THE METHODOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE of the NOTION of DIVINE Cial Stereotypes

Balázs M. MEZEI

in level of household worldview, man expres- x Philosophical wisdom acts as expla- UDC 167/168:2-1 ses his daily routine values, the interpretation natory objects in accordance with Balázs M. MEZEI of which vary in the framework of philosoph- scientific approvals, morals and rules ical wisdom, folk traditions, customs and so- of life. THE METHODOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF THE NOTION OF DIVINE cial stereotypes. Yet, the theoretical level of x Through philosophical wisdom is REVELATION IN A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE the worldview is the superstructure of daily formed not only the person's world- practical level, which stands out by its sys- view but also his world perception. Abstract tematization and hierarchical structure. x Philosophical wisdom can have per- After analyzing the influence of philo- sonal, pedagogical and psychological I offer an overview of the relevance of the notion of divine revelation to the methodology of sophical wisdom on the formation of individ- interpretations. the sciences. The notion of revelation is to be considered in the framework of a well-formed philo- ual's worldview, we have come to the follow- sophical theory. In such a theory, the theological notion of revelation is important as well, because ing conclusions: REFERENCES as a historically evolving notion it has contributed, in its own fashion, to the formation of other sci- x Philosophical wisdom is a universal, ences. The method the notion of revelation entails is instructive for the methodological presupposi- cultural and natural value through Brutian, G.A. (2010). Gitakan ashxatanqi tions of the sciences. Most importantly, the dynamism given in the notion of revelation to produce which personal, historical and social texnologia (Technology of Research genuine newness – ad intra as well as ad extra – appears to be the decisive methodological factor experiences are transferred from ge- Work, in Armenian), Pilisopayut’yan defining scientific methodology. I also reflect on the importance of various forms of knowledge – neration to generation. mijazgayin akademiayi hratarak- apodicticity, certainty and probability – as they appear in the notion of revelation and define scien- x Philosophical wisdom has educative, chut’yun, Yerevan. tific forms of knowledge in a historical as well as logical fashion. Finally, I show the place of the formative and developing function. Heidegger, M. (1986). Time of the World- methodological discussion in an overall view of revelation as a well-formed philosophical theory. x Philosophical wisdom as a way to view/ The new technocratic war in formation of an individual's world- the west. M. Keywords: Divine revelation, theology, philosophy, methodology, science, history, newness. view is perceived in the framework Radugin, A.A. (2004). Filosofiya: kurs lektsii of evolutionary and cognitive theo- (Philosophy: Course of Lectures, in ries. Russian), Moscow, Tsentr. 1. Introduction: The Centrality of the Notion cal scale, it is revelation in its specific Chris- x Philosophical wisdom in the frame- White, L. (1959). The Evolution of Culture, of Divine Revelation tian form that has defined the development of work of culture and cultural anthro- New York. Christianity including its crises and fragmen- pology is perceived as a process of Divine revelation is one of the central tations. On a theological scale, the revelation adaptation of an individual to natural terms in the epoch in which we live. This in question is revelation in a unique sense environment. epoch is the epoch of Christianity with all its which is characteristically different from oth- intrinsic and extrinsic features, together with er notions of revelation in the history of reli- its rise and flourishing, decline and even dis- gions, while these other notions are in many solution. Revelation, nevertheless, is the most ways related to the notion of revelation in fundamental notion in this tradition, a notion Christianity. that comes before other notions in the logical These three kinds of relevance – logical, order, such as being, time, history, society, historical, and theological – should be inves- person, wisdom, morality, philosophy, or sci- tigated separately. Here I confine myself to ence. The reason of the primacy of the notion the logical investigation of the primacy of of revelation is simple: in principle, it is reve- revelation taken in itself. Other aspects of this lation that defines itself and its outcomes, na- problem, such as the historical importance ture and human beings included. On a histori- and the relationship to other religious forms 62 63 63 2(7), 2016 Balázs M. MEZEI

must be limited to the context of the main peatedly termed ‘apocalyptics’ – is the reflec- topic of my present text, the methodological tion of the knowledge of revelation on the re- importance of revelation. Indeed, the Chris- alness of revelation, a realness that is presup- tian form of revelation calls for a historical posed, reflected, and disclosed in the theory analysis of the relationship between other itself.1 forms of revelation and thus also for an en- One may rightly ask as to how the pre- compassing notion of divine revelation in sent notion of revelation is related to the re- which such relations can be scrutinized. How- ceived view of divine revelation interpreted in ever, it is precisely the Christian notion of the framework of religion. My approach in revelation which is the basis of such a general this context is philosophical which takes as its notion, so here I can confine myself to the basis the historical notion of revelation as is latter taken in the perspective of methodolo- given in Christianity and it considers all other gy. forms of revelation as logical and, partially, On the logical level, revelation is con- historical ramifications of that central notion. ceived as the ultimate source of all reality and Let us recall that in Christianity the realness knowledge. The recognition of the primacy of of reality is disclosed in the revelation of in- revelation itself belongs to the effects of reve- carnation. As a result, we become aware of lation. Inasmuch as revelation is defined as the Trinity as the basic structure of the divine the source of reality, revelation is not reality both in itself and as the source of reality. As a in this sense, but is more original than reality; secondary result, we become aware of the fact revelation embodies the source of reality, its that our becoming aware of revelation as the realness. That is to say, revelation as the reve- disclosure of the realness of the real is itself lation of the real is taken in its utmost signifi- the working of revelation.2 cance. Reality in its various forms, such as Traditionally, revelation is classified into empirical, mental, external or internal reality, ‘natural revelation’ – the revelation given in the reality of time and history, or even the es- creation – and ‘supernatural revelation’ – rev- chatological dimension of reality, is contained elation given in the incarnation of the second in, and expressed through, revelation. Inas- person of the Trinity and its effects on the much as our knowledge is rooted in the know- course of history. Part and parcel of natural ledge of revelation, our knowledge is revela-

tion-bound or, to be more precise, its main 1 Cf. Mezei, Balázs M.: Radical Revelation: A function is the reflection of revelation on var- Philosophical Approach. New York: Blooms- ious levels. bury (forthcoming in 2017). 2 Such an approach to revelation undoes The Trinitarian notion of Revelation is consid- any substantive metaphysics and ontology ered here is having produced all other forms of which presuppose some kind of original stuff, revelation on the logical level, but partially also historically. For instance, the notion of reve- matter or spirit, or perhaps a set of ideas or lation in Islam is considered as a development ideals which has been progressively devel- of the Christian notion, a development overem- oped in the course of history. In this sense, phasizing just one aspect of the original notion, the theory of revelation – which I have re- the aspect of transcendence. 64 2(7), 2016 64 65 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

