Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature, UOG Publisher: University of Gujrat, Jalalpur Jattan Road, Gujrat,

Patron in Chief Patron Prof. Dr. Muhammad Fahim Malik (Vice Chancellor) Prof. Dr. Farishullah

Editor Co-Editor Dr. Riaz Ahmed Mangrio Dr. Behzad Anwar

Associate Editor: Ms. Musarat Yasmin Alvi

Sub Editors 1. Mr. Raza-E-Mustafa 3. Ms. Saima Anwar 2. Mr. Moazzam Ali 4. Mr. S.H. Irtqa Hussain

Research Assistant Ms. Khadija Ghulam Hussain

Editorial Advisory Board Country 1. Dr. Jeannette Littlemore (Professor, University of Birmingham) UK 2. Dr. Alex Ho-Cheong Leung (Lecturer, Northumbria Uni. Newcastle) UK 3. Dr. Laura Bailey (Lecturer, Rutherford College University) UK 4. Dr. David Wheatley (Professor, University of Aberdeen) UK 5. Dr. Stephen Gill (Professor (Retired) Cornwall, On. K6H 5R) Canada 6. Dr. Boris Zakharyin (Professor, Moscow State University) Russia 7. Dr. Liudmila Khokhlova (Professor, Moscow State University) Russia 8. Dr. Keizo Nanri (Assoc. Professor, Oita University) Japan 9. Dr. Jaehyeok Choi (Lecturer, Kunsan College of Nursing) S. Korea 10. Dr. Mohana Dass Ramasamy (Assist. Professor, Uni. of Malaysia) Malaysia 11. Dr. Patrick Chi-wai LEE (Lecturer, Caritas Inst. of Higher Edu) Hong Kong 12. Dr. Fahimeh Naseri (Assist. Professor, Persian Gulf University) 13. Dr. Yousef Mukhtar Elramli (Assist. Professor, Misurata University) Libya 14. Dr. NDR Chandra (Professor, Nagaland University) 15. Dr. Maria Maldonado Garcia (Assist. Professor UMT) Pakistan 16. Dr. Nadeem Haider Bukhari (Professor, AJK University) Pakistan 17. Dr. Aalia Sohail Khan (Professor, UOG Rawalpindi Camp.) Pakistan 18. Dr. Ayesha Sohail (Professor, AJK University) Pakistan 19. Dr. Asadullah Larik (Professor, Iqra University) Pakistan 20. Dr. Muhhamed Zafar Iqbal (Professor, Leeds University) Pakistan 21. Dr. Haroon-ur-Rasheed (Professor, AJK University) Pakistan 22. Dr. Nadia Anwar (Assist. Professor UMT) Pakistan 23. Dr. Khalid Ahmed (Assist. Professor UOL, Gujrat Campus) Pakistan 24. Dr. Muhammad Shaban (Assoc. Professor UMT, Lahore) Pakistan 25. Dr. Abrar Hussain Qureshi (Assist. Professor, UOL, Pakptn Campus) Pakistan 26. Dr. Sibghatullah Khan (Assist. Professor, IIUI) Pakistan 27. Dr. Asim Mehmood (Assoc. Professor, GCU ) Pakistan 28. Dr. Kanwal Zahra (Assist. Professor, UOG) Pakistan Department of English, University of Gujrat

Contents

Neologisms in Pashto and Their Currency in the Kandahari 5 Dialect Spoken in Quetta and Kandahar Umaima Kamran & Yasir Khan

Textual Analysis of the Structure of : Application 20 of Propp’s Model of Characters and Functions Mudasar Jehan, Robina Kamran & Nasim Akhtar Raja

Nominal Markers in Punjabi 46 Khadija Ghulam Hussain

Using ‘Verbal Parallelism’ as a Tool in Developing 58 Jakobsonian Six Functions of language: A Case study of Dastoor by Habib Jalib Saira Javed & Fouzia Janjua

Camouflage Personae: A Study of Self Defense Mechanism in 71 Bapsi Sidhwa’s The Pakistani Bride Humaira Shahzadi & Muhammad Nawaz

Textbook Evaluation: Analyzing English Textbook I of 91 Federal Board at SSC Level in the Light of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Arshad Mahmood, Muhammad Iqbal Butt & Sidra Mahmood

A Comparative Analysis of and Cinderella: A 126 Proppian Model of Narratology Saima Jamshaid, Rubina Kamran, Riaz Ahmad Mangrio & Raza-E- Mustafa

Learner Autonomy: Pakistani Learners’ Perceptions, Attitudes, 145 Motivation and Challenges Muhammad Zubair Aslam & Musarat Yasmin

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Contributors

Dr. Nasim Akhtar Raja Foundation University, Islamabad

Dr. Musarat Yasmin University of Gujrat

Yasir Khan BUITEMS Quetta

Mudasar Jehan University of Gujrat

Dr. Rubina Kamran Foundation University, Islamabad

Saima Jamshaid University of Gujrat

Dr. Umaima Kamran Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad

Sidra Mahmood National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad

Dr. Muhammad Iqbal Butt Govt. Zamindara Postgraduate College, Gujrat

Khadija Ghulam Hussain University of Gujrat

Saira Javed GCW, Millat Road, Faisalabad

Dr. Riaz Ahmed Mangrio University of Gujrat

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Dr. Fouzia Janjua International Islamic University, Islamabad

Prof. Dr. Arshad Mahmood National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad

Muhammad Zubair Aslam University of Gujrat

Muhammad Nawaz University of Lahore (Chenab Campus)

Raza-E-Mustafa University of Gujrat

Humaira Shahzadi University of Gujrat, Sialkot Campus

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature

Neologisms in Pashto and Their Currency in the Kandahari Dialect Spoken in Quetta and Kandahar

Umaima Kamran Yasir Khan

Abstract

A spoken language usually has more than one dialect because of different types of linguistic variations occur. Pashto, which is widely spoken language of South Asia, has also different dialects. The present research aims to explore the lexical differences of Kandahari dialect of Pashto also known as Western dialect, spoken in Kandahar, Afghanistan and Quetta, Pakistan. The differences are in great quantity and in multitude of ways. This study narrows down on the differences in lexicon of the same dialect spoken in two different capitals: Kandahar and Quetta. In the study, some very commonly occurred neologisms are found out in Kandahari dialect through different sources: primary and secondary. The comparative study of the both varieties shows the reasons of Kandahar’s Kandahari dialect being dynamic and progressive lexically than that of Kandahari Dialect spoken in Quetta and some of the very common phonological changes that have occurred in the borrowed words of dialect spoken in Quetta. These examples of the phonological changes very clearly delineate that how a borrowed word is carved by the phonotactics of the recipient language. The pivotal role of Neology, which is the study of coining of new words, and language policies is revealed in making the variety dynamic through finding out the currency of the newly coined words in both areas.

Keywords: dialect, linguistic variations, Lexical differences, Phonotactics, Neology, language policies

1. Introduction Pashto throughout the history of Pakistan has remained marginalized. All the language polices formulated since the emergence of Pakistan have not been in favour of promotion of Pashto. This is majorly because of a fact that Pashto has always been associated with Pashtoon nationalism in the eyes of 5

Department of English, University of Gujrat the ruling club of Pakistan, for them promoting Pashto is like fueling Pashto nationalism. The apparent steps taken by Zia’s regime for the promotion of Pashto were in fact disguised means of demonizing and belittling Pashto language, none of the steps were taken seriously. In addition, there has always been an on-going intellectual conflict and disagreement among the linguists of Kandahari dialect and Youafzai dialect. This intellectual feud has barricaded Pashto from getting dynamic and progressive. This has resulted in failure of many conferences that were arranged for the standardization of Pashto. The role of Pashto academies in Pakistan has been very discouraging. After analysing there contribution, it can be asserted that they are in fact erected to demote Pashto Language instead of promoting it. This fact is revealed by looking at the number of publication each of the academies has published: Pashto academy Peshawar has published 576 pieces since Pakistan’s emergence whereas Pashto academy Quetta has set forth only 56 publications since 1971. Besides this, these academies have always warded off attempts of linguistic expurgation but supported borrowings and other linguistic contamination instead. All of the serious work is done by people independently and without any support from either government nor from these academies, such as works of Ummar Khayam translated into Pashto by Abdul Khair Zalak, Bari Jahani, Habib Ullah Tegey, “Bhagat Kabir” by Bari Jahani, “Geeta Anjali” of Rabrindarnath Tagore by Abdul Rauf Benawa and Sadiq Sparlae, War and Peace of Leo Tolstoy by Dr. Latif Bahand, Adultery of Paulo Coelho by Dr. Naseem Achakzai etc. In Pakistan no comprehensive linguistic study on the lexicon of Pashto is done earlier. To bridge the gap, this research is about the neologisms and their currency in the Kandahri dialect, also known as Western dialect, of Kandahar and Quetta. The study is carefully directed by a set of objectives that are carefully covered. The research is primarily protracted to prove the presence of newly coined words in the Kandahari dialect and to find out the currency of those newly coined terms in the dialect spoken in Kandahar and Quetta. This in return manages to unearth the factors, whether linguistic or non-linguistic, that are creating disparity in the form of lexical difference. Paxť ō; spelled differently in accordance withﭘښﺘﻮpəʂto̪ ː, ˈpəçto̪ ː, ˈpʊxto̪ ː],sˈ] different pronunciation, Pukhto, Pushto, or Pakhtu), also referred to as and Pathānī (as called in India), is the most commonly (اﻓﻐﺎﻧﻲ) Afghānī spoken language in Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is spoken as a native

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature language by over half the population of Afghanistan and is also widely spoken in Balochistan, the province of Pakistan directly to the South of Afghanistan. For variety of reasons, the name of the Pashto of language has been spelled in several ways. One reason is that the middle consonant [sh] is a sound that differs from one dialect to other. The second reason for not being able to render an exact word for Pashto is the lack of proper transliteration (Tegey & Robson, 1996; p.6). Pashto is a member of the Eastern Iranian languages group. Out of the two official languages of Afghanistan, one is Pashto. Apart from that, it is the second-largest regional language of Pakistan, after Punjabi, and is mainly spoken in the west and north-west of the country, and is the major language among the Pashtun diaspora anywhere around the world.

Figure 1: Map of Pashto speaking area (Adopted from Tegey & Robson, 1996)

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Pashto is branched under the North-eastern Iranian branch of the Indo- Iranian languages, even though ethnologue categorizes it as South-eastern Iranian language. The basic word order of Pashto is subject-object-Verb, as opposed to in English in which it is SVO. Many sentences, of course, are intransitive and do not have objects. In such cases the order is Subject-Verb. In Pashto modifiers always precede the verb, whereas in English most of the verbal modifiers follow the verb. The verb is also the last element in sentences with “be”. As in all Indo-European languages, Pashto sentences with “be” verbs are intransitive. Phrases that follow the “be” verb are complements not direct objects for example Layla is Aman’s wife. Under predictable circumstances, subjects and objects are deleted. One of those circumstances is “Imperative”. In imperative sentences, the predictable second person singular or plural subject is deleted, as it is done in English. There is no difference in word order between statement and question. Confirmatory questions are differentiated from statements solely by the rise of the voice at the end of the sentence. Similarly, as is sometimes informally done in English, John is a poet? W-H questions are differentiated from statements by positioning the appropriate question word in its ordinary position in the sentence. The intonation stays the same. There are only two Pre-positions in Pashto, but they are used quite frequently. One is “da” (of) and “pa”( WITH). It is the dative to “ta” that is counted as the only post position in Pashto. These prepositions have two elements and the subject- object is placed in between those elements (Tegey & Robson, 1996).

Whenever a new thing is invented, or a phenomenon discovered or a concept established, the language needs a word to refer to it for further references. The word for it is coined and is known as neologism. "A neologism is a new word or sense of a word." (Peprník p.76)"A naming unit which was coined to satisfy a linguistic demand, be it the demand of a single member of a speech community, or a single unrepeated demand." (Štekauer 2008: p.101) According to Kabove (2009) the origin of most neologisms is anonymous it is only in very few cases it is known that who coined the new word., "The motif for producing a neologism can be, besides the real need such as a new invention or discovery of something, also the puristic effort to replace foreign terms by domestic ones" (Peprník p.77). "Languages are accommodating and inventive in meeting these needs." (Fromkin2003: p.511). Neologisms can be made to through derivation, compounding or

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature composition, conversion, coinage, borrowing or loan words, blending, clipping or shortening, backformation abbreviating and acronyming, eponyms - words from names and imitation. Some very common examples of blending, acronyming, eponymy, compounding, derivation, abbreviation are “brunch” (blende of breakfast and lunch), “LAN” (local area network), Yamaha (name of a person but referred to a certain brand of bikes), dining- table, ecotage (sabotage of ecology), HD (high-definition) , respectively.

This study will set forth the importance of neologism in preventing a language from getting obsolete or in more traditional words getting impure by the trade back of borrowings from other language and import of loan words, and will contribute well to the literature of neology in Pashto which is almost not there or, if available, not in the streamline of media. The study will also delineate the existence of newly coined words in Pashto that are formed by the very concept of neology. The expected result of the collected data that is being analysed will unveil the role of government and the momentous impression of standardization on a language, because the population of the study goes right from Quetta, ignoring the Durand Line, to Kandahar, Afghanistan. This will in a way shed light on the non-linguistic factors such as language policies of a country in contributing to growth or degeneration of the dialect. Thus, propounds the factors that are causing the differences in the dialect spoken by the people who are not divided geographically but politically. Above all it will highlight the importance of neology in this era of technology.

Winford (2003) says that when two or more languages come into contact with each other, three contact outcomes are likely to happen as a consequence: Language Maintenance, Language Shift and Language creation. Language maintenance refers simply to the preservation by a speech community of its native language from generation to generation. Preservation implies that the language changes only by small degrees in the short run owing to the internal developments and/ or (limited) contact with other languages. Hence the various sub-systems of the language- the phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and core lexicon- remain relatively intact. Language maintenance can further turn out into three possible forms: borrowing, structural convergence and code-switching. Out of these three outcomes we would be concerned with the borrowing only.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat 2. Literature Review With the advent of time, languages need to be synchronized by updating the inventory of referents. This is supplemented further by Crystal (2002) who thinks that for the description of new concepts and technologies new words are regularly becoming the part of lexicon. On the contrary, those old words which are culturally not very significant fall out of the use. So with advancements in technology, the need of neologism in present time is increased.

The world of IT has influenced the language to great extents. It has compelled language to make new words for the new concepts. Schaffer (2001) says that for the technological inventions there is a need of neologisms, for example the e-prefixing is used to coin new words: e-book, e-mail, e-banking etc. With the growing boundaries of the field of IT neology is working with equal pace to coin new words for the new concepts in this field and it is making it possible to turn all those new advents in the field in to black and white form. Thus, a very specialized and technical knowledge is made tangible for a layman who is interested in getting on with the field.

This time period can be classified crucial for the languages all over the world, as Maxwell (2014) highlights that in the modern period of technology language change is more quick because of coining of new words with tremendous speed. He further explains he term ‘protologism’ which is described a newly coined term which has not commonly accepted into usage, so it is an initial stage in the development of neologism. In the other words, it can be said that it is this staggering pace of the growing technology that the language is either growing rich or getting obsolete: depending on the role of neology in a language. In the light of these studies on the growing demand of neologism, the present research is designed to explore the newly coined words in Pashto varieties.

