manheru excavation revealed the manufacturing activities of steatite objects in the region. The 89% beads are made by steatite at Manheru. In addition, a unique hoard of thirty thousand micro steatite beads also has been exposed from the early Harappan level (Thakran et al. 2010: 128‐159, 2012: 1‐14). Furthermore, a firing place was located near this hoard of steatite beads with red brunt marks and very fine silver white ash. Side by side, a large quantity of little bits of white steatites is also

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noticed in the area (Thakran and Amar Singh 2012: Personal Communication). It has been established that the Aravalli hills were the main source of steatite raw material during the Harappan period (Law 2008:331). A good quantity (14.03%) of different type of steatite beads is also found from Mature and Late Harappan period at Mitathal (Bhan 1975:75). One other important finding of rectangular steatite seal is also found at Mitathal (Prabhakar et al. 2010: 56).

Terracotta objects are essential, dominated items in the region include animal figurine, wheels, beads, bangles, cakes, balls and hopscotches. A number of wheel toys, painted and simple animal figurines are also reported in the study region (Bhan 1975:66 Thakran et al. 2012). The present exploration also brought to light Indus styles a solid humped bull figurine from Tigrana‐I and broken bull figurine from Mitathal. Wheels are also found in the usual range in the region and the common feature of wheels is underside is plain or other side slightly curved with a short protruding conical hub. At Mitathal, 28.94% amount is occupied by beads (Bhan 1975:75) while only 2% at Manheru (e.g. Thakran et al. 2012). A good number of biconical shaped beads are recovered during the investigation. Most of the bangles are treated with buff or red slip and painted with black oblique strokes on exterior. A few cases of grey fabric bangles are also found at Mitathal. During the Early Harappan period, single with round section bangles were well‐liked while segmented bangles were more popular in the Mature and Late Harappan period (Bhan 1975:76). The present exploration brought to light fragments of terracotta bangle in large scale and some segmented fragments of terracotta bangle are also found. A large number of terracotta cakes are also reported at Mitathal (Bhan 1975:66) and Manheru (Thakran et al. 2012). The triangular cakes are more popular in the Mature Harappan period while idli shaped are found in large scale from the Late Harappan period. Circular and two pinched cakes are yielded in small quantities in all phases of the Harappan culture. All types of cake are found during the present investigation. The undecorated terracotta balls and hopscotch are also recovered during the present investigation. Probably, terracotta balls were used as catapult ball or game objects and hopscotch as game objects.

Bone point is extremely ordinary and found frequently Early to Mature then to Late Harappan period (Thakran et al. 2012: 1‐14, Manmohan et al. 2011:173) but ivory and shell objects are rare. One ovaloid elliptical shaped bone bead is reported from uncertified level at Mitathal and a few example of shell bangle are noticed in the Late Harappan period (Bhan 1975:73‐77). Two fragments of ivory pins are also recovered at Mitathal, one from Mature Harappan period and other from Late Harappan period (Bhan 1975:79). Shell and ivory objects are totally absent at Manheru site.

Chert blade is found in very limited quantity in the study region. Only two blades are recovered from pervious excavations, one from unstratified level at Mitathal (Suarj Bhan 1975:59) and other one from Mature Harappan level at Manheru (Thakran et al. 2012). In addition, two cubical chert weights are also reported from Mitathal (Suarj Bhan 1975:59). A few examples of double sided parallel chert blades are also found

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during the exploration. Other stone objects very popular in this area as raw materials were locally available in the Aravalli hills. Most of the weights are made of sand stone while some are manufactured of granite and quartzite. A large scale of stone balls in various sizes is recovered from Mitathal (Bhan 1975:59) and Manheru excavations (Thakran et al. 2012). A ring stone of grey sand stone and two pebble hammer of quartzite are reported from Mitathal (Bhan 1975:59). Saddle querns and pestles of red sand stone are very popular in this area. A few pestles of lime stone and quartzite are also reported from Mitathal (Bhan 1975:62). A huge amount of weights, balls and saddle querns are found during the exploration.