must be limited to the context of the main peatedly termed ‘apocalyptics’ – is the reflec- revelation is ‘natural reason’, but this reason tion is considered private if and only if it re- topic of my present text, the methodological tion of the knowledge of revelation on the re- is directly enlightened by supernatural revela- mains in the framework of ‘public’ or ‘gen- importance of revelation. Indeed, the Chris- alness of revelation, a realness that is presup- tion with respect to the subject matter of the eral’ revelation yet a certain interpretation of tian form of revelation calls for a historical posed, reflected, and disclosed in the theory latter. However, reason, either natural or illu- personal importance is attached to the general analysis of the relationship between other itself.1 minated, needs to be aware of its own limits doctrines of revelation. Moreover, private forms of revelation and thus also for an en- One may rightly ask as to how the pre- concerning the intrinsic features of supernatu- revelation is revealed to the receiver of reve- compassing notion of divine revelation in sent notion of revelation is related to the re- ral revelation. ‘Mystery’ is still a term we can lation in special ways the essence of which is which such relations can be scrutinized. How- ceived view of divine revelation interpreted in apply here to describe the relation of super- the emergence of the unique awareness of the ever, it is precisely the Christian notion of the framework of religion. My approach in natural revelation to our mind. But even with reception of revelation. It is not the possible revelation which is the basis of such a general this context is philosophical which takes as its this limitation, reason is capable of recogniz- contents of private revelation that concerns notion, so here I can confine myself to the basis the historical notion of revelation as is ing the centrality of revelation in its own me here but rather the fact that revelation as latter taken in the perspective of methodolo- given in Christianity and it considers all other workings as well as in what is called nature such possesses an ultimately personal relation gy. forms of revelation as logical and, partially, outside reason. Both in the world and the to human beings in their attempts to conceive On the logical level, revelation is con- historical ramifications of that central notion. mind, revelation has a centrally important po- revelation. Indeed, revelation in its entirety is ceived as the ultimate source of all reality and Let us recall that in Christianity the realness sition as source and structure.3 public both as given in nature and in history. knowledge. The recognition of the primacy of of reality is disclosed in the revelation of in- As to the problem of methodology of a But any aspect of revelation can be conceived revelation itself belongs to the effects of reve- carnation. As a result, we become aware of philosophical research of revelation, let me and understood exclusively on the grounds of lation. Inasmuch as revelation is defined as the Trinity as the basic structure of the divine refer to a third traditional notion of revelation: a private communication, that is, in the frame- the source of reality, revelation is not reality both in itself and as the source of reality. As a ‘private revelation’.4 Traditionally, a revela- work of my own understanding of revelation. in this sense, but is more original than reality; secondary result, we become aware of the fact This understanding is not something foreign revelation embodies the source of reality, its that our becoming aware of revelation as the to revelation but its most important dimen- realness. That is to say, revelation as the reve- disclosure of the realness of the real is itself 3 See also my other work: Mezei, Balázs M.: sion, its being understood, conceived, or relation of the real is taken in its utmost signifi- the working of revelation.2 Religion and Revelation after Auschwitz. New ceived. cance. Reality in its various forms, such as Traditionally, revelation is classified into York: Bloomsbury, 2013. Thus the private aspect of revelation 4 empirical, mental, external or internal reality, ‘natural revelation’ – the revelation given in In his work De revelatione Reginald Garrigou- emerges as the actual method in which revela- Lagrange explains that the notion of revelation the reality of time and history, or even the es- creation – and ‘supernatural revelation’ – rev- tion as such is conceived. In this way, the can be classified according to the Scholastic chatological dimension of reality, is contained elation given in the incarnation of the second function of revelation as received revelation is doctrine of causes. That is, the notion of reve- in, and expressed through, revelation. Inas- person of the Trinity and its effects on the expressed and this function is the basis of the lation is to be investigated in accordance with much as our knowledge is rooted in the know- course of history. Part and parcel of natural its form, its agent, its material cause and its fi- philosophical methodology applied here. ledge of revelation, our knowledge is revela- Revelation is revealed so that its overall struc- nal cause. Formally, revelation can be super- tion-bound or, to be more precise, its main 1 Cf. Mezei, Balázs M.: Radical Revelation: A natural in terms of its substance or in terms of tures may be conceived, understood and pro- function is the reflection of revelation on var- Philosophical Approach. New York: Blooms- its mode. Still as supernatural, revelation can perly interpreted through its function of a per- ious levels. bury (forthcoming in 2017). be defined in accordance with the fashion in sonal, subjective, or ‘private’ communication. 2 Such an approach to revelation undoes The Trinitarian notion of Revelation is consid- which it is revealed or in accordance with the any substantive metaphysics and ontology ered here is having produced all other forms of psychological state of the receiver of revela- which presuppose some kind of original stuff, revelation on the logical level, but partially al- tion. On the side of the agent, revelation can be so historically. For instance, the notion of reve- active or passive; as to its material cause, it can matter or spirit, or perhaps a set of ideas or lation in Islam is considered as a development be immediate or mediate. Finally, as to its final ideals which has been progressively devel- of the Christian notion, a development overem- cause, revelation can be private or public. Cf. oped in the course of history. In this sense, phasizing just one aspect of the original notion, Garrigou-Lagrange, Réginald: De revelatione Libreria Editrice Religiosa, 1951, vol. 1, pp. the theory of revelation – which I have re- the aspect of transcendence. per Ecclesiam Catholicam proposita. Romae: 153-54. 64 65 65 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