3. Research Methodology It is primary research based on first hand data by concluding through analysis. This research at the beginning is descriptive because it is directed at making careful observations and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of interest and examines the what where and when of the phenomenon, but it is an explanatory research because it answers the how and why of the phenomenon as well because the research objectives seek

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or behaviours. The research statement was incepted with a scope wide enough to engulf the objectives of the research and to effectively trickle down the lexical differences between the single dialect of Pashto spoken in the same strip of land divided politically. The type of data that is collected has come within the definition of qualitative approach because it reveals the choice of the sample representing the population. The tool used for the extraction of the data from the sample was an open ended questionnaire to ensure less possible ambiguity and subjectivity. The population of the conducted research were the speakers of Kandahari Dialect in Kandahar and Quetta, out of whom the sample of 20 participants were selected with the equal number of males and females by maintaining to a possible extent the age and literacy of the participants. The questionnaire was distributed through the medium of social media to the participants of Kandahar, Afghanistan; and the participants of Quetta filled the questionnaire in person. During this procedure the components of scientific method such as parsimony, falsifiability, precision and replicability were taken great care of and thus the research ethics were not violated.

3.1. Sample Size The sample was carefully secluded out of the population for the sake of good representation. The sample of my research comprised of 20 participants funnelled by the criteria of age, sex and literacy.

Table 1: Participants’ demography

Participant Age Sex City Literacy No 5 23 to 28 Female Kandahar Undergraduate 5 23 to 28 Female Quetta Undergraduate 5 23 to 28 Male Kandahar Undergraduate 5 23 to 28 Male Quetta Undergraduate

The sample size comprised of 20 participants, out of them 10 participants, 5 males and 5 females were from Kandahar, Afghanistan, and 10 participants,

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Department of English, University of Gujrat 5 males and 5 females, were from Quetta, Pakistan. The participants were provided with a questionnaire that had questions related to newly coined words in the field of technology, emerging concepts in Pashto culture, terms used in society because of modernization, commonly used words on media and academia. The collected data is then analysed to find out the lexical and phonological differences.

4. Data Analysis This section is further divided into two sub-sections: first section presents list of newly coined words in Kandahari dialect of Kandahar; and second presents Phonological change in the borrowed words of Pashto spoken in Quetta.

4.1 Neologism in Kandahari dialect of Kandahar A list of forty newly coined words was prepared before the formulation of questionnaire from the articles of BBC PASHTO, the Programs of Aryana Channel, Programs of AVT Khyber and the latest translation of various English books Pashto writers such as Mohammad Latif Bahand, Dr. Naseem Achakzai, Bari Jehani etc. The list is mentioned below.

Table 2: Newly coined words in Pashto

Sr. Words in English Coined version Of Phonetic No Pashto transcription 1 Email Breshna lik [brΙshΣnalΙk]

2 Website Web parḁ [web-paɳə]

3 Home Page Kor parḁ [kor-paɳ]

4 Media Rasanae [rəsənəi] 5 Telephone Mukhabira [mΥxabΙra]

6 Fridge Yakhchal [jəxʧal] 7 President Ulas masher [Υləs məΣər] 8 Prime Minister Lomrae̥ wazir [lΥmɽəiwəzΙr] 9 Globalization Narewaltob̥ [neɽəwaltop]̪ 10 Global Village Narewal̥ Kalae [neɽəwal kələi]

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 11 Terrorism Tarhagari̥ [t̪ərhagəri] 12 Sociology Tolan Pohana [ʈolanpohanə] 13 Anthropology Bashr Pohana [bəΣer pohanə] 14 International Narewali̥ areki̥ [neɽəwali əɽeki] Relations 15 Civil Society Madni Pohana [mədni̪ pohanə] 16 Linguistics Zhab Pohana [ʒəb-pohanə] 17 School Showanzai [Σowənzəi] 18 College Pohanzai [pohanzəi] 19 University Pohantun [pohant̪Υn] 20 Helicopter Charkhaka [ʧərxakə]

21 Loudspeaker Zhaghtandae [ʒaɣʈəɳɖəi]

22 Page Parḁ [paɳə]

23 Sweater Ganjai [gənʤəi]

24 Calculator Shumargar [ΣΥmargər]

25 Accounting Garhanna [gəɽanə]

26 Company Gadoon [gəɖΥn]

27 Management Sambalasht [səmbaləΣt]̪

28 Link Tarhonai [tərhonəi]

29 Generator Breshnazezh [brΙΣnazəΣ]

30 Editor Sarlik [sərlΙk]

31 Medical Tib [t̪ɪb] 32 Country Hewad həvad ̪ 13

Department of English, University of Gujrat 33 Province Welayat [vɪlajət]̪ 34 Spokesman Wayand [vəjand]̪ 35 Newspaper Wradz Para [vrədz pa)a] 36 Governor Wali [valі] 37 Kindergarten Waruktun [vəɽəkt̪Υn] 38 Assitant Mrastwaal [mrəstva̪ l] 39 Library Kitabtun [kɪta̪ bt̪Υn] 40 Birthday Kaleza [kəlɪza]

All the 5 females from Kandahar used the newly coined words of Pashto for the respective words of English. All the 5 females of Quetta used loan words or the same words of English instead of Pashto words acquired through neologism. The female speakers of Kandahari dialect of Quetta were not even familiar with any word acquired through neology. All 5 males of Kandahar used the Pashto words of neologism for the above mentioned list of English words. In case of 5 male participants of Quetta, all were acquainted with some of the newly coined words but not even a single male was able to tell the Pashto words for all of the above English words. Such as participant 1 was able to answer 26 out of forty words and participant 4 was able to tell 21 out of forty.

4.2 Phonological change in the borrowed words Cases of influence may involve varying degrees of influence on the lexicon and structure of group’s native language from the external language with which it is contact. This kind of influence is referred to as “borrowing”. Thomason and Kaufman (1988:37) refer to it as the incorporation of foreign features into a group’s native language by the speakers of that language. This puts it plainly that the borrowed features are brought to the language by the speakers of that language itself. As Van Coestem (1988:3) asserts that borrowing involves recipient language agentivity, and this crucially distinguishes it from the other major type of cross-linguistic influence that involves source language agentivity in cases of second language learning.

On the basis of degree, borrowing can be either categorized as casual lexical borrowing or heavy lexical borrowing and as slight to significant or less

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature significant structural borrowing. Lexical borrowing is the borrowing of contentive words, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.

As discussed earlier, with the growing pace of discoveries, inventions and formation of new concepts, a language is required either to coin new words for them, of course through the apparatus of neology, or to borrow words. In case of Pashto both of the linguistic strategies are used to overcome the linguistic insufficiency of the lexicon. In case of the Kandahari dialect spoken in Kandahar, neology is seen in action, whereas the Western dialect, spoken in Quetta, seems to have resorted to borrowing.

The Kandahari dialect spoken in Quetta, Pakistan, has borrowed words from English, and to some extent from Russian (due to the influx of migrants from Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979). Pashto is an ancient language that is written in Perso-Arabic script. Its vocabulary contains words also from Ossete, Persian, Sanskrit, , Urdu and other regional languages of Pakistan, also some Indo-Aryan languages. The Pashto spoken in Pakistan has borrowed more from Urdu than other languages. The English borrowings are also from Urdu, the language has hundreds of borrowed words of English because of the presence of Britians during the 19th and early 20thcentury.

The borrowed words in return undergo phonological changes in order to conform with the phonetic chart and phonotactic restrains of Pashto language. Morgenstierne’s comment (1940:89) seems appropriate here: “Pashto in its turn...has been subject to a series of violent phonetic changes, affecting as well vowel quality and quantity as simple and compound consonants.” Voiced and voiceless aspirates series is absent in Pashto. Aspirates exist in written script but they are present in those words that have been borrowed from other languages so in speech they are not spoken and whenever in written script there is an aspirate, its corresponding unaspirated sound is spoken (Bukhari, 1985, p. 16). Now the vowel system in Pashto it was found that there are seven short vowels in Pashto /a/, /e/, /i/, /ə/, /o/, /u/ and three long vowels /a:/, /u:/, /i:/. Also there are four diphthongs /ey/, /ay/, /oy/ and /aw/. /i:/ as a high front un- rounded vowel is found infrequently in Pashto and mostly in those words that are borrowed from other languages. /e/ is a mid-front vowel. It is found word initially in those words that are from other languages. 15

Department of English, University of Gujrat Sometimes the process of conformations of borrowed words would lead to supra-segmental changes as well, the English word motor has a stress over its first syllable, but the stress shifts towards the second syllable once it is used in Pashto. Words that have undergone phonological changes are given in the table below.

Table 3: Phonological Changes in borrowed words

1. Kalinar = Cleaner [k↔lin↔r] 2. Tulbaks = Toolbox [ʈΥlb↔ks] 3. Kaysit = Cassette [kesΙʈ] 4. Larae = Lorry [l↔r↔i] 5. Mashin = Machine [m↔ΣΙn] 6. Motar = Motor [moʈ↔r] 7. Aitar = Heater [iʈ↔r] 8. Saykal = Cycle [sek↔l] 9. Jaaz = Jahaaz (an Urdu word) [ʤa↔z] 10. Lapta:p = Laptop [lepʈap] 11. Telfun = Telephone [ʈelfΥn] 12. Botal = Bottle [bot̪↔l] 13. Kat = Cot [k↔ʈ] 14. Kular = Cooler [kΥl↔r] 15. Amrika = America [↔mrΙk↔] 16. Baks = Box [b↔ks] 17. Atam = Atom [eʈ↔m] 18. Sayins = Science [sens] 19. Tim = Team [ʈΙm] 20. Semat = Cement [sΙm↔ʈ] 21. Rakit = Rocket [rakΙʈ] 22. Filam = Film [fΙl↔m] 23. Andle = Handle [enɖ↔l] 24. Banat = Bonnet [ban↔ʈ] 25. Mublayl = Mobil oil [mΥblel] 26. Palas = Pliers [p↔las] 27. Wal = Valve [υal]

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 28. Tayr = Tyre [ʈe↔r] 29. Podar = Powder [poɖ↔r] 30. Amlat = Omlette [amleʈ] 31. Maydical = Medical [medɪkəl] 32. Gornar = Governer [gornər] 33. Ganraytar = Generator [dΖənretər] 34. Caalcolatar = Calculator [kalkoletər] 35. Tublait = Tube light [tΥblaɪt] 36. Balap = Bulb [bələp] 37. Palate = Plate [pəlet] 38. Gilas = Glass [gɪlas] 39. Kapae = Copy [kəpəɪ] 40. Layter = lighter [letər]

5. Conclusion After analysing the collected data, enough dimensions are explored that meet the ends of the objectives of this research. Firstly, it is proved that the inventory of lexicon in Pashto is updated by the apparatus of neologism, in order to make the words for newly discovered and invented things and for the newly formed concepts etc. This was something that can be said generally about the Pashto language but it can’t be said in specific cases such that of our research. The differences observed in currency of neologisms within the same dialect but spoken in Kandahar and Quetta forced us to trail the issue even beyond the boundary of linguistics. Even though in both of the cities, the same dialect is spoken, in Kandahar they use neologisms but in Quetta most of the target population use loan words, which is due to the language policies of the countries, Afghanistan and Pakistan respectively. There are two official languages in Afghanistan and Pashto is one of them. Pashto is standardized and thus technically synchronized with the passage of time to meet the growing needs of time, which makes it rich ultimately. The same dialect is spoken in the strip right from Kandahar, to Spin Boldak (Afghanistan), then to Chaman (Pakistan) and Quetta, but as far as the boundaries of Pakistan get close, the frequency of neologisms in the speech of Kandahari Dialect speakers decrease; the usage of these neologisms gets almost nil when we go further in Pakistan: Chaman to Quetta. This is because in Pakistan not only Pashto but almost all the regional dialects are

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Department of English, University of Gujrat marginalized instead of standardized. This research provides enough scientific evidence to support the claim. The speakers of Kandahari Dialect in Quetta use loan words instead of neologisms that is due to the lack of mechanism for the standardization of this language in Pakistan. Those male participants of Quetta who were able to use some of the neologisms were in good contact with the Afghani Radio Channels, BBC Pashto, Voice of America etc. This is evident that the apparent disparity in the lexicon of these two regions is due to the language policies of their countries.

Grimm (2004) says, “when a foreign word falls by accident into the fountain of a language, it will get driven around in there until it takes on that language’s colour”. While taking in mind the above cited examples in table two, it is very obvious that the borrowed words do alter phonologically to some extent. Many factors are found active in this process of sound change. The pronunciation of the borrowed words changes, sometimes, due to assimilation and dissimilation. Most of the times, either vowel is deleted or added to the word. Supra-segmental features are also seen to be changing the words phonologically, such as the ultimate stress pattern in Pashto was found very common, in case of borrowed words.

References Bukhari, S. (1985). Phonology of Urdu language. : Royal Book Co.

David, C. (2002). The English Language. (2nd ed.) London: Penguin Books.

Habibullah (1996). A Reference Book of Pashto Grammar. Department of Education Washington DC.

Hans, G. (1980). American Neologism in German. Durham: Duke University Press.

Jakob, G. (2004). In Campbell, Lyle. Historical linguistics. (2nd ed.) Cambridge: MIT Press.

Kubova, K. (2009). Neologisms in English. (Bachelor’s Diploma Thesis). Masaryk University. Brno. The Czech Republic.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Lehrer, Adrienne. (2007). Blendalicious. In Munat, J. (Ed.). Lexical Creativity, Texts and Contexts. (pp.115–133) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Maxwell, K. (2014). BuzzWord: protologism. Macmillan.

Morgenstierne, G. (1980). An Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto. Basar, pp.61-64.

Peprník, J. (2006). English Lexicology. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v

Olomouci. Rumsiene, G. (2009). Word formation patterns in internet English. Kaunas Publishers.

Schaffer, D. (2001). Te story of e-: A discussion of the nature and productivity in internet vocabulary of the prefx e- as ine-mail. English Today, 68, 22-26.

Štekauer, P. (2002). On the Theory of Neologisms and Nonce- Formations. Australian Journal of Linguistics. 22(1), 97-112.

Tegey, H. & Robson, B. (1996). A Reference Grammar of Pashto. Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Thomason, S.G. & Kaufman, T. (1988). Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. California: University of California Press.

Van Coetsem, F. (1988) Loan phonology and the two transfer types in language contact. Foris.

Winford, D. (2003). An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden: Blackwell Publishing.

Yule, G. (1996). The study of language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Textual Analysis of the Structure of Heer Ranjha: Application of Propp’s Model of Characters and Functions Mudasar Jehan Robina Kamran Nasim Akhtar Raja

Abstract This study aims to analyze Punjabi Folk Tale Heer Ranjha keeping in view Propp’s perspective of thirty-one (31) functions and seven (7) characters. Usborne (1919) translates into English the Punjabi folk tales Heer Ranjha which was actually written by Punjabi Poet “” a Punjabi Sufi Saint and writer. The reason of the selection of this folktale is that it is a legendry tale in the literary history of . Being legendry, it has complex structure and characters. This is the reason researcher selects this poem to apply Propp’s model on it. This is qualitative, descriptive and analytic research in nature. Textual analysis of the English Text shows that all the characters and functions of Propp synchronize in this folk tale. This is the significance of the study also because there are less number of folk tales which packed all the characters and function in a single tale. This study agrees with Proppien perspective of Fabula and suzhet also.