Observations The Harappan people lived simple rustic life beyond the Saraswati‐Drasdwati valley. The economic condition was not good as compared to other urban Harappan settlements. These settlements were mainly depending on the manufacturing of local items and trading of the raw material as well as agricultural activities. The people were living in mud brick structures and the circular pits and bins were used for storage and garbage purposes. The brunt brick structures were totally absent and the material culture was also not rich in this region. Majority of the Harappan settlements survived in the form of hamlet and small villages. However, the presence of the classical elements, such as twin mound, town planning, classical ceramic assemblage, gold objects, shell objects (Fig. 12) and semiprecious stone objects, are indicative of the origin of the special classes. The standard of the town planning with twin mound can be seen at Mitathal in the form of citadel for elite people and lower town for common people. The shapes and designs of the ceramic assemblages have clearly shown that the local tradition dominated as the classical ceramics were found in very limited number. The local objects, such as terracotta, stone, copper, bone, faience and steatite were more popular in this region. Though, the ornaments of the gold, shell, Ivory and semiprecious stone were also found in limited number. Terracotta objects are important sources of information regarding social and economic life. A large number of terracotta objects were found includes bull figurines, wheeled toys, wheel (simple and spokes), beads, bangles, cakes, balls and discs. The bull figurines, wheeled cart and wheel models are indirectly indicating to the agriculture activities, as well as communication and transportation. Other terracotta objects were used as ornaments and game objects by the common people. The granite, quartzite, sand stone and lime stones were used on large scale for the manufacturing of weights, balls, pestle and saddle querns, because these materials were easily available in the Aravalli hills. While, the chert objects are very rare in this region and only few examples of double sided parlour chert blades and cubical chert weights are recovered from the Harappan settlements. However, the Rohri and local chert both are available in this region. The faience and steatite objects were extremely popular and found in different forms of the ornaments. These objects also played vital role in managing of the Harappan economic conditions, because the people of this region were very active in the manufacture and trade of these objects. The bone objects were found on large scale in this region and are

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Figure 1: Location of the Study Region (Bhiwani District, Haryana)

Figure 2: Harappan Settlements in Bhiwani District, Haryana

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Figure 3: Early Harappan Ceramic Assemblages (Eastern Hakra Phase)

Figure 4: Early Harappan Ceramic Assemblages (Sothi‐Siswal Phase)

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Figure 5: Mature Harappan Ceramic Assemblages

Figure 6: Late Harappan Ceramic Assemblages

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Figure 7: Gold Beads

Figure 8: Semiprecious Beads

Figure 9: Faience Bangles Figure 10: Faience Seal

Figure 11: Steatite Beads Figure 12: Shell Bangles frequently recovered from the Early Harappan to the Late Harappan period. Copper objects are also recovered in large number from the Harappan settlements. The presence of crucibles and copper slags are indicative of copper smelting at Harappan sites in the region.

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The gold, shell and ivory objects were very scarce in this region. Only few gold beads were recovered from the site of Mitathal (Fig. 7). Certainly, the gold was imported from beyond the periphery of the Harappans, especially from Southern , Iran, and Soviet Central (Asthna 1982: 275). On the other hand, the gold is reported in the Aravalli hills (Heron 1917: 120, Thussu 2006: 83) and the river beds of Sarasvati‐Darasvati basin (Marshall 1931). Most probably, the local resources easily supplied gold to Harappans in the small quantity. Shell was used in the form of the bangles and beads and two fragment ivory pins are also found at Mitathal. Shell was also an imported item and was supplied from Makran coast of . Carnelian and agate were most popular semiprecious stones in this region (Fig. 8). A different type of the etched, long barrel shaped, standard barrel lenticular, biconical circular and micro beads of carnelian and agate were recovered from the Harappan settlements. The Harappan settlements were mainly depended for these ornaments at Kathiawad in the (Marshall 1931). In addition, the ornaments of the lapis lazuli and flint can be noticed at Mitathal and Manheru. Hence, the popularity of the local elements has clearly shown the protohistoric people survived in the rural condition. A majority of the people were living in the small villages and hamlets as farmers, traders and technicians. A few big settlements also were established in this region and played an important role as regional centres. The characteristic elements can be noticed in these settlements but limited in number. The economic condition of these settlements was much better as compared to the small rural settlements. Most probably, these big settlements were just controlling the trade and manufacturing activities of this region. They were not enjoying the royal life like other urban Harappan settlements located in the main Saraswati‐Drasdwati valley (, , Kunal and Bhirrana).

Conclusions The present investigations have thrown light on the wealth of information related to the cultural progress of the Harappan civilization in the semi‐arid zone (Bhiwani district, Haryana). The presence of the Harappan settlements can be seen in the Thar Desert but within the boundary of the Aravalli hills. The early cultural developments took place in this part because of favourable ecological conditions and the technological achievements of the people. The origins of the early agricultural community may have happened in this part of the Saraswati‐Drasdwati valley and slowly spread towards the southern part, particularly in the semiarid zone. Because of the closeness of this region to stones, minerals and metals rich Aravalli hills, the area witnessed a change possibly in economic conditions and a number of factory as well as trade camp sites emerged, which ultimately formed the base of the urbanization leading to the Mature phase of the Harappan civilization. Hence, these small Harappan settlements not only played an important role in the procurement of the necessary raw material but also active in the manufacture of local items and provide a solid economical base to the urban Harappan settlements located in the main Saraswati‐ Drasdwati valley.

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Acknowledgments The authors are extremely thankful to Prof. Vasant Shinde and Prof. Amar Singh for nice cooperation and valuable suggestions.

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