2. Revelation and the Sciences: A Historical such as the imminent coming of the end of the Outline world, the plurality of ‘heavens’, the manipu- lability of natural forces, such as the see and We tend to interpret the notion of revela- the wind, the right way to sow in agriculture, tion in a framework which is denoted theolog- or even the possibility of crossing the limits ical and is strictly separated from other fields of human life. In the letters we find further of human knowledge. However, revelation claims concerning the workings of nature, so- both in its original form and its effects on the ciety, morality, and history. There is a trajec- broader human culture is not a notion rigidly tory in this respect in the New Testament separated from the other fields of human awa- writings: from the historical and moral teach- reness. This point can be underpinned in three ings formed by revelation we slowly approach different ways: on Biblical grounds, on the cosmological teachings emphasizing the grounds of the history of theology, and finally structures of the universe with respect to ‘the on the grounds of a philosophical theory of end of all times’. This trajectory culminates in revelation. the highly metaphorical Book of Revelation Revelation is given especially as the col- which aspires to give a synthetic view of cos- lection of writings in the form of the New mological, theological and moral teachings in Testament. The New Testament is neverthe- the form of an ultimate revelation.5 less attached to the Old Testament just as the- As to the history of theology, it is fairly ology is attached to the various fields of hu- obvious that leading Church writers, such as man culture. The Old Testament is traditional- Clement of Alexandria, Augustine, or St. ly considered as the preparation of the New Thomas Aquinas among others considered Testament,’praeparatio evangelica’, a way to theology not as a field strictly isolated from Christ. This way, nevertheless, is two-direc- the other fields of human knowledge but rational: on the one hand, the form and contents ther as a field illuminating, exacting, ordering of the New Testament could be approached and enriching the latter. For instance, Clement from the Old Testament, and vice versa, the of Alexandria considered the various sciences Old Testament could be better understood on of the Greek mind as ‘fragments of the Eter- the basis of the New Testament. Obviously, nal Truth’ and described theological knowled- this bi-directional understanding is easily ap- ge as the general framework in which such plicable on the fields of revelation and the sciences. Revelation has a formal methodological importance; the sciences, on the other 5 See for instance James 3:7 on the taming of all hand, possess the material factor shaped by animals; also 2Pet 3:8-13 where we find the the overall form of revelation. doctrine of water and fire in the construction Indeed, the New Testament is full with and destruction of the universe; 1 Cor 15 on the nature of bodies (earthy and heavenly), references to various aspects of general hu- with a special emphasis on the various bright- man culture, aspects that are better understood ness of stars. And 1 Pet 4:7: ‘But the end of all in the context of revelation. Jesus teaches and things is at hand; therefore be serious and what he teaches is relevant to the sciences, watchful in your prayers.’ 66 2(7), 2016 66 67 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

2. Revelation and the Sciences: A Historical such as the imminent coming of the end of the fragments are properly conceived.6 It is a structure. Moreover, this science possesses a Outline world, the plurality of ‘heavens’, the manipu- well-known fact that the scientific nature of historical character according to which it can lability of natural forces, such as the see and theology is defined by Thomas Aquinas as an be developed, detailed, made even more per- We tend to interpret the notion of revela- the wind, the right way to sow in agriculture, accomplishment of the rest of the sciences. In fect along the line of a finite historical trajec- tion in a framework which is denoted theolog- or even the possibility of crossing the limits a similar fashion, modern theological perspec- tory. Revelation as fully given yet as also to ical and is strictly separated from other fields of human life. In the letters we find further tives, such as those of Teilhard de Chardin, be developed are the two poles in which all of human knowledge. However, revelation claims concerning the workings of nature, so- Jacques Maritain or Hans Urs von Balthasar, human investigations necessarily situate both in its original form and its effects on the ciety, morality, and history. There is a trajec- consider theology as an encompassing ap- themselves. For instance, in contemporary broader human culture is not a notion rigidly tory in this respect in the New Testament proach not in detriment to but rather as ac- cosmology, the reality of the universe is pre- separated from the other fields of human awa- writings: from the historical and moral teach- complishing of the rest of the sciences. supposed (even if this reality is likened some- reness. This point can be underpinned in three ings formed by revelation we slowly approach Theology is often seen as the proper field times to a computer simulation). And it is different ways: on Biblical grounds, on the cosmological teachings emphasizing the of dealing with the problem of revelation. equally presupposed that the process of grounds of the history of theology, and finally structures of the universe with respect to ‘the This is true to some extent inasmuch as theo- knowledge is such that it can arrive at a satis- on the grounds of a philosophical theory of end of all times’. This trajectory culminates in logy axiomatically presupposes the notion of factory understanding of the fact of the uni- revelation. the highly metaphorical Book of Revelation revelation and considers the implications – verse in the framework of a finite sequence of Revelation is given especially as the col- which aspires to give a synthetic view of cos- presuppositions, consequences, and corollar- discoveries and their conclusions.7 lection of writings in the form of the New mological, theological and moral teachings in ies – of this axiom. However, by possessing In more concrete terms, let me highlight Testament. The New Testament is neverthe- the form of an ultimate revelation.5 revelation as its axiom, theology properly the most important features of the dependence less attached to the Old Testament just as the- As to the history of theology, it is fairly speaking is unable to consider revelation in of the sciences on the contents of the notion ology is attached to the various fields of hu- obvious that leading Church writers, such as itself, because for such a consideration we of revelation. man culture. The Old Testament is traditional- Clement of Alexandria, Augustine, or St. need a critical view of the axiom. This view is a) Creation. As among others Stanley ly considered as the preparation of the New Thomas Aquinas among others considered provided by a specific theory of revelation, a Jaki pointed out, the rise of the modern natu- Testament,’praeparatio evangelica’, a way to theology not as a field strictly isolated from philosophy of revelation. The question what ral sciences would not have been possible Christ. This way, nevertheless, is two-direc- the other fields of human knowledge but ra- revelation is and how it is relevant to the rest without the notion of a created universe which tional: on the one hand, the form and contents ther as a field illuminating, exacting, ordering of human culture, including the sciences, is can be accordingly known – at least in princi- of the New Testament could be approached and enriching the latter. For instance, Clement then a question raised by such a theory. This ple – in its forms and contents. However, it from the Old Testament, and vice versa, the of Alexandria considered the various sciences philosophical theory shows that the notion of belongs to the core of Christian revelation to Old Testament could be better understood on of the Greek mind as ‘fragments of the Eter- revelation, that is, the notion of an ultimate emphasize not only the difference between the basis of the New Testament. Obviously, nal Truth’ and described theological knowled- source of all knowledge and reality, has sha- this bi-directional understanding is easily ap- ge as the general framework in which such ped the human mind in such a way that the 7 See the recent Isaac Asimov debate in the plicable on the fields of revelation and the notion of universal science could emerge. American Museum of Natural History on the sciences. Revelation has a formal methodo- This science is not just a sum of various sets chances that our universe is a simulation: logical importance; the sciences, on the other 5 See for instance James 3:7 on the taming of all of information, theoretical or practical, but https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wgSZA3N hand, possess the material factor shaped by animals; also 2Pet 3:8-13 where we find the rather a truly universal science with an abso- PpBs See also the summary of the debate here: the overall form of revelation. doctrine of water and fire in the construction lutely reliable and authoritative source and http://www.space.com/32543-universe-a- Indeed, the New Testament is full with and destruction of the universe; 1 Cor 15 on simulation-asimov-debate.html; and see espe- the nature of bodies (earthy and heavenly), 6 Clement of Alexandria: Stromata. In: Fathers cially Nick Bostrom’s Are You Living in a references to various aspects of general hu- with a special emphasis on the various bright- of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athe- Computer Simulation? at man culture, aspects that are better understood ness of stars. And 1 Pet 4:7: ‘But the end of all nagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexan- http://www.simulation- in the context of revelation. Jesus teaches and things is at hand; therefore be serious and dria, C. Cleveland (ed.). New York: Charles argument.com/simulation.html (accessed what he teaches is relevant to the sciences, watchful in your prayers.’ Scribner’s Sons, p. 313. 8/11/2016). 66 67 67 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