Keywords: Fabula, Folk Tale, Heer Ranjha, Narratology, Suzhet

1. Narratology and Development of the Term The way to examine, analyze and evaluate the text of Narrative or story is called Narratology, which was developed out of Russian Formalism and Western Structuralism, (Cobley, 2005). Plot, story and indeed Narrative itself are the most fundamental elements of Narrative writing or Narratology. The idea that plot and story have separate functions was first of all introduced by a Russian Formalists Shkloevski (1893). He effectively presented obtainable distinction linking Fabula “the raw material of a story”, and suzhet, “the way a story is organized” later on the terms sometimes translated as "story “and "plot “. It would be pertinent to say that “story” consist of: all the events that take place in the story (king died and queen also died) on the other hand “plot” consists of the underneath causalities that actually binds the events together (king died and in grief queen also died). So, plot of the tale demands some of the events be narrated

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature and some other need not to be narrated. At the above all “Narrative” deals with how all these events and causality are sequenced and which devices are used and what sort of narration vice being used (Cobley, 2005).

Its origin goes back to its ultimate ancestor ’Aristotle’ whose ‘Poetics’ offers an authoritarian guide. Although Western letters from time to time keep on adding observations on different forms of narrative however, it would be most relatable to mention that Propp (1895), the Russian scholar dig foundation for Narratology. In 1920s, his work altered, or created the history of literary theory. Especially, the model, he presented for folktales made him a prominent figure in the field of Structuralism. Propp’s work itself originated from Ferdinand De Saussure’s concept of structuralism in language signs system, which he presented in his book Cours de linguistique générale. Ferdinand de Saussure used language analogies to substantiate his concept of language a system signs, i.e. “sign, signified and signifier” but Propp applied Saussure’s concept of ‘structure’ on human science or especially on narrative.

The concept of Structuralism was applied on different fields but it was the work of literary structuralists which flourished more than in any other discipline in field of literary theory (Onega-2005). In simple words we can say that Structuralist, like Saussure drew analogies among sign system of language, following him Narrative Structuralist worked on broader scope. Theoretically, Narrative structuralists, like Vladimir Propp, Tzventan Todorov, Roland Barthes, Algirdas Julian Greimas and Anthropologist Levis-Strauss clinched to the lot of forms of narrative forms, some of them are: epic poetry, oral poetry, ballads, novel, the romance, plays, puppet shoes, opera, paintings, comic strips, radio, serials, films, television series, computer, news, and video games, virtual-reality scenarios, above the all the representation of human discourse.

Later on, Western Structuralists keep on adding something new in Propp’s functions but the work of Propp is inevitable. Propp (1928) undertake analyses of narrative that focuses on "story” approach. Propp (1928) formulated a model which fixed all Narratives. To reach at this point, he analyzed almost hundred Russian folk tales. He wrote a book by the name of “Morphology of Folktales” (1968). He examined the underline basic structures of all under observation tales and found commonalities, 21

Department of English, University of Gujrat particularly the basic functions and characters in each of the story. After complete scrutiny he found that there are some basic commonalities, he said there are thirty-one (31) functions and seven (7) characters. It is not necessary that all of the characters and functions may be actualized in all the stories at a time. All the tales revolves around these functions and characters with little variation. Even same character or function may be carried out by a single character. The procedure adopted to analyze or write text of any Narrative by the structural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1958) based on binary opposition, it was the byproduct of Propp and Saussure. His procedure normally is taken or considered to be equal or synonym to Propp’s (1928). Like Propp his work too considered a great contribution in the field of Narratology.

The categorization introduced by Greimas (1917) also carries much weightage in this streamline. He most importantly, emphasizes on the function nature of characters by Propp’s i.e. "dramatis personae” by using word actants "Actantial Roles” and defined relation among them. He endowed a power of structuralism to the study of Narratology by presenting characterization of any narrative on the idea of three axes borrowed from Propp. Other than this, in addition, Greimas explores the methods and ways to describe the structure of Narratives and introduces the interaction between positive and negative, a vital ingredient of all narratives. Another literary scholar and critic Barthes (1915) too in his "Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narratives” proposes three levels division of narrative. He arranged them as, 1-functions (as does Propp), 2-actions and 3-narration. However, the level of narration in Barthes’s (1915) essay marked a significant departure from the model presented by the Fathers of Narratology. He deals with content and Fabula, or the re-arrangement of Fabula above all he included the role of narrator and his point of view, which results into “Death of the Author” and “Reader Response Theory”. In the streamline, Barthes’s essay (1915) "Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative, he introduced the idea of “Master Code” and later on Tzventan Todorov (1969) in his “Grammaire of Décaméron” where first time he coined the term “Narratology”, this represents the birth of Narratology.

It would be pertinent to say that Narratology represents a turning point in literary theory and humanities during twentieth-century. It includes

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Russian Formalism, Prague School Structuralism, the Copenhagen School, New Criticism, French Structuralism, the Toronto School, and Post- structuralism. These Russian Schools adopted a neutral and impartial approach to explicate and scrutinize “textuality” rather than an old concept of “prescriptive” approach. MeikeBall (1964) a narrative critic, uses a term “Return to Narratology “is an indication that in spite of diversity of readers Narratological event are arranged in the way that with limited number of practices it provide diversity in all narrative genres.

2. Available Models in Narratology Table 1: Available Model on Narratology Name of Narratives Narrative Model and Descriptions

Aristotle This Model based on beginning middle and end. Basic (350BC) constituent are: Action (which contain plot), thought, character, language (the type of diction used,) pattern and Enactment (spectacle) of the play.

Vladimir He focuses on story or langue approach instead of Propp’s (1928) discourse or parole approach. He presented master codes i.e. a Model, based on 31 functions which are carried out through characters who are 7 in number. He identified that all folktales consist of these functions and characters, whether they all are actualized in a single story or not.

Levi-Strauss Like Propp and Saussure, he too purposed the basic (1958) same structure of all narratives. His basic idea was based on “Binary Opposition”.

He applied his work of different forms of Narrative, like: travel literature biographies and autobiographies, fiction and most preferably theatre and film (media). He said Narrative can be explicated

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Department of English, University of Gujrat on the basis of pairs, according to how they oppose each other.

Claude He re-examined, Todorov proposition and refines Bremond(1966) his narrative sequence and added relationship or motivation and principle of narrative possibilities.

Barthes (1966) He gave a code typology to understand any text: according to him a text consists of five codes.1- Proairetic code or the code of action (it is called the voice of empirics), 2-the code of Hermeneutic (it is called the voice of truth), 3-the code of Connotative (it is called the voice of the person), 4-the code of Cultural or referential (it is called the voice of science (it is also called the shared knowledge of culture), 5- the code of Symbolism (it is also called the voice of the symbol).

Todorov (1968) In his book “Boccaccio’s Grammar of Décaméron” he coined the word Narratology first time. The Todorov theory too advocates that all narratives follow same structure where situation in the Narrative begin with the state of equilibrium and story flows smooth, later on, as some progress comes along to disrupt the equilibrium then recognition is occurred that where disruption is occurred, later on an attempt is made to solve and get the equilibrium back and finally resolution occurs and equilibrium is restored.

Algirdas Julien He proposed an idea of actantial model, which is Greimas (1971) based on Propp's model of functions. Actantial analysis consists of assigning each element of the action being described in Propp. Based on three axes and 6-actants. These divisions areas follow:

1-The first one is called, desire axes: it based on the subject and the object. 2- The second is called, power axes: it is based on the helper and the opponent. 3-

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature The third is called, transmission axes: it is based on the sender and the receiver.

3. Vladimir Propp (1928) Propp (1928) is a Russian folktale writer he examined almost hundred Russian Folktales, fairy tales, in his book Morphology of Fairy Tales. Unfortunately, his work remained un-noticed till it translated into English in 1950s. He identified some fixed structures for all types of story writings in literature, in films theatre or television etc. He claimed that apparently all stories differ from each other but all stories follow similar fixed structures and have fixed characters (Morphology of Folk Tales, 1968). His theory is the forms of structuralism in lieu that structure of all the stories is in the form of fixed structures. It indicates that Propp’s functions and structures can be applied on any story written anywhere in the world. However, Molt (2012) reports the criticism on the Propp’s model by Levi-Strauss who doubts about the validity of folklores due to the fact that they have been transmitted orally. So, the model neglects tone, mode and other linguistic characteristics.

4. Reason of selection of Propp’s model for current study Reason of the selection of Propp’s (1928) model for given study is that it is the most comprehensive in nature, all other models presented by later Narrativists also carry in them Proppien characteristics. Like, Strauss’s (1958) model contain in it the characterization just like presented in Propps Model, he too followed Saussurean concept of binary opposition in narratives. Later on, Gremmies (1971) re-arranged Propp’s characterization into three main axes. Barthes (1966) presented three fold model, function, action and narration. Functions carry the same traits which were presented by Propp along with his typology of Codes has been designed on the pattern which resemble Propp’s model , he only dissimilar from Propp when he talks about role of narrator in the text. Propp (1928) also being followed by Todorov (1966) who presented the idea of equilibrium, he too talks about functions of character, he introduced a word “Master Code” to describe the structures of text as a whole. Claude Bremond (1966) re-visited Todorov (who himself followed Propp) and just added some narrational and relationship possibilities. Being comprehensive in nature, The Propp’s Model of Functions and Characters has been given importance and selected 25

Department of English, University of Gujrat in the given study to evaluate functions and characters in a Punjabi folk tale; Heer Ranjha

Table 3: Seven Characters Thirty-One Functions in Propp’s Model # Functions

1 Absentation 11 Departure (any of 21 Pursuit (hero or the main heroine is usually (the tendency of any characters have followed by villain main character be to departure from to find out their absent from the his/her native secrets). proper place). place for any reason).

2 Interdiction (of any 12 First function of 22 Rescue (the ability character’s banning the donor (donor to help needy entry where he or or helper helps persons at the she wants to live). the needy time of pain, exile person). or calamity).

3 Violation of 13 Hero’s reaction 23 Unrecognized interdiction (hero is usually arrival (any teased, he bears character returns (of any character’s but finally he to the native or reaction or rejection reacts and tale desired place in to accept banning takes a new turn). disguise). from home).

4 Reconnaissance 14 Receipt of a 24 Unfounded claims magical agent (a false blame is (any of the character, (any saint, usually marked to mostly hero heroine heavenly body hero or heroine is investigated etc helps the which they keeping in view pricked hero or actually do not fraud in general heroine at the know). perception). time of dire need).

5 Delivery (Both main 15 Guidance (main 25 Difficult task (any characters come to characters is character who is guided in true of delicate build

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature know each other’s letters and spirit up is given secrets. to regain his/ her difficult task to status back). fulfill his/ her wish).

6 Trickery (A villain 16 Struggle (main 26 Solution (Tale try to deceive main character is usually ends with characters by shown in a moral lesson or spreading rumor or continuous solution in favour false news). struggle which of righteous ends in success or person). happiness).

7 Complicity (in 17 Branding Recognition simplicity, hero or (falsified blames heroine tells secrets (to see the same are recognized at to villains which idea in different the end to make results into perspective). situation clear to hero/heroine’s the concerned downfall). person).

8 Villainy (a character 18 Victory (anyone 28 Exposure (secrets usually villain finds who works gain are brought in secrets and make victory, public by them public). sometimes villain treacherous got on being person with treacherous and proves for the later hero on shame of the being true to hero/heroine situation). family).

9 Mediation (a person 19 Liquidation (due 29 Transfiguration who broke ties in to bad (any character strong and lovely circumstances usually appear in relations by false business faces two or more than news). deficit). two disguise to deceive other people or save them).

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Department of English, University of Gujrat 10 Beginning counter 20 Return 30 Punishment (any action (Hero/heroin of the characters usually return get punished for (a reaction to back to their false acts or due to previous action is proper place to excuses put upon performed for help the needy them by villain). revenge or pay ones or the same homage). family who exile 31 Wedding (there is them). usually reunion successful or unsuccessful scene of marriage in folk tales.

Table.2- Thirty-One Functions of Propp’s model are as follow: (Morphology of Folk Tales, 1968)

Seven Characters of Propp’s Model Characters Role Played

1 Hero The hero is the protagonist or pivotal character.

He is usually victim, leaves luxuries, faces troubles, fights and struggles, helped by helper and donor and finally finds her reward as princess.

2 The villain/ the false This character works against the hero/ takes credit hero for the heroes and gets princess.

3 The dispatcher It usually sends the hero/heroine on their way.

4 The helper It helps the hero

5 Princess/price The hero deserves her throughout the story but could not marry her due to unfair atmosphere usually created by villain

6 Father He usually gives a task too hero, sometime heroine can give a task too.

7 Donor He/she provides some magical help or cause reward.

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5. Folktale People all around the world like to read and write stories for different purposes. According to Story (2012) a story is an arrangement of series of events as whole results in a well-knitted pattern in a story. Stories are source to express feelings values and also keep people engage to forget worries and start imagining themselves at the place of characters at emotional and intellectual level. Spectators or audience also feel sympathy and empathy for characters. The history of storytelling is very vast. Folktales are those stories which grew out of imagination of common folks or masses. Folktales or folklores are sort of literature which always remained children’s favorite. The reason of popularity and likeness springs out of its imaginative fabric of which it is woven i.e. its supernatural elements, sense of justice, happy ending and fundamental wisdom. Luthi (1976) says that so many people use term “folktales” and “fairy tales” interchangeably, though only few of them contain fairies in them. He added, “Fairy tales are unreal but not untrue”. The fabric of fairy tales presents the essential development of the general living styles and conditions of man’s existence.

Being, Fairytales general in nature, the basic concept of fairy tales also applicable on other forms of folktales stories too i.e. on local folktales and other genres too. The current research discusses the Punjabi Folk Tale by Waris Shah Heer Ranjha. It is translated by Usborne (1919). It is romantic tragedy. It woven fabric has resemblance with the concept of Propp’s fairy tale. The only difference lies in ending.

6. Brief Synopsis of the Punjabi Folktale Heer Ranjha Translates into English the Punjabi folk tales Heer Ranjha written by Punjabi Poet “Waris Shah” (Usborne, 1919) Heer (heroine of the story) is a maiden beautifully loaded with Punjabi beauty. She is the daughter of a wealthy man (Chaudhry Chuchak Sayyal) who is Jutt- a superior cast considered in . The family belongs to Jhang District of Punjab. On the other side, in a nearby village lived Ranjha, (the hero of the story). His nick name is Teedo being very favorite of his father. He is youngest brother out of four. Being father’s favorite son and the youngest of all siblings he leads a life of ease who spending his life by playing musical instrument “the flute” and mesmerizing folks around.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Ranjha decides to leave his home (dispatcher) after having a distupte and later quarrel with his brothers’ wives and brothers on the matter of land, and travels to nearby village. That village was of Heer's residence. There he is offered a job of caretaking the buffalos at Heer’s father’ cattle form house. There Ranjha used to play on flute, Heer becomes mesmerizes by Ranjha’s flute. With the passage of time both captivate each other attention and fall in each other’s love and meet clandestinely for many years until they are caught by Heer's jealous uncle (Chacha) Kaido, (the villain). Kaido told about them to Heer’s parents. Ranjha’s identity was still deceptive. He didn’t tell anybody about his linage or belongings. Heer’s parents took him as a poor guy and refused to marry Heer with him. Heer is engaged to marry another man, of his far flung family in another nearby village. Later on, heartbroken and keeping hate of worldly items ‘Ranjha’ turns into a –Jogi (beggar). In severe pain he decides to pierce his ears and rejects the material world. While on his travels and wonder all around the villages and towns of Punjab, Ranjha eventually reunited with his mentor Heer. There Heer’s parents after all come to know about true love of Heer and Ranjha as well as Ranjha’s identity. The parents agree to their marriage by getting divorce from the previous husband. Heer gets divorce and come back his village to get marry with Ranjha. On the day of wedding, the jealous uncle of Heer “Kaido “mixes poisons in the food of Heer; Ranjha come to know about poison through a helper, he rushes towards Heer. Heer intakes that bowl of poison because she was told by villain Kaido that Ranjha has been expired in an accident a while ago. When Ranjha reaches to Heer, she already had taken poison but was alive. She dies in his arms. In a while Ranjha too takes the leftover poison and dies at the spot. Both die in each other’s arms.

This loving couple buried a town of Punjab called Jhang. Lovers and couples usually visit their mausoleum.

7. Aim and Objective of the Study This study aims to analyze Punjabi Folk Tale Heer Ranjha with Propp’s perspective of functions and characters. 8. Framework of the Study To conduct the study, textual evidences are gathered to analyze the function of Vladimir Propp narrative theory in the Pakistani folktale The Adventure of Heer and Ranjha. This research will unveil the implication of Vladimir

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Propp’s model of Narratology on the Text of this folktale. The research will be qualitative in nature. In “Morphology of folktales (1968)” Prop classifies the thirty one functions. All characters and functions are traced out in the Pakistani folk tale Heer Ranjha translated by Usborne (1919).

9. Application of Propp’s Model

9.1 Presence of all Propp’s Characters Presence of all character in Propp’s Morphology is summed of in a single table below in the Punjabi Folk Tale Heer Ranjha.

Table 4: Characterization in Heer Ranjha (all characters present in Heer Ranjha) Characters by Propp Role Played in Heer Ranjha

1 Hero Ranjha (Teedo Ranjha)

2 The villain/false hero Kaido

3 The dispatcher Ranjha

4 The helper Gurru Balnath

5 Princess/price Heer Sayyal

6 Father Chuchak Sayyal

7 Donor Gurru Balnath

9.2 Application of all Propp’s Functions (with some textual examples) Propp (1989) wrote a book “Morphology of folktale” (1968) at the beginning in preface page, he expresses his feelings and tells the reasons of writing that book. He says that, the word Morphology is actually used in Biology to know the morphology of any plant or human bodyline i.e. in basic sciences, this word is used to dig deep and to know the basic structure of any living organism, relationship between different components from each other and some time from other organisms and plants. He claims that nobody ever 31

Department of English, University of Gujrat thought to study about the basic structures of written material or of tales. So, he started thinking about and he focused on the Morphology of the folktale” (Propp 1989, p.12). He enumerated 31 main functions and 7 characters which he says not all in the same but some of them necessarily are actualized in fairy tales or folktales.

As folk tales and fairy tales are used interchangeable, keeping in view prop’s model being applied on Punjabi Folktale Heer Ranjha which is Punjabi Folk Tale and Propp’s all characters and all functions also being traced out. Textual Analysis is given below.

There are many occasions when this function is found, Ranjha is found absent from his home by his father when had quarrel with his brothers and sister in laws.

Table 5: Application of Thirty-One Functions of Propp’s Model Functions Applications

1 Absentation At the beginning of the tale, Hero Ranjha is fond absent from home. He is a person who keeps himself busy in boyhood activities and does not take interest in household activities, which become the reason of his interdiction from home by his family members.

2`. Interdiction Ranjha was banned to be looked after without work and his food was banned by his brother and sister in laws. Later on, he was banned by Heer’s farther to work on his form house when Heer and Ranjha caught red handed while making love scene.

3. Violation of Ranjha was banned to come to Heer’s village interdiction but he come back to her village by adopting a role of jogi (beggar). Where he begs and keeps staring at Heer’s door to have glimpse of her face.

4. Reconnaissance Heer and Ranjha’s whole love tale revolves around reconnaissance in different way. Kado

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature (Chacha) keep in a situation of reconnaissance all the time. Most of the time he is found chasing the loving couple. The couple being investigated many times and faced trial.

5. Delivery The Villain receives Information about his Victim and victim/s also comes to know about Villain. Kaido, the villain of the story, comes to know the intimacy between Heer and Ranjha. Later on, Heer also comes to know about the character of villain and she tells Ranjha be aware of him.

“Heer: Ranjha! Be aware of my Uncle Kaido, in character he is like a snake and his purpose is to mischief” (page 61.Usborne).

6. Trickery Propp made another entry in his functions as, trickery. It unmasks the villainous character of Kaidu who deceive in the guise of beggar in order to hurt the protagonist (Ranjha) of the story. He keeps on chasing them and recording details of loving couple. He plays trickery upon couple and play with their fate. “Kaido: in the disguise of chases the loving couple while they were eating food, made by Heer. Kaido appears in front of them as beggar, asks for charity and alms for the sake of God. On seeing him, Ranjha took pity on him, recognizes him as a true beggar and gives him half of his food which Heer cooked for him. Kaido takes that food and retires from the place giving them blessings (page 64, Usborne).

7. Complicity Propp added function “complicity” i.e. hero is trapped in the net of valiant himself in his simplicity. The Victim surrenders to dishonest villain and thereby unwillingly helps his enemy. Deedho Ranjha, who is innocent protagonist, gives away the same

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Department of English, University of Gujrat bread to Kaido, when he comes to him in the disguise of Jogi-beggar. The same action causes his tragedy. Kaido in the council of village relates the story of their union and show them the piece of that bread which Ranjha shares with Kaido (in disguise of poor beggar). “Kaidu in the council of village says. Behold people; here it is the pieces of that bread I bring as a sample which Heer cooked for Ranjha. You people will not believe in me when I am letting you know, but if you believe me she is hussy girl (Page 65.Usborne). It shows the submission of Victim to his enemy and how enemy trickily uses it to destroy the victim. Propp’s this function fully being actualized here.

8. Villainy As per Propp’s function, villain is the main character which falsifies the hero. In the given tale of Heer Ranjha, a villain “Kaido” appears. He is uncle of Heroine. He watches or caught Heer and Ranjha while making love, tell to Heer’s parents and present the case in village council. Kaidu the villain falsifies the true love of Heer and Ranjha in the council of the village. Kaido overtly utters the case in front of Jirga-council and make the loving couple unsettle and unhappy. “Look respected people; here are those pieces of bread and pastries which Heer cooked and gave to Teedo Ranjha. You people will not believe when I am telling you, not will believe his father-Chuchak Sayyal (Heer’s father). If you believe me, she is immortal hussy girl. She is shame of the family. Kindly, believe in me and let Chuchak believe in this reality” (Page 65, Usborne). 9. Mediation Kaido (Chacha) through interference in the love story of Heer and Ranjha breaks ties by telling fake stories to Heer’s parents.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 10. Beginning counter Kado, the villain was mocked by Heer on action being handicapped and in peruse of secrets. Kaido took revenge and after finding secrets of Heer make those secrets public which causes Heer’s public and family shame. 11. Departure In this legendry tragic Punjabi folktale “Heer Ranjha” hero of the story Deedu Ranjha suddenly departed from his house. “Sudden Departure” is one of the most important and major Function in the typology of Propp’s model. Ranjha is the pivotal personality or protagonist of the narrative. He has quarreled with his brothers on the matter of land; he disobeys (Interdiction-another Propp’s function) his elder brothers and leaves his village, Takht Hazara. He kept on walking and finally he reaches the bank of river Chenab. “Teedo Ranjha in his dismay and anger tied his clothes hangs with stick and putting his arrogance and family pride away, from his life and soul, leaves the house, with the name of Allah and Khawaja Khizar, the prophet of the waters, crosses the river ” (Page 40, Usborne).

12 First function of the Guru Grunth as donor teaches Ranjha teaches donor him the lesson of Jogs which are lessons to be close to Allah and humanity.

13 Hero’s reaction Ranjha as hero reacts at many times, when his brothers and sister get annoyed on not yielding livelihood for family he is rebuked by them, as a result he reacts and leaves the home. And story begins.

14. Receipt of a Propp introduces a function magical agent magical agent which as helper helps the dejected hero and helps him to regain his status back. This quality is also present in the Punjabi Folk tale “Heer Ranjha”. When Ranjha was tormented by sufferings caused by Kaido, he reaches a 35

Department of English, University of Gujrat place, Tilla Jugian, on the bank of river Chenab in order to become a Jogi/ Faqir. There he meets Gurru Balnath, famous saint of the area, he inculcate in him the lessons of faqiri/ Jog into Ranjha’s soul. Jog is an approach of mysticism. It reveals us Propp’s idea of magical agent or helper.

“Ranjha asks Guru: Accept me as your Chelae (disciple) and be my Pir (religious Teacher)”. “In response Guru: prayed for him, and poured on his body pure ashes suggested him to plunge his soul into deep meditation. Guru closed his eyes, and reaches into the Durbar of God and loudly utters his prayers. O Almighty God, My Love, You are Lord of this earth and heaven above and sky. Ranjha- Jutt, has decided something new; he has left his kith and kin for the eyes of love of Heer’s eyes, as eyes have slain him with the arrows of deep and pure love. Oh my God, please grant him powers so that he may get his hearts desires. I beg mercy for him for the sake of 5 Peer” (Page 122.Usborne).

15. Guidance Hero Ranjha is being helped and guided by Guru Grunth. Guru changes his way of thinking in a positive way and let him know the real meanings of true love.

16. Struggle Heer and Ranjha’s tales revolves around the struggle to find each other to settle happily, being apart from each other. They were separated on account of social enemy Kaido. At the end they succeed but cannot survive.

17. Branding Essential truth or values gets transparent at the end of the tale to the Heer’s parents. On getting to know the truth they agreed to settle marriage between Heer and Ranjha.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 18. Victory Victory occurs for both villain and Hero. First of all villain gets succeed to get victory when he fix Ranjha’s exile by telling truths to Heer’s parents. Later on Ranjha succeed getting the faith of Heer’s parents back at the end of the tale.

19 Liquidation Heer’s parents business was catered efficiently on low wages by Ranjha who was compelled to exile by planting an execution on part of Kaido. As a result their form house business faces deficit. He lefts but after a long time he comes back and rejoins the same business in the form of Jogi.

20 Returns Ranjha returns to Heer’s form house in guise and meets her beloved in a dream to get her back again in his life.

21 Pursuit Heer in pursuit of getting Heer back struggles hard. He goes away, learns lessons of jog, changes his guise and comes back to the same village and begs in front of Heer’s house. As a result Heer recognizes him and love affair starts again.

22 Rescue Ranjha was almost thrown away from his parents home on being less efficient in earning livelihood and later on, he is banned to enter in Heer’s house on being found involved in a love affair with Heer. Though broken hearted and homeless he was rescued by Guru Grunth.

23 Un-recognized There is un-recognizable arrival of Ranjha arrival back in the guise of Jogi who comes back in pursuit of finding Heer back.

24 Unfounded claim Kaido claimed that Ranjha belongs to a poor family and not able to marry with Heer who belongs to a rich and named family. It was

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Department of English, University of Gujrat unfounded claim because Ranjha actually belong to a rich linage.

25 Difficult task Propp also introduces a function “difficult task”. This function also been actualized in the tragic Folk tale “Heer Ranjha”. It is said that learning comes through suffering. It is quite obvious that Deedo Ranjha is tested, interrogated and attacked. He is interrogated and tested by Mehar Chuchak and attacked by villain-Kaido. “Maher Chuchak to Ranjha: look after castles and as a reward you can get bread and butter and accommodation in our house” (Page 24.Usborne).

26 Solution Story ends in a perfect solution. Hero gets his purpose and meets heroin, Heer. Family of Heer also gets ready to make arrangements of the marriage of the protagonists.

27 Recognition At the end of the story Heer’s father recognizes Ranjha’s true identity and the depth of Ranjha’s love for his daughter.

28 Exposure Propp introduces the function of exposure, it is also being observed in the under observation folk tale i.e. Heer Ranjha. The Villain of the story brings damage and injury to a member of Heer’s family by bringing disgrace in front of villagers when he exposes about the secret love in front of council-Jirga of the village. The exposure of the secret by Kaido results into the insult of Chaudhry Maher Chechak’s family. To fulfill his villainous desires he ruins the reputation of the family. As a result of this insulting remarks and disgrace, women of the village mocked and say to Heer’s mother, “Malki! Your daughter is the cause of the shame of the village”. It proves how through exposure villain causes harm to the family of Princess.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature “A village woman to Malki: your daughter so bad girl in character that her character has sunken our heads with shame like ‘bents down the roasted meat’. The drum (news) of her shameful love affair has been beaten around the whole valley of Chenab” (Page 66.Usborne).

29 Transfiguration Villain deployed different techniques to harm and hurt Ranjha. In Morphology of folktales (1968) some of the characters assumes double role. For example: in the first stage character appears as villain but later on deceives in disguise of a pious man. It is quite clear in Heer Ranjha that villain Kaido, the most jealous and envious villain, he ruins the both lovers. In the beginning Kaido says to Heer’s mother “Malki” you should marry your daughter as soon as possible. He tells her the verdict of Qazi (cleric of the area) that Qazi also said one should marry a girl when reach to indolence on the other hand break her head into pieces if she becomes disgrace of the family and at the end of the story ,he says to Heer, my dear daughter, please be brave ,we have to bear a bad news am with you. He told her news about Ranjha’s death that actually was alive. In this way he plays a double game. “Kaido to Malki: For God sake! You should get your daughter marry as soon as possible. The Qazi also said to get daughters marry soon as one can arrange. On the other hand, break the head bones into pieces, if she brings disgrace to the family and village” (page 66, Usborne). In his last section of the tale, Kaido plays trick with Heer in the role of magical agent where he deceives the innocent Heer by saying. It suggests transfiguration role of the Kaido. Through his treacherous role he

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Department of English, University of Gujrat deceives as a villain and later in the role of masked healer.

30 Punishment Ranjha gets punishment in the form of exile and Heer is banned not to leave home. Heer is punished in the form of marriage with a person of for flung linkage.

31 Wedding Hero is retrieved his position back after lot of struggle and both of the families get ready for the marriage ceremony of the loving couple. At the end of the tale, a marriage ceremony is seen as couple remains constant till the end. “Thus at the end marriage ceremony took place between the couple, the two lovers meet again, as both remained solid and firm in love but destiny was to write another story due to treachery of Kaido , the villain, both passes away together in love” (Page 189.Usborne).