the creator and the creature but also the lat- er as subservient to spiritual power. Just in ter’s rational nature. The act of creation has this relationship, as a consequence of its defi- been deemed to be a rational act of the creator nite position, kingship was able to develop a with the rational result of the created order. peculiar form of independence, a form which b) The essence of rationality with respect was building up its structures for many centu- to the created order is the doctrine of causali- ries. Thus, the notion of the political govern- ty. Human or natural reason is capable of as- ment developed, in many important phases, sessing causes and effects. The reasoning fac- through the influence of the spiritual realm ulty was most often considered, accordingly, and led to the emergence and even domina- as the arithmetical faculty capable of formal- tion of non-spiritual notions of politics in mo- izing logical and real relationships. Logic and dernity. This is the basis of the famous sen- mathematics are the most important fields in tence of Carl Schmitt, according to which “all which the notion of natural necessity (as op- significant concepts of the modern theory of posed to theological necessity) could be ob- the state are secularized theological con- served, followed, and modelled in symbolic cepts”.8 forms (such as in letter or numbers). e) In these developments, the peculiar c) The emergence of the notion of human understanding of history as an eschatological personhood is intrinsically bound up with the process is to be emphasized. The notion of the notion of divine personhood developed ultimate termination of the created order throughout the Trinitarian debates of the first shaped and structured the understanding of millennium of the Christian doctrines. The history as a complex, dynamic, and meaning- translation of huposthasis into persona and ful process throughout the centuries. Thus not the definition of the human nature of Christ in only the notion of history was formed – lead- the framework of his divine personhood de- ing to eschatological ideologies of the twenti- termined the discussions on the essence of a eth century – but also the eschatological hori- human being in the First Scholasticism. How- zon of human existence became emphasized ever only when Thomas Aquinas decided to in various ways as essentially constitutive of attribute the faculty of intellect to human in- being a human person. dividuals – as a reaction to Averroism – did it The notion of creation as the production become possible that an integral notion of of a functional complexity on the basis of human personhood evolved. This notion cor- natural laws and other technical rules of oper- roborated the unique nature of a human per- ation is clearly the backdrop of the production son and led, in its course, to the emergence of of machines in modernity. True, machine the modern notions of the special and intrinsic production was developed to some extent dignity of human persons. even in Hellenism as is shown by the compli- d) Even in political science, the peculiar- 8 Schmitt, Carl: Political Theology. Four Chap- ly double character of Western Christianity, ters on the Concept of Sovereignty. Edited and with the doctrine of the Two Swords in its translated by George Schwab. With a Fore- center, decisively shaped the nature of the word by Tracy B. Strong. Chicago: Chicago worldly power. First, it defined worldly pow- University Press, 1985, p. 36. 68 2(7), 2016 68 69 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