10. Discussion Vladimir Propp’ (1928) a Russian formalist who is also called the father of Narratology introduced some fixed codes to write fairytales. According to him almost all fairy tales have same structure. He analyses hundred tales and finds out thirty-one (31) functions and Seven (7) main characters. Propp applies his model only on fairy tales but later Narrativists applied these codes on other genres too. Like; Levis-Strauss, he applies his work on different form of narrative, as: travel literature biographies, autobiographies, fiction and most preferably theatre and film (media). Algirdas Julien Greimas (1971) and Todorov (1968) applied on fiction. Barthes (1966) applies on stories and essays. Modern Narrativists are clinched to the lot of narrative forms, some of them are: epic poetry, oral poetry, ballads, novel, the romance, plays, puppet shoes, opera, paintings, comic strips, radio, serials, films, television series, computer, news, and video games, virtual-reality scenarios, above the all the representation of human discourse.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature In the present study research researcher has applied Propp’s functions and characterization model on a Punjabi tragic folk tale Heer Ranjha. It is found that all the characters are present in the under observation folk tale. Propp mentions seven characters which are as follow in the given story: Hero- Teedo Ranjha, the villain or false hero- Kaido, the dispatcher-Hero himself, helper- Gurru Balnath, Princess or Price/ Heer Sayyal, Father-Chuchak Sayyal, Donner- Gurru Balnath, table4, Page-8. The presences of all the characters in the under study tragic folk tales is an indication that Propp’ characterization is not fixed for fairy tales only. We can find them in tragic folktales too.

Later on, it is also observed that Propp’s functions also tallies with the fabric of Heer Ranjha.

In the beginning Ranjha is found absent from his house, his family members rebuke him on his absence and laziness, Absentation is the first function of Propp’s Model. Second function is interdiction which is also part of the under study folktale, as Ranjha’s family denies to share with him the food they get from land, as he does not take part in harvesting. Ranjha as a reaction of the bane shows violation and leaves the house this is Propp’s third function, Violation of interdiction. The fourth function of the mode is Reconnaissance; Ranjha is investigated and interrogated by Heer’s father by time and again and by his uncle, Kaido. The fifth function is Delivery, Heer intimates Ranjha that, be aware of my uncle, he is sort of Satan. The sixth function is Trickery, Kaido plays a game, and he deceives the loving couple in the disguise of a beggar. The seventh function is Complicity; Kaido gets involve into the matter of young loving couple and bring the news to court which causes shame for the family. The eighth function of the functions is Villainy, Kaido plays the role of a villain, he tells to people in court that he has brought with him a prove, a bread which Heer cooked for Ranjha. The ninth function is Meditation which is also propagated, after getting Heer’s marriage, Ranjha lefts the village and spends time in jungle of Talla-Jugien and spends time in Meditation. The tenth function is beginning of the counter action, he sets out on a journey in a determination to find Heer in any case, and he gets determined to take revenge from Kaido. Propp’s eleventh function is departure, it is seen at the beginning that Ranjha sets on a journey and leaves his house this is Propp’s characteristic of Departure. The twelfth function is

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Donor, Gurru Balnath, is to provide to the hero a relive from tension and pain, and so is done by Gurru Balnath. The thirteenth function is Receipt of a magical agent; Gurru Balnath also acts as a magical agent, who seeks God’s mercy for Ranjha. The fifteenth function is guidance, Gurru Balnath is also plays the role of a guide, he guides Ranjha to spend a life of mysticism. The sixteenth 16th function is Struggle; Ranjha adopts the role of beggar and wonders around the villages in search of Heer’s in-laws house to have a look at Heer’s eyes. The seventeenth function is branding, Ranjha is branded in an accuse of theft at Heer’s house. The eighteenth 18th function is victory; through struggle and hard work Ranjha assures Heer’s parents that he is the true lover of Heer and finally they get agree to arrange a marriage of them. The nineteenth function is Liquidation, at the end of the tale there is ruin due to the malicious and treacherous activities of Kaido, both passes away in love. The twentieth function is Return, Ranjha leaves Heer’s village in dismay when she gets marries with another man, but when Ranjha gets mental help from a helper of donor he returns to the village and starts his struggle again. The twenty-first function is Pursuit; Ranjha in pursuit of his love do whatsoever he can do, pierces his ears, and learns jog and returns to get Heer back in his life. The twenty-second function is Rescue, Heer was banned inside the house, she was not allowed to go out, and Ranjha rescues her liberty. The twenty-third function is unrecognized arrival, Ranjha arrives at Heer’s in-Laws house in the disguise of a Jogi, Heer cannot recognize at the first glance. The twenty fourth function is Unfounded claims, Ranjha tries to prove herself uncaused but all in vain, he remains in a state of unproven claim for a long time. The twenty-fifth function is Difficult Task; Ranjha is given difficult task to find his price or heroine. The twenty-Sixth function is Solution, at the end of the story Ranjha regain his position back through hard work and determination, Heer’s parents arrange a marriage ceremony. The twenty-seventh function is Recognition; Heer recognizes the inner motives of the villain and intimates Ranjha to be aware of him. The twenty-eighth function is Exposure, Kaidu’s villainous and malicious mind gets expose to Heer’s parents at the end of the story. The Twenty-ninth function is Transfiguration, at the beginning Kaido appear as villain, later on, like a treacherous he behaves like a true helper. Second last, the thirtieth, function is Punishment, Ranjha when caught red handed while making love with Heer is punished and his entry is banned in Heer’s house as well as job is taken back. The last, the thirty-first, function of Propp’s model is Wedding, here is

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature an arrangement of a marriage ceremony twice, once of Heer with false hero and later on with true hero.

11. Conclusion Propp’s model is revolutionary in nature and not bound in the frame of time and genre. Usually tales carry some characters and some missing and another tale follow the pattern. It Researcher found almost all characters and traces all functions in the under observation tragic folk tale “Heer Ranjha”. This study is different and significant in the sense from others in the respect that in the under study Folk Tale researcher finds all characters and all functions. This is one of the mature tales which meets the presence of all characters; usually tales does not pack with all these characteristics. This is a legendry tale and its structure is complex and tangible, its fabric is woven around complex structures which enable to find researcher almost all of the characters and functions of the Propp’s Model.

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Beseiso, M., Ahmad, A. R., & Ismail, R. (2010). A survey of Arabic language support semantic web. International Journal of Computer Applications.

Cobley, P. (2005). Narratology. John Hopkins University Press. Second Edition

Falconer, S. (2005). On the Evolving Transformation System Model Representation of Fairy Tales (Doctoral dissertation). University of New Brunswick.

Fazal, A. K. (1990). Afghans, their Culture and Religion in Australia, A. Ata (ed.), Religion and Ethnic Identity: An Australian Study, vol. 3, Spectrum, Richmond, Victoria.

Hwjazi, S. M. (2005). Folktales and Totinama. Monthly Fiction. No 88.

Hawke, R., & Adelaide, T. (2011). Crossing Borders in Faith and Culture Writing Marrying Ameera. 3(44). 43

Department of English, University of Gujrat Kang, Y. K. (1983). A Model for Writing Narrative Discourse.

Khorasni M. (2008). An Introduction to Morphology of One Thousand and one night. 1st edition. Tehran Theoretical studies.

Kokab, S., & Ajmal, M. A. (2012). Perception of Love in Young Adults. Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology.

Lüthi (1976). Once Upon a Time: On the Nature of Fairy Tales.

Lloyd, T. (1995). Folklore, Foodways, and the Supernatural. Out of the Ordinary Folklore and the Supernatural.

Molt, J. (2012). What Makes a Fairytale. Five Factors of Fairytales. University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.

Parnivni, K. and Nazemain H. (2008). Vladimir Propp’s Structural Model and its functions in Narratalogy. SID journel of Persian language and literature.

Propp, V. (1973). Morphology of the Folktale. University of Texas Press.

Propp, V. (1989). Morphology of the Folk Tale. Translated by Media Kashigar, 1st edition. Tehran: Nashar Rouz.

Propp, V. (1992). The Historical Roots of Fairy Tales. Translated by Feredoon Badrei, 1st edition. Tehran: Tous publications.

Story, O. (2012). Projection, Identification, Empathy, Imitation, and Imagination are important Processes.

Singh, H. (2011). Popular Folk Poetry of Punjab. Lokaratna, Vol. (4), 35-55.

Syed, A. M. (2009). Baked or Unbaked Mitti (Clay), Kumhar culture and the development of Contemporary Ceramic Arts of Pakistan. CELSIUS, Issue 1,189-198.

Syeda, K.F. (2013). Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow. Language in India, 13(2). 186-207.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Szilas, N. (2003). IDtension: a narrative engine for Interactive Drama. In Proceedings of the Technologies for Interactive Digital Storytelling and Entertainment (TIDSE) Conference 3(2). 1-11

Seljuq, A. (2005). Philanthropy and Charity in Pakistan. Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 1(1), 85-98. View publication.

The Adventures of Hir and Ranjha Recounted in Panjabi by Waris Shah And translated into English by Charles Frederick Usborne, 1874 – 1919

Wiipedia (2015). Newwrolldencyclopedi.org http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Pakistani_folklore

Wikipedia (2009) Love Legends of Punjab Retrieved February 4

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Nominal Markers in Punjabi

Khadija Ghulam Hussain

Abstract

The paper investigates word formation processes in Punjabi. In Morphology, word formation has various processes and one of them is affixation particularly suffixes in which derivational morphemes are used to derive new words. There are two types of derivational morphology. One is class maintaining morphemes but the other is class changing morphemes. The paper is dealing with both to form nouns from all open class categories. There are few nouns which carry derivational morphemes but do not change the class. These types of words and morphemes are categorized under class maintaining derivations. The purpose of paper is to deal with nominal markers which form or derive nouns from other nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives. This area is less researched field in case of Punjabi. It is a good opportunity for future researchers to bring something new in the field of research.

Keywords: word-formation process, affixation, class-maintaining morphemes, derivational morphology

1. Introduction The word- formation procedures are used to create new words in any language. Plag (2002) describes word formation as a method for the creation of new lexis from earlier existing words. It involves addition and division of phonic material. Bauer (1983) utters that complicated lexemes are produced through this process. Punjabi has absorbing morphology including inflectional and derivational morphemes (suffixes) to change the form and to derive new words. This can happen through the process of affixation. Inflections can pluralize any noun, but derivational morphology forms new word from the old ones. Derivational morphology can have morphemes which are called class maintaining and class changing morphemes (Yule, 1996). In Morphology, noun formation from other word classes through derivation is less researched area. Only the case, gender and numbers are being discussed in Punjabi through inflections. Similarly, researchers differentiate the sub-types of Punjabi morphology; they declared that

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature inflections are commonly suffixes, which exhibit linguistic links among tense, person and number (Pal. S, Ahuja, Bansal .G, & Kumar. S. Sharma., 2011). They clarify parts of speech of Punjabi: noun, pronoun, adjective (cardinal, ordinal), verb (main verb, auxiliary), adverb, conjunction, proposition, interjection particles, and vocative particle (usually nouns; used to call someone). Bansal .G, Ahuja, Pal. S, and Kumar. S. Sharma (2011) also affirmed in the study morphological analyzer by explaining two essential and initial tools to construct any language provision as well as function for a natural language.

Punjabi has received less attention in the ground of Morphology and bundle of research is being done on noun morphology of English, Urdu, Hindi, and Sindhi but the Punjabi noun morphology is still unfamiliar to researchers. In other Indo-European languages, most researched areas are reduplication and compounding but word formation is less studied area. Ijaz and Moin (2003) have a discussion about existence of distinctive rules for gender and number changes. Islam (2011) mentioned some nouns in Urdu which deviate from such definite rules. There is some research on the case, gender and pluralisation of Punjabi but there is no work on the formation of nouns to be done by the researchers. This point is a key issue of this particular research article. The word class Nouns has given gender. These are inflected for case and number. Shackle (2003) states that Nouns has five types of case markers: direct, oblique, ablative, vocative, and locative/instrumental. Islam (2011) declares that noun has three cases, vocative, nominative (direct) and oblique. Vocative and oblique cases use different kinds of case markers. The nominative forms of nouns are used in dictionary. The nominative form does not carry any case marker.

1.1 Socio-linguistic status of Punjabi Pakistan is the country where 69 languages are used. Punjabi is one the major 6 languages used in Pakistan. It is an Indo- European (Indo-Aryan) language which is used both in Pakistan and India. It is observed as agglutinative and ergative language. It is being written in two different scripts in Pakistan and India. Gurumukhi script is followed by Indian while Shahmukhi script is accepted by Pakistani Punjabi writers. In India, Punjabi is near to Sanskrit whereas Perso-Arabic Sources influence Punjabi in Pakistan called Shahmukhi script. Both In Pakistan, 44.15% speakers of total

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Department of English, University of Gujrat population use Punjabi in their conversation (Census, 1984). There are almost 75% native Punjabi speakers of the total population in Pakistan (Census, 2008). About 30% of the population moved towards Punjabi in few years. The 88 million speakers of Punjabi are there across the world. The number of speakers is spreading globally due to the migration of Punjabi speakers towards Europe (Lewis, 2009). Punjabi language has numeral dialects that are used in both India and Pakistan. The major regional dialects: Pothohari, Majhi, Lehandi and Multani are used to speak in Pakistan. There are some phonemic distinctions in dialects of different areas.

Punjabi is syllable time language. It has 41 consonants known as vianjans, 9 vowel called matras and 2 phonemic symbols for nasal sounds (Meenu, 2007; Rupinderdeep, 2010; Gill & Gleason, 1969). Malik‘s (2006) claim that there are 65 phonemes in Punjabi including 49 consonants and 16 vowels is different from Meenu’s claim. The distinction in their claims may confuse the readers that how many phonemes are there in Punjabi. There is not a single answer of this question. The other question is regarding morphology which is less researches level of Punjabi language like all other linguistic levels.

Naseem (1992) accomplished a research dissertation on Punjabi morphology and acknowledged that there are resultant studies on syntax, while the literature in this area has illustrated that whole research in contemporary linguistics’ was achieved in western universities. They have argued that they passed through many scrapes to make it successful because the resources were not encouraging in this area. In fact, even in Pakistani context, the examiner discussed the complexities of work and sources in this sphere, because there is no proper training program is available on the procedure and technicalities of modern linguistics (including phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics). Islam (2011) conducted study in Urdu on morphology of loanwords. In his research, he described loan affixes to change categories. Those were loan derivational morphemes. Firstly, Islam’s work was in Urdu but this paper deals with formation of Punjabi nouns from other open word class (nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs) through derivations not inflections. Secondly, he worked on loan affixes while in present research; the affixes are from within the language Punjabi.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature The reason to choose open word class is that class changing derivations can only be used with open class to derive new words. Derivative morphemes are class changing while the role of inflections is to change the form of word. The closed class is not able to form new words. This class only supports the content words in sentences (Yule, 1996). Some other researchers have analyzed Punjabi grammar. Some of them who have earlier carried out this research are: Chander and Duni (1964); Gill (1986); Singh (1988); Puar and Joginder Singh (1990) & Joshi (2000). Mandeep Singh Gill (2008) developed a rule based part of speech tagger and morphological analyzer and generator for Punjabi. With the help of Singh, Lehal (2008), also developed a grammar checker for Punjabi language. This article deals with the nominal markers which help to derive noun from other nouns, adjectives, and verb.

2. Research Purpose and Questions The purpose to write the paper is to examine the processes of deriving new Punjabi nouns. Any language in the world has borrowed words from many other languages. Punjabi also has words of different languages in it. It also has affixes with base forms from other languages. The questions to investigate for this study are:

a. How Punjabi nouns are formed from Punjabi adjectives? b. How Punjabi nouns are formed from Punjabi verbs? c. How semantic change occurs after suffixation with base words for deriving nouns?