the creator and the creature but also the lat- er as subservient to spiritual power. Just in cated planetarium of the so-called Antikythera question of methodology is the how an object ter’s rational nature. The act of creation has this relationship, as a consequence of its defi- Mechanism. However, the mass production of is reached, and I shall discuss this point be- been deemed to be a rational act of the creator nite position, kingship was able to develop a machines began only with the making of me- low. As to the what, it is the ultimate reality with the rational result of the created order. peculiar form of independence, a form which chanical clocks, for many centuries the most of revelation that is revealed. Inasmuch as b) The essence of rationality with respect was building up its structures for many centu- advanced examples of mechanical machines. revelation is the source of reality, revelation is to the created order is the doctrine of causali- ries. Thus, the notion of the political govern- While such machines were produced on a cer- the revelation of the realness of reality. That ty. Human or natural reason is capable of as- ment developed, in many important phases, tain level even in Antiquity, the mass produc- is to say: in revelation reality is revealed that sessing causes and effects. The reasoning fac- through the influence of the spiritual realm tion of clocks and similar machineries were is in no way partial, aspectual, or particular ulty was most often considered, accordingly, and led to the emergence and even domina- clearly related to the ever more elaborated but rather absolute, overarching, and all- as the arithmetical faculty capable of formal- tion of non-spiritual notions of politics in mo- theological notion of creation as the creation containing. Yet this generality is expressed in izing logical and real relationships. Logic and dernity. This is the basis of the famous sen- of a meaningful, rule following and well- the factuality of revelation. Revelation is fact, mathematics are the most important fields in tence of Carl Schmitt, according to which “all designed complexity. The notion of creation, the ultimate and absolute fact; it is an infinite which the notion of natural necessity (as op- significant concepts of the modern theory of the theological sophistication of the doctrine fact in the non-reduced meaning of infinity .(ת) -posed to theological necessity) could be ob- the state are secularized theological con- of causality, and the ever more refined tech served, followed, and modelled in symbolic cepts”.8 nologies in shaping iron, steel and wood made It is in the context of the infinite fact of forms (such as in letter or numbers). e) In these developments, the peculiar it possible to build such machines from the revelation that particular facts, again facts of c) The emergence of the notion of human understanding of history as an eschatological 10th century on. revelation, take place. Most importantly it is personhood is intrinsically bound up with the process is to be emphasized. The notion of the In its historical role, revelation may be the fact of revelation in the form of nature that notion of divine personhood developed ultimate termination of the created order compared to the source of simulation emerg- appears under the horizon of the infinite fact. throughout the Trinitarian debates of the first shaped and structured the understanding of ing in related arguments as to the nature of Nature becomes defined with respect to the millennium of the Christian doctrines. The history as a complex, dynamic, and meaning- reality in which we live. If, as Bostrom argues infinite fact and thus their contents and corre- translation of huposthasis into persona and ful process throughout the centuries. Thus not in his paper I referred to, the probability that lations become the substance given in revela- the definition of the human nature of Christ in only the notion of history was formed – lead- we live in a simulated universe is closer to tion. Inasmuch as revelation is always revela- the framework of his divine personhood de- ing to eschatological ideologies of the twenti- one than to zero, then the source of this simu- tion directed to the receiver of revelation, the termined the discussions on the essence of a eth century – but also the eschatological hori- lation is a conscious activity expressed in receiver of revelation gains access to the con- human being in the First Scholasticism. How- zon of human existence became emphasized mathematical processes. Such an activity, tents and the correlation given in revelation as ever only when Thomas Aquinas decided to in various ways as essentially constitutive of however, is very close to what the original an infinite fact and as nature. Without this attribute the faculty of intellect to human in- being a human person. notion of divine revelation suggests, a notion correlation, both the infinite and the finite fact dividuals – as a reaction to Averroism – did it The notion of creation as the production nevertheless much more complex than what of revelation would be inaccessible. Insofar as become possible that an integral notion of of a functional complexity on the basis of we gain from simulation arguments today. they are accessible, however, they become human personhood evolved. This notion cor- natural laws and other technical rules of oper- objects of knowledge and thus a well-defined roborated the unique nature of a human per- ation is clearly the backdrop of the production 3. Problems in Methodology I: What is structure of objects, under the horizon of the son and led, in its course, to the emergence of of machines in modernity. True, machine Revealed in Revelation? infinite fact, appears for the receiver of reve- the modern notions of the special and intrinsic production was developed to some extent lation. dignity of human persons. even in Hellenism as is shown by the compli- The first and most important task to do in In revelation it is revelation that is re- d) Even in political science, the peculiar- this context is the description of what is revealed above all and thus it is in revelation 8 Schmitt, Carl: Political Theology. Four Chap- ly double character of Western Christianity, vealed in revelation. The question concerning that we gain access to the appropriate objects ters on the Concept of Sovereignty. Edited and with the doctrine of the Two Swords in its this what is the pivotal methodological ques- and their structures for our knowledge. In the translated by George Schwab. With a Fore- center, decisively shaped the nature of the tion, because in all methodologies the object revelation of revelation, a knowable universe word by Tracy B. Strong. Chicago: Chicago worldly power. First, it defined worldly pow- University Press, 1985, p. 36. of method defines methodology. The second emerges which has a definite content – under 68 69 69 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

the horizon of the infinite fact – and also a pressed but also their complex relations in a meaningful structure of such contents open to historically concrete setting. the enquiry of the receiver of revelation. The Scientific methodologies presuppose the same point may be expressed in the following rational universe under the horizon of the in- way as well: the infinite fact of revelation finite fact. In some theories, this infinite fact does not only presuppose the finite facts of is conceived as the original fact of the birth of revelation in the form of nature, but also the the universe (‘Big Bang’) or perhaps a string fact of the receiver of revelation as a rational of original explosions leading to sequential subject that is capable of conceiving and births of universes. In such theories, however, knowing the reality of revelation on the basis the problem of the capacity of discovering of a rational structure. In this way, the receiv- and assessing such an original fact remains er of revelation may repeat the fact of revela- obscure. How does it happen that such an tion in their understanding and thus produce a original fact is a fact also for me? The naiveté mental model of revelation with its contents of scientific objectivity is too obvious: what is and structures. This model may be expressed ‘out there’ counts as the totality of the real in language, in symbols, in activities, or even and the role of the mind is neglected or not in moral behavior of individuals and commu- even identified as a problem. Yet the fact of nities. Ultimately, the model may be formed the origin is by definition is a fact related to in the form of a computer of various kinds the fact of the mind discovering this origin, (Antikythera Mechanism or Tianhe-2). Reve- thus the two facts should be described in a lation as a fact appears as the source of all unified theory which cosmological theories do factual and possible contents of various kinds not offer. The theory of revelation, however, of modelling. described the original fact as entailing the re- Moreover, revelation becomes particular ceiver of revelation and offers a unified de- not merely in the natural sense but in a more scription of the two facts in the form of their concrete historical and cultural sense as well. correlation. Think of the fact of incarnation at a certain point of time, at a certain location, in the form 4. Problems in Methodology II: How is of a concrete human being using a certain Revelation Revealed? language and living in definite a historical context (‘under Pontius Pilate’) as the exam- In the traditional accounts of revelation, ple of the particular fact of revelation. This we distinguish general, specific, private and particular fact is like a window through which final revelation. General revelation is the rev- we gain sight of the horizon of the infinite elation of nature in creation. Specific revela- fact. The two levels of factuality are related to tion is the revelation given in the history of one another and are then conceived in the salvation. Private revelation is communication terms of each other: the infinite fact in the given to individuals with respect to their per- terms of the particular fact and vice versa. sonal needs. And final revelation is the ulti- Thus, in the factual nature of revelation not mate accomplishment of revelation at the end only absolute and particular factuality are ex- of all times. We can further elaborate these