3. Theoretical Framework Distributed Morphology (DM) is used as theoretical framework for structural design of grammar which was first proposed by Halle and Marantz in 1993. Distributed Morphology tries to clarify that all the derivations of complex items are syntactic in nature. As per the claim, this approach is similar to other syntactic approaches of morphology, such as advanced by Baker (1988), Pesetsky (1995), and Borer (2004) and some other related works. In DM approach, the syntax does not totally manipulate anything similar to lexical items, but rather, it creates new forms by joining morpho-syntactic features through the process of Move and Merge.

There are three main properties of DM theory to define it:

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Department of English, University of Gujrat 1. Late Insertion 2. Underspecification 3. Syntactic Hierarchical Structure

Late Insertion or realization deals with phonological form of syntactic categories in all cases provide mapping to Phonological Form (PF). These syntactic categories are abstract forms (affixes), but have no phonological content. Only after the process of affixation the phonological forms (roots) are called Vocabulary Items.

Underspecification of the above vocabulary items mean that phonological forms need not be fully specified for the syntactic positions where they can be inserted. Hence there is no need for the phonological pieces of a word to supply the morph-syntactic features of that word; rather vocabulary items are in many instances default signals inserted where no more specific form is available.

Syntactic Hierarchical Structure All the Way Down implicates that elements within syntax and morphology enter into the same types of constituent structures). DM is based on piece which means that the elements of both syntax and morphology are taken as separate instead of as morpho- phonological processes.

The basic inventory of syntactic terminals is divided into the abstract morphemes and the Roots:

i. Abstract Morphemes: These are composed of non-phonetic features, such as [Past] or [pl], or features that make up the determiner node D of the English definite article eventuating as the.

ii. Roots: These include items such as √CAT, √OX, or √SIT, which are sequences of complexes of phonological features, along with, in some cases, non-phonological diacritic features. As a working hypothesis, we assume that the Roots do not contain or possess grammatical features.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 4. Methodology This paper is based on two types of analysis. One of these is descriptive and the other is based on theoretical framework. Punjabi nouns are formed through suffixation from other open word classes including nouns. All the nouns are derived trough a crucial process of word-formation which is named derivations. As, suffixation deals with inflections and derivation both but the concern of this research is with derivational morphology in which Distributed Morphology is being used to analyze and to support the results of the study. All the examples are collected from Punjabi text book of PTB (Punjab textbook board Lahore). This book is taught to the students of Intermediate Part II.

5. Discussion The discussion of the data is descriptive but a few examples are being discussed according to DM which supported the results of the study. Different categories and abstract forms are used in the examples to be connected with phonological form to create new vocabulary items. All those categories are given below.

5.1 Formation from Noun to Noun

Noun + suffixes = Noun i. qəbr (grave) + stɑːn = qəbərstɑːn (graveyard) ii. dɑːk (mail) + ijɑː = dɑːkijɑː (postman) iii. nokər (servant) + i = nokəri (job) iv. gwɑːh (witness) + i = gwɑːhi (evidence) v. ʃokh (naughty) + i = ʃokhi (petulance)

Above examples belong to the category of noun and there is no change in the category of words after suffixation. The first example has the Persian loan suffix /stɑːn/ which is attached with a noun /qəbr/ and remains the same word class but there is a minute change in meaning. qəbərstɑːn (graveyard) is the place of more than one grave. It is a collective noun which refers to a place.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat The other example dɑːk (mail) carries /ijɑː/ suffix borrowed from other Indo- Aryan language. This noun is a concrete noun but when the suffix is attached, it becomes a common noun which refers to a person who performs the duty to distribute mail. It is observed from the old research that usually /i/ suffix is cycled to derive adjectives in Indo-Pak languages (which are used in Pakistan and India including; Hindi, Punjabi), but this paper negates this generalization because there are many examples including /i/ suffix which form nouns from other categories especially adjectives.

5.2 Derivation from Adjectives to Noun Nouns are derived from adjectives by adding nominal suffix /i/ and /gi/. The examples and the analysis are given below.

Adjective + suffixes = Noun vi. neɪk (pious) + i = neɪki (goodness/ piety) vii. Sɑːdɑː(simple) + gi = sɑːd^gi (simplicity) viii. ɑːzɑːd(free) + i = ɑːzɑːdi (freedom) ix. tʃɑːlbɑːz (craft) + i = tʃɑːlbɑːzi (trickiness) x. asa:n (easy) + i = ɑːsɑːni (ease) xi. bət̪t̪i:s (thirty-two) + i = bət̪t̪i:si (a set of teeth) xii. t̪əjjɑ:r (ready) + i = t̪əjjɑ:ri (readiness) xiii. bədʒdʒ^r (hard) + i = bədʒdʒ^ri (gravel) xiv. məsa:vi (eual) + ɑ:t̪ = məsa:wat̪ (equality) xv. j^ga:na:(unique/ relatives)+ gət̪ = j^ga:ngət̪ (unity)

Most of the Punjabi nouns in this paper are formed through addition of suffixes with adjectives. Mostly, nouns are derived by the /i/ suffix in Punjabi. Though, all the words in Punjabi have different origins but the words like, bədʒdʒ^r (adjective), bədʒdʒ^ri (noun), bətt̪ i:s̪ (adjective)and bətt̪ i:si̪ (noun) are originated from Hindi. These words have base forms in Hindi as well as they also carry the suffixes of Hindi language. Some base words originated from Persian also carry the same suffix /i/ to create new words in Punjabi. Many of these words are used in Urdu as well as in Hindi

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature and Punjabi. tʃɑːlbɑːzis a word which already carries an affix. It is not a root words but a stem. It is a unique case that new words cannot only be derived from root words but also from the stems. tʃɑːlbɑːzi is a noun word which has two affixes (both suffixes) at the same time.

The words bədʒdʒ^r (hard) and j^ga:na:(unique/ relatives) are often used in both ways, as noun and adjectives in different contexts. The word classes are not fixed in modern grammar because a word can be used differently in many contexts. When the word /j^ga:na:/ has meaning of unique then after suffixation there occurs semantic opacity in derived word (j^ga:ngət)̪ and the base word. It is also a Persian based word and its stem is also derived from the same language with change in meaning from root. The Persian adjective ɑːbɑːd is borrowed in Punjabi language. It carries the local suffix /i/ and derives a noun ɑːbɑːdi (population). The meaning of derived word varies from its base form of the word.

5.3 Deriving Nouns from Verbs Verb + suffixes = Noun xvi. likʰ (to write) + ɑːi = likʰɑːi (writing) xvii. likʰ (to write) + t̪ = likʰət̪ (writings/ divorce) xviii. likʰ(to write) + a:r = Likʰjɑːr (writer) xix. w^rt̪ (to use) + n = w^rt̪ən(dealing/ friendly intercourse) xx. ɑːbɑːd (Populate) + i = ɑːbɑːdi (population)

The most crucial category of words in which less number of nouns are generated in word formation process because Punjabi language has similarity of nouns with Hindi language. In Urdu and Hindi, most of the verbs end with /nɑː/. The masdar in Urdu is root word which derives many words from it. To create new noun from Punjabi or Urdu verbs, it is needed to delete some of its part and add suffixes of nouns. As the Punjabi verb səɽənɑː (rot) is same to the Urdu verbs /likʰnɑː/ ending with nɑː but if the ɑː is removed then it becomes a noun səɽən (rottenness). If another affix is used with this word it will become /səɽiəl/ which is described as quality of any person. In Punjabi language, likʰjɑː (wrote) is a past form of likʰnɑː (present

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Department of English, University of Gujrat base form of verb). When /r/ as suffix is added with past form it becomes a person, an author, a noun. Example number 3 in verbs likʰ (to write) carries t ̪ suffix and gives different meanings. In a situation it has similar meaning to writing which is linked with the created material of authors through their writings. In other setting, likʰət ̪ (divorce) is meant which is linked with the base word but it has different context. The relation between base word and derived word here is that likʰət ̪ is written legal document of court but its sense varies from the concrete form of word. In final example verb w^rt ̪ (to use) and noun w^rt̪ən (dealing/ friendly intercourse) somehow have semantic opacity because w^rt̪ən is the dealing of two parties with each other in friendly manners while w^rt ̪ is the action of using something.

5.4 Conjunctive Verb Verbs which are treated as compound words with the combination of adjective/ verb with light verbs, a term introduced by Butt(2003). The light verb makes it verb and whole combination is called conjunctive verb. After removing or ignoring light verb, a word can be changed into other category after suffixation.

6. Conclusion Punjabi is one of the major languages of the world. It is used in Pakistani and Indian Punjab. It has less research in morphology of word classes. There is no literature found in the domain of nominal markers of Punjabi language. There are many words in Punjabi which are borrowed from Persian, Arabic, and Hindi. The study declares that Punjabi nouns are derived from other nouns by addition of suffixes. There are more opportunities to derive nouns from adjectives. It is not so simple to derive nouns from verbs. The formation of verb is not difficult from noun after adding suffixes but this is not the focus of paper. The researcher is failed to find is the derivation of Punjabi nouns from Adverbs. This paper on nominal markers in Punjabi may help the future researchers. They can do their research in the domain of conjunctive verb, nouns from adverbs. It will be also effective to further investigate which affixes are more productive through which other categories can also be generated.

References Baker, M. (1985). The Mirror Principle and Morphosyntactic Explanation. Linguistic Inquiry 16:373-415.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Baker, M., et al. (2010). Agreement in Ibibio: From Every Head, To Every Head. Syntax 13:99-132.

Baker, M. (2010). The syntax of agreement and concord. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bansal, G., et al. (2011). Improving Existing Punjabi Morphological Analyzer. Research Cell: An International Journal of Engineering Sciences ISSN: 2229-6913 Issue Dec. 2011, Vol. 5 221. Conference on Computational Linguistics and 44th Annual Meeting of the ACL, pp 1137-1144.

Bauer, L. (2003). Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Borer, H. (2003). Exo-skeletal vs. Endo-skeletal explanations: Syntactic Projections and the Lexicon. In The nature of explanation in linguistic theory, eds. John Moore and Maria Polinsky. Stanford: CSLI.

Butt, M., and Lahiri, A. (2003). Verbal Passepartouts. Unpublished Ms. http://mull.ccl.umist.ac.uk/staff/mutt/.

Gill, H., and Gleason, H. (1969). “A Reference Grammar to Punjabi”. Revised Edition, Dept. of Linguistics, Punjabi University, Patiala.

Ijaz, F. and Moin, M. R. (2003). Gender and number generation of Urdu nouns. Islamabad.

Islam, R. A. (2011). The Morphology of Loanwords in Urdu: the Persian, Arabic and English Strand. PhD Thesis. School of English Literature, Language & Linguistics at Newcastle University.

Kachru, Y. (2006). Hindi. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2006.

Lehal and Singh (2008). “Shahmukhi to Gurumukhi Transliteration System: A Corpus based Approach” proceeding of Advanced Centre for Technical Development of Punjabi Language, Literature & Culture, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Lewis, M. Paul. (2009). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online: http://www.ethnologue.com/.

Malik, M. G. (2006). Punjabi Machine Transliteration. Proceedings of the 21st International.

Marantz, A. (1989). Clitics and phrase structure. In Alternative Conceptions of Phrase Structure, eds. Mark Baltin and Anthony Kroch, 99-116. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Marantz, A. (1991). Case and Licensing. In Proceedings of ESCOL '91, eds. German Westphal, Benjamin Ao and Hee-Rahk Chae, 234-253: Cornell Linguistics Club.

Marantz, A. (1995). 'Cat' as a phrasal idiom. Cambridge, Mass: MIT.

Marantz, A. (1997). No Escape from Syntax: Don't Try Morphological Analysis in the Privacy of Your Own Lexicon. UPenn Working Papers in Linguistics 4:201-225.

Meenu, B. (2007). Spelling Error Pattern Analysis of Punjabi Typed Text, M.E Thesis, Thapar University, Patiala.

Karamat, N. Phonemic Inventory of Punjabi. pp. 179-18.

Pesetsky, D. (1995). Zero Syntax: Experiencers and Cascades. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Plag, I. (2002). Word-formation in English. London: Cambridge University Press. Nasim R. A. (1992). Punjabi Compounds: A Structural and Semantic Study. Unpublished M. Litt. Dissertation. University of Strathclyde.

Rupinderdeep, K. (2010), Spell Checker for Gurumukhi Script, M.E Thesis, Thapar University, Patiala.

Shackle, C., (2003). Panjabi, in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh. The Indo-Aryan Languages. London: Routledge.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Yule, G. (1996). The study of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Using ‘Verbal Parallelism’ as a Tool in Developing Jakobsonian Six Functions of language: A Case study of Dastoor by Habib Jalib Saira Javed Fouzia Janjua

Abstract This study aims at exploring and investigating the patterns of verbal parallelism as used by Jaalib to construct a communicative element in the text. Structuralism is used as the theoretical framework of the analysis where Jacobson’s six functions of language are analysed through the lens of Verbal Parallelism. The analytical framework model used by the researcher was employed to find the style of the writer as a revolutionary and persuasive one. This model comprised of rhetorical device i.e. Verbal Parallelism (i.e. Anaphora, Epistrophe, Symploce, Homoioteleuton) to identify the six functions of language devised by a structuralist Jakobson. These functions include Referential, emotive, phatic, conative, metalingual and poetic in order to focus context, addresser, contact, addressee, code and message respectively. All the functions work to bring out the message of the poem conveyed by the poet which is ‘rejection of the New Constitution framed by a dictator ruler without any fear or dread’.

Keywords: Jakobson’s functions, verbal parallelism, dastoor, Jalib

1. Introduction Habib Jalib, a politician and a revolutionary poet has been acknowledged as a progressive writer whose main purpose was to attract the attention of his audience through eloquent language. He belonged to era when Pakistani government was shaky and kept on moving from hands of one person to another. By using plain language he adopted a style addressing the layman to listen to his wakeup calls. The beliefs behind his poetry had the energy to arouse the emotions of the common man and stir them during the sensitive political and social times. The dictatorship of the time was making new amendments especially in ’s time when he enforced a tailor-made constitution in 1962, it was a time of sheer chaos among the nation lovers. Jalib wrote his poem “Dastoor” in order to bring forth his dislike and

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature disapproval for the new constitution where the rights of common people were at stake.

In order to do a stylistic analysis of the English translated poem of Jalib, verbal parallelism is used to find the linguistic indicators which converged at the point of communication model devised by Roman Jackobson. Jalib’s enthusiasm and energy grabbed the attention of the listeners and readers who used to be persuaded at once and tried to win their rights.

1.1 Research Question Q. How does Verbal Parallelism help in developing ‘six linguistic functions’ in the poem Dastoor by Habib Jalib?

2. Conceptual Framework

2.1 Literature Review Paul Simpson in his book for students (2004) asserts the process of development in stylistics. Different scholars have observed the process of development in literary stylistics and each of them agrees with the fact that different patterns of language in a text refer to the way it communicates. The Greek rhetoric was aimed at persuading and arguing with the audience and the readers by using the tropes and schemes. Leech (1989) talks of these schemes as broad class of repetitions and identifies two features of poetic language known as “Obtrusive irregularity (poetic deviation) and obtrusive regularity (parallelism)” (p. 73).

The second half of the 20th century brought Russian Formalism which rejected the previous concepts of psychology or author’s soul and emphasized the role of formal linguistic features of a literary text. It gave importance to ‘text’ only, other social, historical, ideological and biographical approaches were kept aside. Elrich (1981) observed that author’s or reader’s psyche were not to be considered but the work itself must be seen. Literature should be dealt with language and nothing else. Zirmunski takes poetry as verbal art, Shklovsky gives importance to the formal devices in a work of art and Ejxenbaum believes on distinguishing features of the literary materials to be given great importance. This school

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Department of English, University of Gujrat which gives a central role to textual features of the poetic text is known as Formalist stylistics.

Another major descendent of Formalist theory was Prague Linguistic Circle who were in favour of giving importance to structuralist approach as they considered that every element of a language is adhered to the other element as they are closely linked and are inseparable. The whole should be given importance as all parts are organically combined and should not be disjointed. Havranek (1964) argues that concrete act of speech’ or ‘literariness’ is determined by the purpose. He considers the context as a determining factor as it performs a basic function in language. He is of the view that standard language has to perform different functions of intellectulaisation, automatisation and foregrounding. automatisation is the use of linguistic devices for a communicative informative purpose, while foregrounding refers to use of linguistic devices to give an uncommon expression to the reader.

The structuralist literary theory is built upon antithetical expressions as poetic language and standard language, deautomatization and automatisation. Mukarovsky (1964) has given a description of deautomatisation in language which gives a shock element to the reader hence creating interest. Romn Jakobson asserts that it is differentia specifica or ‘literariness’ which makes a work a work of art. this school is known as structural stylistics. Jakobson (1960) asserts that there are numerous factors involved in any linguistic act which are set towards the addresser, addressee, message, context, code, and contact. These factors contribute to the six functions performed by language in any successful communication. Each utterance involves one or more of these functions as are given as under:

Emotive function------if orientation is towards addresser

Referential function----if towards the context

Conative function ----focus on addressee phatic function ----if purpose is to establish contact metalingual function ----if operation is towards code

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature poetic function ------if message is to be prominent

Jakobson is of the view that poetic function is not the only one in the verbal art but it is only dominant and prominent. He asserts that the message involves the two modes of ordering i.e. selection and combination. Selection means the choice of words from a paradigmatic equivalents and combination means choice from syntagmatic relations. Hence structuralist theory views style as product of la Parole as it is something concrete and observable

3. Methodology The stylistic analysis of the poem is done through analytical framework devised by Jakobson (1960) and Leech (1969) separately. Verbal Parallelism is indicated to find out the six functions of ‘communicative model’ by Jakobson. The functions are explored with the help of multiple repetitions.

4. Data Analysis The poem ‘Dastoor’ by Habib Jalib is a true representation of the revolutionary instinct present in a poet. In order to find out all six communicative functions performed by language in this poem a description of each function and its participant is given as under. The schematization of factors of verbal communication which is mentioned above is under consideration for the analysis of the poem.

The first stanza of the poem is fulfilling the referential function of the language. Here as discussed by Hassan (1996) language function is to refer back to a past figure in history whose revolutionary spirit and un-ending effort is acknowledged to date. Referring back to Mansoor as an audacious person a similar attitude is expected from the poet who is trying to identify himself with such a figure and declare his parallelism which is personal parallelism.

Like audacious Mansoor I declare

According to Jackbson (1960) when the context is to be determined, a reference is being made to fulfill referential function. Jalib is showing his determination that he is unable to resist from his nature and is not afraid of

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Department of English, University of Gujrat “hangman’s plank’ which was also used to punish Mansoor. Here it is important to mention the context in which the poem was written by Jalib. Political scenario of the time, having a in the country with a merciless dictator, was in a great disturbance. Pakistan’s constitution was reframed by General Ayub, which was not acceptable for any politician or a layman. This urged him to write Dastoor. Through spatial and temporal diexis referencing is also made strong, as

These acts of cruelty, these nights in jail (Line 4) & this blatant lie, this corruption of the intellect (line 9) &

For centuries…..(L11).

Verbal parallelism makes poetic function very much prominent which according to Leech (1969 ) is a “primitive device of intensification” (p.78) and not only determines poetic function as suggested by Jacobson (1960) but emotive function is also fulfilled (Leech, 1969). Parallelism, repetition and reiteration are synonymously used in this analysis. The invariant and variant parts of repetitions determine the type of parallelism used by the poem. In rhetorics identified by the experts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, position of the verbal parallelisms determined its type which was studied with a careful consideration.

The first type of parallelism found in the poem is Anaphora which according to Leech (1989) is initial verbal repetition. The climax of the first stanza is being maintained through anaphora as

These acts of cruelty, these nights in jail

The same words are reiterating the poetic function of the lines that whatever is already being imposed on him has no effect on his notions and ideas and can’t be stopped by these mere tricks.

I will not accept, I will not condone (L5)

Jakobson’s Role in Text Linguistic Example from Functions Device Poem

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature

Referential F Past references to Spatial deixis Mansoor determine context (historical Temporal figure) deixis

Poetic F To give message Repetition You say…. through parallelism Isocolon You say….

Emotive F To focus addressee Usage of ‘you’ second person pronoun

Conative F Involves addresser Usage of first ‘I’ person pronoun

Phatic F To establish contact Complaint against authorities

Metalingual F If operation is Medial I do not own, towards Code repetitions I will not allow

It is an important stylistic device which is used in modern poetry frequently. Jalib’s repetition here is to promote and emphasize his determination of not accepting the constitutional changes made by the dictator. His revolutionary instinct is very beautifully highlighted through the structure of these anaphoric repetitions. The above is an example of isocolon which represents the succession of same length and corresponding structure. In this case number of syllables is also same. This is not a haphazard formation but deliberate effort is being put to synchronize verbal and syntactic parallelism . Leech (1989) interprets such usage to ‘hammer home the content’ (p.85). 63

Department of English, University of Gujrat you say:…………………..(L6)

you say:…………………(L7)

you say :………………..(L8)

In these examples again the verbal parallelism is maintained through repetition of clauses. The poetic function which involves the message as determined by Jakobson is the most important function performed by language in order to complete the communicative ability. Jakobson (1960) also talks of selection and combination as two modes of ordering and arranging the message in syntagmatic and paradigmatic structure as suggested by Saussure ( ). Here the syntactic parallelism of Jalib’s Dastoor is a reference to the false promises and dreams shown by the dictators which are mere words. Another function of language i.e. conative function is fulfilled through the use of pronoun “you” as addressee is focused here to make the communication process more interactive. It is also self-evident from the next stanza that this ‘addressee’ i.e. ‘you’ is a cruel entity who robs and spells and shows dreams to the masses. But the emotive function (Jakobson 1960) represented by the pronoun ‘I” i.e. the addresser who is not ready to accept or own or allow what oppressive dictator wants him to accept.

The second stanza is rich with verbal parallelism which adds to the meaning of the poem. Isocolon forms the first clause of three verses while the second clause of each verse carries continuous tense i.e. syntactic parallelism which represents the psychological condition of the addresser who unconsciously wants this to take place.

You Say: flowers are blooming on branches. (L6)

You say : the deprived are receiving wine.(L7)

You say: their bruised breasts are healing. (L8)

He asserts that this is only a case of saying but reality is totally different as it is a ‘blatant lie’ and ‘corruption of the intellect’ (L9). A sharp contrast is presented here as the condition is not going to change through words only.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Verbal and syntactic parallelism cannot be found in isolation as these overlap with one another. However, repetition within the structure of words is also identified by Leech (1989) as HOMIOTELEUTON, where different words having same derivational or inflectional ending are presented. For example the verbs blooming, receiving, and healing having same inflections add to the poetic function where message is the most important entity to be conveyed.

Another device of verbal parallelism is used in lines 6,7,8 which Leech(1989) calls as Epistophe which is the final repetition and is just in contrast to anaphora. Repeating same words at the end of verse not only creates rhyme and rhythm in poetry but adds to the stress which the poet wants to lay on certain words, phrases, clauses, sentences or lines. I will not accept, I do not accept(L10) is the last line of the second stanza. The word accept could have been replaced by rejection or any relevant synonym but to heighten the effect of rejection the phrase is repeated with an emphatic effect. The same verse is selected for another verbal parallelism device proposed by Leech (1989)is Symploce. “Initial combined with the final repetition i.e. anaphora and epistrophe together. Formula: (a….b)(a….b)..”(p.81)

I will not accept, I do not accept(L10).

This verse aims at imprinting the ‘poetic function’ i.e. the message is made prominent that it is impossible for the poet/addresser to accept the present constitutional changes for the country. He is overwhelmed with the idea of rejecting this idea and persuading others to do the same.

Phatic function of language which aims at establishing a contact is maintained by the poet through the last stanza where he is putting a complaint against the authorities that they have robbed people and tried to spellbound them but this will not long now as he is determined to break these so called contacts and will neither own nor allow them to move further. Verbal repetition of first and second person pronouns means to develop this contact. The last verse of the poem is again identifying the poetic function through the use of ‘initial’ and ‘medial repetition’. Anaphora maintains the emotive function while medial repetition (not given a name by Leech) serves the metalingual function.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat I do not own, I will not allow.

Here the word “not” is actually a code which determines the revolutionary and rebellious instinct of the poet who has negated the idea of acceptingthe upcoming Dastoor (constitution). The syntagmatic choices as well paradigmatic choices throughout the poem have verbal parallelism in them.

5. Interpretation and Discussion Habib Jalib a politician and a poet has given his revolutionary ideas through the poem Dastoor where usage of all literary devices refers to his theme. The poem was written in such a context where any normal human being may feel disturbed and unable to decide which way to adopt, but it is the poets of the time who perform this act of provoking and persuading the people to arouse for the cause of a nation or a country. Greek rhetoricians used to use the rhetoric in order to persuade the masses for a religious cause through their lectures and sermons (Simpson, 2004) Verbal parallelism is a trend followed by modern poets from the Greeks. The repetitions of words and phrase give a redundancy of expression. Wales (2001) too has the same findings, where he concludes that unity functions poetically through repetitive patterns on all linguistic levels.

Jalib’s poem is rich with Verbal parallelism which represents his deep concern for the prevailing situation from which people of his country were suffering. Leech (1969) asserts that “man needs to express himself superabundantly on matters which affect him deeply” (p.84). So is the case with Jalib who is presenting his rebellious and revolutionary instinct through using the parallelism throughout the poem. Mueller (2015) has also talked of Roman Jakobson’s six functions of language work as a model of communication where selection and combination project the principle of equivalence. These functions when used in any communication provide a complete theme to the form (Waugh 1980) and are a defining feature of poetry.

The selection and combination of the poetic function in this poem are highlighted through linguistic indicators in the form of verbal parallelism. The uneasiness poet has felt after the formation and promulgation of the constitution is embedded in the structure of the poem. I will not accept and

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature I do not accept speak the theme of the poem and ‘hammer home the content” (Leech, 1989 p.85). The study has found that the repetitions through special lexical choices produce an aesthetic effect as well. Same are the findings of Goodarzi (2009) who has analyzed twenty poems in order to find out lexical items and their sense relations as well.

The findings also go with Gregoriou (2009) who has found unexpected regularities as a feature of parallelism. Same is the case with Jaalib’s poem where emotionally heightened language lays emphasis on the cruelties performed by the authorities but still the poet stand with what is right and stresses that he cannot be made afraid of punishments of jails or hangman’s plank’ but he will be persistent on what he has found correct and there is no question of his acceptance. As an intuitive element the parallelism is maintained from the very first stanza where he parallels himself with a historic personality and then this verbal parallel is changed into structural parallelism throughout the poem. The result that overall the poem’s structure develops the theme of the poem that his decision will also remain same like structure of the poem as he will never accept the Dastoor does not go with Lotman (1977) who has tried to establish the use of conjunctions in developing a message of the poem. Most pertinent of all is the representation of Poetic Function which is maintained through repetitions and the overall message is conveyed. Similarly, Alexander (2014) has also found that in order to find out a message of the poem deautomatzation of the message is conducted through exploration of parallelism and repetitions.

6. Conclusion To conclude the above discussion, it is observed through stylistic analysis of the poem that as structuralists assert that there is a linguistic criterion to determine the function that an utterance has in communication. Roman Jakobson (1960) gives six functions which language performs in any successful communicative act. These functions are embedded in the structure of the text. Using linguistic devices such as Verbal Parallelism may help in exploring these functions to do the stylistic analysis of a text. As suggested by Leech (1989) in order to express oneself on the matters of importance which may affect him/her deeply, Verbal parallelism works effectively. Habib Jalib’s style of poetry is simple but revolutionary in nature. Initial, medial and final reiteration of his themes at the end of verses and 67

Department of English, University of Gujrat stanzas provides persuading and rhetorical effect in his poem Dastoor. It is a successful attempt to provoke the audience and readers by aestheticising the theme with the help of regular forms of verbal parallelism. These devices have proved helpful in encoding and then decoding the MESSAGE of the poem which form the POETIC FUNCTION.

References Emmott , C. , Alexander M. 2014. Foregrounding, burying and plot construction. The Cambridge Handbook of Stylistics. Eds. P. Stockwell, S. Whiteley. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 329–343. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139237031.025

Gregoriou, C. 2009. English Literary Stylistics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Goodarzi, Z. 2009. Lexical Patterning in Poetic Text: Analyzing Literary Style

Jakobson, R. 1960. Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics. – Language and Style. Ed. T. A. Sebeok. Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 350–377.

Jakobson, R. 1966. Grammatical Parallelism and its Russian Facet. – Language, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 399–429. – DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/411699.

Jakobson, R. 1980. On Poetic Intentions and Linguistic Devices in Poetry. – Poetics Today, Vol. 2, No. 1a, pp. 87–96. – DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1772354

Lotman, J. 1977. The Structure of the Artistic Text. Trans. G. Lenhoff, R. Vroon. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.

Mueller M. 2015. Paral lel ism as Repet it ion: A Case Study of Bet ti Alver ’s Elu on al les uus and Jälle ja jälle

Short, M. 1996. Exploring the Language of Poems, Prose and Plays. London: Longman

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Wales, K. 2001. A Dictionary of Stylistics. 2. ed. Harlow–New York: Longman

Leech G. (1969). A linguistic guide to English Poetry Hong Kong. Longman Group UK Ltd.

Simpson P. (2004) Stylistics A guide for students. Routledge.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Appndix

Dastoor by Habib Jalib (Translated Version)

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Camouflage Personae: A Study of Self Defense Mechanism in Bapsi Sidhwa’s The Pakistani Bride

Humaira Shahzadi

Muhammad Nawaz

Abstract

The study is conducted to investigate Bapsi Sidhwa’s novel The Pakistani Bride in order to explore that how many kinds of defense mechanisms are used by the characters to evaluate the consequences of these defense mechanisms. Sigmund Freud’s defense mechanism theory is used to sort out the answers of these questions. The research discloses that both novels in characters use defense mechanism and they show moral anxiety due to family background and society. The research finds out that Ziatoon uses defense mechanism that was connected to self-amendment. Ziatoon has faced many problems in life by virtue of fate and society but she never gave up and carried on her journey against the typical norms of the society. She presents certain examples how she faced conflicts and frustration from the society. Rationalization assists her to defeat anxiety and guides her to experience new things and new people. Like Ziatoon, people may use defense mechanisms in order to do something. Keywords: Defense mechanism, Bapsi Sidhwa, Ziatoon, self-amendment, moral anxiety

1. Introduction Sidhwa was born on August 11, 1938, in Karachi, Pakistan, then part of India. Her family belongs to the Parsi ethnic community which practices the Zoroastrian religion. Sidhwa served on the advisory committee on women's development for former Pakistani Prime Minister (Powers 350). Bapsi Sidhwa is the author of four novels and one of Pakistan's most prominent English fiction writers. Sidhwa's first three novels focus on Parsi families and the Parsi community in the city of Lahore and outlying areas that were incorporated into the newly formed nation of Pakistan(Whitehead 231).