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the horizon of the infinite fact – and also a pressed but also their complex relations in a kinds of revelation in accordance with other sion ‘all things’ does not only mean ‘the meaningful structure of such contents open to historically concrete setting. modes of communication, but it seems to be heavenly Jerusalem’ but indeed all things the enquiry of the receiver of revelation. The Scientific methodologies presuppose the more important to point out that by all these conceivable and unconceivable. Revelation, same point may be expressed in the following rational universe under the horizon of the in- distinctions we presuppose an original and thus, is not only infinite self-enrichment but way as well: the infinite fact of revelation finite fact. In some theories, this infinite fact integral notion of revelation. This notion of more importantly infinite self-renewal; and does not only presuppose the finite facts of is conceived as the original fact of the birth of revelation is the fundamental what to which this infinite self-renewal is the fundamental revelation in the form of nature, but also the the universe (‘Big Bang’) or perhaps a string there belongs an equally fundamental how of how of revelation as revelation. fact of the receiver of revelation as a rational of original explosions leading to sequential revelation. So what is this how of revelation? All other notions of revelation – in na- subject that is capable of conceiving and births of universes. In such theories, however, My short answer is this: Revelation is the ture, human beings, and history – are particu- knowing the reality of revelation on the basis the problem of the capacity of discovering revelation of revelation in such a way that lar exemplifications of the fundamental new- of a rational structure. In this way, the receiv- and assessing such an original fact remains revelation is enriched by itself. The very oc- ness of revelation. They express this newness er of revelation may repeat the fact of revela- obscure. How does it happen that such an currence of revelation is an occurrence that in particular ways; yet these ways are not un- tion in their understanding and thus produce a original fact is a fact also for me? The naiveté embodies self-enrichment. But how can reve- related to one another. Their structure is such mental model of revelation with its contents of scientific objectivity is too obvious: what is lation as an infinite fact self-enrich itself? The that it is in nature that history becomes possi- and structures. This model may be expressed ‘out there’ counts as the totality of the real answer may be given in turning around the ble and it is in history that human beings re- in language, in symbols, in activities, or even and the role of the mind is neglected or not same question: How could not revelation as ceive revelation. On the other hand, all these in moral behavior of individuals and commu- even identified as a problem. Yet the fact of an infinite fact self-enrich itself in the occur- moments are arranged along the lines of self- nities. Ultimately, the model may be formed the origin is by definition is a fact related to rence of revelation? Infinity is such that it is enriching newness, or – to use the expression in the form of a computer of various kinds the fact of the mind discovering this origin, infinitely more than itself; it is infinitely more of Miklos Veto – renewing newness (nou- (Antikythera Mechanism or Tianhe-2). Reve- thus the two facts should be described in a real, more rich, more complex, more detailed, veauté novatrice).10 In this way, we may say lation as a fact appears as the source of all unified theory which cosmological theories do more living, more substantial than itself. This that nature and history are just two aspects of factual and possible contents of various kinds not offer. The theory of revelation, however, sounds paradoxical, but the very notion of the realization of revelation in human beings; of modelling. described the original fact as entailing the re- infinity is paradoxical for our comprehension. and it is in human beings that not only the Moreover, revelation becomes particular ceiver of revelation and offers a unified de- Let it suffice to say that the fundamental how fundamental how but also the what of revela- not merely in the natural sense but in a more scription of the two facts in the form of their of revelation is its infinite self-enrichment in tion is realized in a communicative fashion. concrete historical and cultural sense as well. correlation. such a way that in all instances of revelation By ‘communicative fashion’ I mean the no- Think of the fact of incarnation at a certain not only the particular contents express this tion of the ‘communicatio idiomatum’ or ἡ point of time, at a certain location, in the form 4. Problems in Methodology II: How is self-enrichment but also the infinite horizon ἀντίδοσις τῶν ἰδιωμάτων. Just as the original of a concrete human being using a certain Revelation Revealed? itself is an infinitely self-enriching horizon. doctrine of ‘antidosis’ allowed the mutual language and living in definite a historical In the Biblical language we may express acknowledgement of properties for both the context (‘under Pontius Pilate’) as the exam- In the traditional accounts of revelation, this notion of self-enrichment as ‘making all divine and the human natures of Christ, hu- ple of the particular fact of revelation. This we distinguish general, specific, private and things anew’: ‘Behold, I make all things man beings as receivers of revelation realize particular fact is like a window through which final revelation. General revelation is the rev- new!’.9 In the original text it is clearly said in themselves both the how and the what of we gain sight of the horizon of the infinite elation of nature in creation. Specific revela- that the act of making all things new is the revelation in the way these factors determine fact. The two levels of factuality are related to tion is the revelation given in the history of essence of revelation – not only the essence of the reality of revelation itself. In more con- one another and are then conceived in the salvation. Private revelation is communication the Book of Revelation but also and more im- crete terms: the fundamental what and how of terms of each other: the infinite fact in the given to individuals with respect to their per- portantly of divine revelation itself – taken revelation can be recognized in the receiver of terms of the particular fact and vice versa. sonal needs. And final revelation is the ulti- both ad intra and ad extra. And the expres-

Thus, in the factual nature of revelation not mate accomplishment of revelation at the end 10 Vetö, Miklos, L’élargissement de la métaphy- only absolute and particular factuality are ex- of all times. We can further elaborate these 9 Καινὰ πάντα ποιῶ, Rev 21:5. sique. Paris: Hermann, 2012, p. 43. 70 71 71 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

revelation as entailed in the reality of revela- revelation may be conceived; and it is the re- tion. alness of revelation, as received by the re- Let me try to translate the above points ceiver, that the realness of revelation may be into a more concrete example of the methodo- understood. This feature of revelation can be logical problem. According to the fundamen- properly called the correlational nature of tal discovery of the special theory of relativi- revelation. ty, the position and movement of the observer It is an implication of the physical theo- influences the simultaneity of occurrences, ries mentioned that the presence of the ob- the movements of clocks, mass, and length. server not only influences the observed state Just as the Copernican discovery of the cen- of affairs but even realizes a new state of af- tral position of the Earth, the special theory of fairs. Yet it has always been the very essence relativity must take into account the position of revelation that its workings have been con- and movement of the observer so that it can ceived in terms of renewing newness, nou- properly describe the movements of objects veauté novatrice. Scientific inquiry can never outside the observers. In a somewhat similar be conceived of in terms of merely establish- fashion, quantum theory realized that the ing ‘what is out there’. Rather, scientific in- presence of an observer ‘changes’ the behav- quiry needs to understand itself as contrib- ior of light particles travelling through a slot. uting to reality not only theoretically but also In both cases, the fact, position and movement in terms of its contents. I do not say that in of the observer becomes decisive. Not that science we find what we want to find, but I reality could be a subjective illusion but rather say that our search contributes to reality in that reality is to be conceived so that the fact important ways and this contribution must be (and movement and position) of the observer taken into account in our assessment of is included into the notion of reality. What achievements. We must begin with the fact was conceived as reality in classical physics that reality is self-enrichment and our search has to be enlarged to include the observer in for knowledge – and also our production of concrete ways. models and machines – is a particular aspect However, the theory of revelation as of the self-enriching processes of reality. As based on the traditional notion of revelation often seems, such processes may be turned has always been clear about the correlational into self-destructive ones, and human beings nature of revelation as being expressed in var- has a clear responsibility here.11 ious ways but also as being addressed to the receiver of revelation. The receiver of revelation, the ‘observer’ as it were, is part and parcel of revelation, because revelation is such that it is to be received. It is in the structures 11 The dimension of newness is what appears to of the receiver of revelation that the reality of be the most difficult obstacle to a theory of reality as a mere simulation: for in simulation no newness could be discovered, thus, to begin with, the fact of the simulation itself. 72 2(7), 2016 72 73 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

revelation as entailed in the reality of revela- revelation may be conceived; and it is the re- 5. Problems in Methodology III: Apodicticity, concerning divine revelation (‘the signs of the tion. alness of revelation, as received by the re- Certainty, and Probability times’) are much higher: Let me try to translate the above points ceiver, that the realness of revelation may be into a more concrete example of the methodo- understood. This feature of revelation can be One of the clear mistakes of Peter Sloter- ‘When it is evening you say, “It logical problem. According to the fundamen- properly called the correlational nature of dijk’s theory of ‘the apocalypse of the Real’12 will be fair weather, for the sky is tal discovery of the special theory of relativi- revelation. is that he does not seem to recognize the im- red”; and in the morning, “It will be ty, the position and movement of the observer It is an implication of the physical theo- portance of the principle of nouveauté nova- foul weather today, for the sky is red influences the simultaneity of occurrences, ries mentioned that the presence of the ob- trice. Sloterdijk considers the history of mo- and threatening.” Hypocrites! You the movements of clocks, mass, and length. server not only influences the observed state dernity as the history of such an ‘apocalypse’ know how to discern the face of the Just as the Copernican discovery of the cen- of affairs but even realizes a new state of af- and construes this process in terms of a cer- sky, but you cannot discern the signs tral position of the Earth, the special theory of fairs. Yet it has always been the very essence tain emergentism. The new understanding of of the times’ (Mat 16, 2-3). relativity must take into account the position of revelation that its workings have been con- reality emerges out of the confusion of mis- and movement of the observer so that it can ceived in terms of renewing newness, nou- leading pseudo-theories, mainly religious in The schema we find here is this: natural properly describe the movements of objects veauté novatrice. Scientific inquiry can never nature, and the spherical emergence of a non- certainty is surpassed by revelational certain- outside the observers. In a somewhat similar be conceived of in terms of merely establish- fossil-bound source of energy, the light of the ty. We may add: the certainty of revelation fashion, quantum theory realized that the ing ‘what is out there’. Rather, scientific in- sun, will clear our mind of the last remnants was deemed to surpass even philosophical, presence of an observer ‘changes’ the behav- quiry needs to understand itself as contrib- of old theories. However, old theories, espe- logical certainties as well, because revelation ior of light particles travelling through a slot. uting to reality not only theoretically but also cially the theory of revelation in a theological was seen as possessing the highest apodic- In both cases, the fact, position and movement in terms of its contents. I do not say that in form already contained some of the most im- ticity possible. This apodicticity concerned of the observer becomes decisive. Not that science we find what we want to find, but I portant factors shaping our scientific history the saving power of God vis-à-vis sinful hu- reality could be a subjective illusion but rather say that our search contributes to reality in and even showing us a way beyond limited man beings, that is it concerned the reality of that reality is to be conceived so that the fact important ways and this contribution must be interpretations of reality. salvation. Certainty was the personal experi- (and movement and position) of the observer taken into account in our assessment of Let me show you briefly how modern ence of this salvific apodicticity expressed in is included into the notion of reality. What achievements. We must begin with the fact science based its epistemological dogmas on faith, such as in Hebrew 11:1: ‘Now faith is was conceived as reality in classical physics that reality is self-enrichment and our search certain aspects of the notion of revelation, the substance of things hoped for, the evi- has to be enlarged to include the observer in for knowledge – and also our production of how it isolated these aspects from one anoth- dence of things not seen.’ Probability – that is concrete ways. models and machines – is a particular aspect er, and finally how these aspects may be com- the aspectual ambivalence of an assertion – However, the theory of revelation as of the self-enriching processes of reality. As bined again on the basis of a better under- was delegated to the introductory realm of based on the traditional notion of revelation often seems, such processes may be turned stood theory of revelation. Revelation appears revelation. Probability is mentioned a number has always been clear about the correlational into self-destructive ones, and human beings in its Christian form as an objectively certain, of times in the New Testament as ‘possibil- nature of revelation as being expressed in var- has a clear responsibility here.11 even apodictically certain understanding the ity’, such as ‘The things which are impossible ious ways but also as being addressed to the necessity of which outshines the necessity of with men are possible with God’ (dunatos, receiver of revelation. The receiver of revela- philosophy, logic, or everyday experience. Luke 18, 27). tion, the ‘observer’ as it were, is part and par- One of the well-known sayings of Jesus men- Thus, revelational apodicticity, certainty cel of revelation, because revelation is such tions natural phenomena as predicting certain and probability are organically connected to that it is to be received. It is in the structures occurrences; however, the level of certainty one another. In the perspective of a theory of 11 The dimension of newness is what appears to of the receiver of revelation that the reality of revelation we may say that these dimensions be the most difficult obstacle to a theory of re- of knowledge express various aspects of the ality as a mere simulation: for in simulation no 12 Cf. Sloterdijk, Peter: Was geschah im 20. Jah- same whole in which revelation as revelation newness could be discovered, thus, to begin rhundert? Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2016, pp. 106- with, the fact of the simulation itself. 115. is realized. This whole may be described in 72 73 73 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

terms of truth and reality expressed by the In my understanding, these three aspects Hebrew word ‘amen’ so often used by Jesus must be seen in their entirety and combined in the gospels. into the organic whole of the reality of revela- In the history of the sciences, the organic tion. We need to receive revelation and have relationship between apodicticity, certainty faith in it, hope for it, and love it; but we also and probability disintegrates. Apodicticity in need to be uniquely certain of the reality of its mathematical and logical form gets rid of revelation which leads our world out of its the two other dimensions, especially of the present confusions and to reach a better order dimension of certainty; and probability of things in the form of a universal renewal. evolves into a calculus which has gained an This renewal makes our methodology instruc- increasing significance in contemporary sci- tive to an encompassing scientific methodolo- ence. What the theory of revelation may teach gy: because the aim of human knowledge is us in this respect is twofold: on the one hand, not only to understand what is ‘out there’, not an organic connection of these modes of only to produce limited models of natural go- knowledge is not only possible but even ad- ings-on in the form of machines, but rather to visable. Thus we need to work out a new form aim at the overall renewal of reality in which of apodicticity which integrates the aspects of all the fragments of our knowledge and reality logical apodicticity, certainty, and probability. may be organized into a meaningful whole. In this work, the principles of faith, hope and The notion of revelation, as is substantiated love are instructive. These principles describe by the theory of revelation, teaches us to fol- modes of the reception of revelation in three low this way. important aspects. All have been influential in the history of the sciences, because faith be- 6. Conclusion: Methodological Apocalyptics came understood not merely as faith in God but also as faith in the rational order of every- What I outlined above belongs to the thing; hope was understood not merely as the field I mentioned above under the title of connection to the ultimate fulfilment of reve- apocalyptics. Apocalyptics is the overall form lation but also as the hope concerning genuine of the study of revelation. Beyond its funda- understanding of ourselves and our world in mental introduction, apocalyptics has three which we live; and finally, love was not only important fields: 1. Theoretical Apocalyptics; understood as the love of God and our neigh- 2. Historical Apocalyptics; 3. Methodological bors, but also as the love of knowledge, wis- Apocalyptics dom, and humanity as such.

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terms of truth and reality expressed by the In my understanding, these three aspects Here is the structure of these fields: Hebrew word ‘amen’ so often used by Jesus must be seen in their entirety and combined in the gospels. into the organic whole of the reality of revela- Structural fields Methodological Theoretical Apoca- Historical Apoca- In the history of the sciences, the organic tion. We need to receive revelation and have ► Apocalyptics lyptics lyptics relationship between apodicticity, certainty faith in it, hope for it, and love it; but we also Content fields ▼ and probability disintegrates. Apodicticity in need to be uniquely certain of the reality of Contexts of Logic Logical problems Logical problems Logical problems its mathematical and logical form gets rid of revelation which leads our world out of its of method of theory of history the two other dimensions, especially of the present confusions and to reach a better order Contexts of Philosophical prob- Philosophical prob- Philosophical prob- dimension of certainty; and probability of things in the form of a universal renewal. Philosophy lems of lems of lems of evolves into a calculus which has gained an This renewal makes our methodology instruc- method theory history increasing significance in contemporary sci- tive to an encompassing scientific methodolo- Contexts of Theological prob- Theological prob- Theological prob- ence. What the theory of revelation may teach gy: because the aim of human knowledge is Theology lems of method lems of theory lems of history us in this respect is twofold: on the one hand, not only to understand what is ‘out there’, not Contexts of Phenomenological Phenomenological Phenomenological an organic connection of these modes of only to produce limited models of natural go- Phenomenology problems problems problems knowledge is not only possible but even ad- ings-on in the form of machines, but rather to of method of theory of history visable. Thus we need to work out a new form aim at the overall renewal of reality in which Contexts of Problems of method Problems of theory Problems of history of apodicticity which integrates the aspects of all the fragments of our knowledge and reality Religious Studies in religious studies in religious studies in religious studies logical apodicticity, certainty, and probability. may be organized into a meaningful whole. Contexts of the Problems of method Problems of theory Problems of history In this work, the principles of faith, hope and The notion of revelation, as is substantiated Sciences in investigating in investigating the in investigating love are instructive. These principles describe by the theory of revelation, teaches us to fol- the sciences sciences the sciences modes of the reception of revelation in three low this way. Contexts of the Problems of method Problems of theory Problems of history important aspects. All have been influential in Arts in investigating in investigating in investigating the history of the sciences, because faith be- 6. Conclusion: Methodological Apocalyptics the arts the arts the arts came understood not merely as faith in God Contexts of Relevance but also as faith in the rational order of every- What I outlined above belongs to the Personhood for Apocalyptic Personhood thing; hope was understood not merely as the field I mentioned above under the title of connection to the ultimate fulfilment of reve- apocalyptics. Apocalyptics is the overall form All these fields are actually disciplines methodologies and the fundamental lation but also as the hope concerning genuine of the study of revelation. Beyond its funda- which consider fundamental problems of the method of apocalyptics; and understanding of ourselves and our world in mental introduction, apocalyptics has three study of revelation: its methods, its theories, c) to show the relevance of such method- which we live; and finally, love was not only important fields: 1. Theoretical Apocalyptics; and its history. As to the methodological ven- ologies to the receiver of revelation, understood as the love of God and our neigh- 2. Historical Apocalyptics; 3. Methodological ue, the study of revelation includes the study human personhood, in their perspec- bors, but also as the love of knowledge, wis- Apocalyptics of the logical, theological, phenomenological, tive of renewing newness, nouveauté dom, and humanity as such. scientific, religious, and artistic problems. In novatrice. other words, it considers the problems of rev- In my presentation, all I wished to sum- elation in the context of the human sciences in marize has been the special correlation be- general. Its ultimate aim is threefold: tween the study of revelation and scientific a) to show the organic connections methodology in a general sense and in a his- among the various fields of methodol- torical perspective. While I find it very im- ogies; portant, I did not have appropriate place to b) to show the relationship between these show the relevance of such a general method- 74 75 75 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

ology to human or ‘apocalyptic’ personhood. Garrigou-Lagrange, R. (1951). De revelatione However, I believe it is of paramount im- per Ecclesiam Catholicam proposita. portance to recognize that all our considera- Romae: Libreria Editrice Religiosa,. tions are worthwhile if and only if they con- Mezei, B.M. (forthcoming in 2017). Radical tribute not only to a better understanding of Revelation: A Philosophical Appro- the sciences, philosophy, or culture, but es- ach. New York: Bloomsbury. sentially to the self-renewal of human persons Mezei, B.M. (2013). Religion and Revelation in their concrete historical situation. after Auschwitz. New York: Blooms- bury. REFERENCES Schmitt, C. (1985). Political Theology. Four Chapters on the Concept of Sover- Bostrom, N. (2016). Are You Living in a eignty. Edited and translated by Ge- Computer Simulation? at orge Schwab. With a Foreword by http://www.simulation- Tracy B. Strong. Chicago: Chicago argument.com/simulation.html University Press. (accessed 8/11/2016). Sloterdijk, P. (2016). Was geschah im 20. Clement of Alexandria: Stromata. In: Fathers Jahrhundert? Berlin: Suhrkamp. of the Second Century: Hermas, Tat- Vetö, M. (2012). L’élargissement de la méta- ian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and physique. Paris: Hermann. Clement of Alexandria, C. Cleveland (ed.). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

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