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Department of English, University of Gujrat The Pakistani Bride is a novel written by her and she has presented a character named as Qasim, the protagonist, a tribal Kohistani from the Himalayan Mountains. The greatest drawback lies in his traditions, especially his concept of honor. After the deaths of his wife and children, he moved to the plains but never adjusted or was not entirely accepted there. He continues to long for the mountains where he was born until his romanticized memories turn into an obsession, which eventually destroys the person he loves. Although described as a simple man, Qasim develops into a complex character, and he emerges as a sensitive, loving, and generous man who is misguided by his perverse sense of honor. Qasim grows nostalgic about his life in the mountains while his hopelessly romantic teenage daughter, Zaitoon, imagines Qasim's homeland as a region of tall, kindly men who roam the Himalayas like gods. Impulsively, Qasim promises his daughter in marriage to a tribesman, but Zaitoon's fantasy soon becomes a grim reality of unquestioning obedience and unending labor. “Bapsi Sidhwa’s acclaimed first novel is a robust, richly plotted story of colliding worlds straddled by a spirited girl for whom escape may not be an option”(Srivastava and Singh 56).

“A defense mechanism is an unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. Sigmund Freud was one of the first proponents of this construct” (Schacter 11).

Defense mechanisms would result in healthy consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which the mechanism is used. In psychoanalytic theory, repression is considered as the basis for other defense mechanisms. Healthy persons normally use different defenses throughout life. An ego in defense mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behavior such that the physical or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. Among the purposes of ego defense mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety and/or social sanctions and/or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope (Cramer "Evidence for Change in Children's Use of Defense Mechanisms" 235).

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 2. Statement of the Problem Sidhwa’s novel revolve around the assimilation and transformation of the characters in changing circumstances and her characters if examined closely use different mechanisms to camouflage their personalities. The study will show how these characters use different mechanisms to cope with bitter realities of life because defense mechanism is a strategy to cope with deplorable and undesired situation by the concealment of real identity with a new disguise. This is a form of camouflage which is helpful to reduce anxiety emerging from unacceptable circumstances. Defense mechanisms are normal part of our everyday lives because it is necessary to manipulate, deny, or distort situation in order to get some advantages and also to avoid the unpleasant realities of present life. Different people use different mechanisms throughout their lives according to their requirements. These mechanisms may result in fruitful consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which these mechanisms are used.

3. Significance of the Study This research paper establishes a new perspective of looking at the novel The Pakistani Bride. It is helpful to understand the human behavior, human choices and the consequences of these choices. The study also scrutinizes the psychoanalytical view point of the literary texts and shows how Sidhwa employs the psychology of her characters. The work may also be helpful for the new researchers or the readers of Sidhwa’s work to understand the psychology of her characters and penetrate deep down into her art of characterization to relish the true essence of her work.

4. Objectives of the Study The study has the following objectives: • To find out the purpose of defense mechanisms used by different characters in The Pakistani Bride. • To show a variety of defense mechanisms through different characters in The Pakistani Bride. • To evaluate the consequences of these defense mechanisms as they are used by different characters in The Pakistani Bride.

5. Research Questions and Hypotheses The research questions of this study are: 73

Department of English, University of Gujrat • What kinds of defense mechanisms are used by the major character named Zaitoon in The Pakistani Bride? • How does this character Zaitoon use these defense mechanisms to camouflage her? • Why do characters in The Pakistani Bride utilize defense mechanisms?

6. Literature Review Bapsi Sidhwa's novel The Pakistani Bride basically tells us about the study of the human behavior and their psychological impression of human in trouble. So by the context of Cramer "Seven Pillars of Defense Mechanism Theory" 1965, human behavior and their psychological impression directly linked with the defense mechanism. (Cramer "Seven Pillars of Defense Mechanism Theory" 1965).

There are some relevant studies which were conducted in different parts of the world. It was Sigmund Freud (1896/1966) who initially discovered the connection between psychopathology and the defense mechanism of repression. Only when used excessively are defenses likely to be linked with psychopathology. After the initial discovery of repression, additional defense mechanisms were identified (e.g., denial, projection, displacement, and rationalization). In fact, some 44 different defenses have been described (Bibring et al. 21).

This paper includes information from recent research in psychology named: Quantification of human defense mechanisms. With a close study of these texts in the light of psychoanalytical theory it can be seen that the major as well as the minor characters use these defense mechanisms to camouflage their identities according to their core issues. For instance, Qasim has different core issues in the proceeding of the novel like the fear of intimacy, pride, fear of abandonment and insecure or unstable sense of self. These core issues stay with him throughout his life and determine his behavior and in the presence of these core issues he uses different defense mechanisms like Denial, believing that the problem does not exist or the unpleasant incident never happened (Tyson 79).

Defense mechanisms have been a source of both fascination and frustration for most personality researchers because they are conceptually intriguing but their assessment is often problematic. To aid personality researchers in

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature integrating defense mechanism theory into personality research, we review and critique the major existing self-report defense mechanism measures: the Coping and Defending Scales (Joffe and Naditch 281).

Bapsi Sidhwa's novel The Pakistani Bride deals with the repression of women in the patriarchal Pakistani society. The novel is based on a true story narrated to Sidhwa when with her family; she stayed at an army camp the remotest regions of the Karakoram Mountains. My Feudal Lord is one of the extraordinary autobiographies that can ever be written. Durrani uses it as a means of exposing the hypocrisy of ruling elites in Pakistan generally and the cruel nature of her husband specifically. In this book she talks about social ethos of Pakistani marital life by citing her own marriage as an example (Srivastava and Singh 61).

7. Theoretical framework Defense mechanisms are cognitive processes that function to protect the individual from excessive anxiety or other negative emotions. Although past critics questioned the existence of defense mechanisms, recent research has supported seven basic tenets regarding defenses.

These include: (1) defenses function outside of awareness; (2)there is a chronology of defense development; (3) defenses are present in the normal personality; (4) use of defense increases under conditions of stress; (5) use of defense reduces the conscious experience of negative emotions; (6) defense function is connected to the autonomic nervous system; (7) excessive use of defenses is associated with psychopathology (Cramer "Seven Pillars of Defense Mechanism Theory" 1965).

Different theories of defense mechanisms by Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Carl Jung, Jacques Lacan and Otto F. Kernberg are checked for better understanding of defense mechanisms and it will be helpful to better understand human behavior and these literary texts also. The theoretical framework for the present research that is exploring A Study of Self Defense Mechanisms in Bapsi Sidhwa’s The Pakistani Bride. There are several theories that support this concept that psychology is a study of human mind and behavior. What motivate the characters in the novels The Pakistani Bride to behave in a certain way? So, psychoanalysis is the guide which will help us

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Department of English, University of Gujrat to understand the characters and their reactions towards what is happening around them.

Sigmund Freud made some useful contributions to psychology, one of which is his list of common defense mechanisms. Freud never directly applied his defense mechanisms to self-esteem or ego; therefore, what follows is not to be considered to be endorsed by psychodynamic theories. Characters of the both novels have also faced hard struggles in their lives.

They face many problems to achieve their goal of life. Freud’s defense mechanisms will now be applied to pride, ego, and self-esteem.

8. Research Methodology The mode of this research paper is qualitative and descriptive in nature with the material that will be taken from primary source, the text book of the novels The Pakistani Bride by Sidhwa and also secondary sources will be utilized; for instance, the critical books, journals, online articles and critical essays. The research will also be exploratory and explanatory in its nature. This study will be limited to qualitative, exploratory and explanatory approaches only.

9. Analysis of Self Defense in Pakistani Bride The Pakistani Bride is a story of women in marriage, women and sexuality. Interestingly, during the journey of life, Sidhwa portrays Zaitoon to face a lot of problems which lead her to have anxiety. Sigmund Freud suggests that anxiety is an obstacle of personality development and defense mechanisms are psychological devices used to cope with anxiety. Sidhwa finely creates her protagonist to employ defense mechanisms to cope with her undesirable feelings. According to Kaplan, when a person has undesirable feelings, he/she will automatically use defense mechanisms. These responses can happen anytime in a person’s life (166). Specifically, one might be anxious to know what devices of defense mechanisms are used by Sidhwa and what factors are related to her employment of defense mechanisms and whether the defense mechanisms that she used can develop her adjustment.

Bapsi Sidhwa got the inspiration to write The Pakistani Bride during her second honeymoon. She and her husband stayed in an army camp where the Pakistani army was building a road through the Karakoram Mountains

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature to China. While staying there, Sidhwa heard the story of a Punjabi girl who had come by the camp on her way to be married off to a Kohistani tribal. After the wedding, she ran away but her husband and his relatives hunted her down. Later, her decapitated body was found in the river. This story made such an impact on Sidhwa that she felt compelled to write about the girl’s fate, albeit with a different ending.

The Pakistani Bride has several plots and especially in the beginning it can seem quite fragmented. The novel can be roughly divided into four parts. The first part describes the Kohistani tribal Qasim’s marriage and the death of his family and the accidental way in which he ends up adopting the Punjabi girl Zaitoon, who has lost her family during the violence of the Partition of British India into India and Pakistan. The second part deals with Zaitoon’s childhood, as she takes over the place as the protagonist of the novel. The third part tells the story of Zaitoon’s marriage to the tribal Sakhi. A secondary protagonist is introduced: The American woman Carol, who is travelling around the country with her Pakistani husband. In the fourth and last part of the novel, Zaitoon runs away from her violent husband, who chases her through the mountains, and, in the end, she is saved.

Several defense mechanisms are used in different situations by Zaitoon because she has realistic anxiety which causes from her family and society. As the story develops, Zaitoon gradually reflects and employs defense mechanisms in her life. Repression is an unconscious process by which shameful thoughts or painful experiences are removed from awareness or forced below the level of consciousness, and the user will not feel that the undesirable feelings interrupt his life. However, the unpleasant feelings are still stored in the users’ subconscious. Although, Zaitoon’s character is a daughter who lives in the Himalayas, Sidhwa is required to face a lot of frustrating situations both inside and outside the home. As a result, Zaitoon has realistic anxiety, and she consequently represses it.

After a long trace on Zaitoon’s life after marriage it is obvious that her anxiety is related to her family background. Apparently, Zaitoon cannot fulfill her desire for love which causes him to have anxiety. According to Bernard J. Lonsdale and Helen K. Macintosh, love from parents is important for a child. He should feel that his parents love, want, and enjoy his company (17-19). However, Zaitoon does not feel that her father loves her. 77

Department of English, University of Gujrat In addition, it is important to note that defense mechanism can be learned from an individual’s experiences. Zaitoon suppresses her feeling because she may get more troubles if she fights back. As discussed above, it is ascertained that Zaitoon uses suppression to cope with her anxiety because she realizes that if she expresses her feeling or reacts to the in-laws, she was in more trouble. As a matter of fact that suppression is a conscious strategy; Zaitoon realizes her feelings all the time. Furthermore, at later stage when Zaitoon experiences other situations that lead her to anxiety, she uses rationalization to cope with her undesirable feeling.

When Zaitoon hears of Qasim’s plans for her marriage to a boy of his mountain tribe, she is no longer the flirty and confident girl from the female world. She cannot recognize and even not accept that she is not able to survive in mountain tribe. She expresses a defense mechanism here in which she denies her thoughts desires and needs. Her father tells her:

“Bibi, we talked of your marriage.” Zaitoon felt her body tremble. She froze’. Her father asks for her opinion, and: Zaitoon pulled her chaddar forward over her face. Her voice was barely audible. “Anything you say, Abba.” She waited. “You saw the stranger I was talking to?” She nodded. “That was Misri Khan, my cousin. I’ve promised you in marriage to his son Sakhi.” Zaitoon sat still. A blind excitement surged through her. “I think you’ll be happy. We will set off for the hills before the month is over. Zaitoon sat, unable to move (95-6).”

In this scene, Zaitoon shows that she knows what is expected of her. But she consciously tries to push away all her thoughts, this is called suppression. This is also used as a defense mechanism to cope with undesirable situation. Both from romantic films where the heroine is beautiful and modest, but also from observing the behavior of other women in her community, she knows that she is expected to leave the decision to Qasim. So another device of defense mechanism used here by Zaitoon that is interjection. She is simply accepted her father’s decision without any question. She should show no excitement or any sense of her own, even though the news comes as a shock to her.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Qasim quickly puts her back in her subordinate place and threatens that he kills her if she makes him break his word and thereby hurts his honor. In spite of that he is fully aware about the cruertly and hardship of this life he plans to marry her daughter because he is a part of this environment. He loves his land, people, customs, norms, traditions and misses them. He feels insecure in his new environment. Now he used rationalization, one of many defense mechanisms to justify his action that his decision is good for zaitoon’s future life. She will be safe here with her husband and in-laws. So male characters also used defense mechanisms here in this novel The Pakistani Bride as Qasim used identification and rationalization here in this situation to reduce anxiety and cope with bitter realities of his life.

When Zaitoon arrives in the army camp, she becomes the Centre of attention for a little while, because the soldiers seldom or never see a woman in those areas. The soldiers ‘were helpless in view of this apparition from the Punjab’ (102), since they have been away from their wives and other women for a long time. One of the soldiers, Ashiq, falls for Zaitoon, and through him, the reader gets the first proper description of her.

Her eyes were bold and large, contrasting roguishly with the dewy softness of her features. The skin of her full lips was cracked with cold. She kept flickering the pink tip of her tongue between them. Ashiq’s lowered eyes stayed a moment on her small feet, encased in childish, buttoned shoes. No wonder she had seemed to fly when she ran. He imagined her bare feet, narrow, high-arched and daintily plump (102).

Ashiq, unlike some of the other men in the novel, does not try to possess or harass Zaitoon, even though he has been away from women for a long time. When Zaitoon crosses the river on her way to Qasim’s village, Ashiq worriedly looks after her, and another piece of information on Zaitoon’s body is given to the reader: It suddenly occurred to him that Zaitoon always seemed to have been poised for flight; even when she entered a room. It was a quiver in her supple body that started in the soles and high finely drawn arches of her feet (153). Ashiq is a young man from Zaitoon’s own culture, with a simple background, like herself, and most importantly, he understands her reactions and her cultural background. Ashiq thus comes 79

Department of English, University of Gujrat to represent the alternative to Sakhi as a mate for Zaitoon, the alternative that Nikka and Miriam tried to persuade Qasim into accepting.

It is not only Zaitoon that is being looked at with approving eyes. Carol also draws many looks when she comes to the army camp and as shown earlier by her thoughts on the repressed sensual atmosphere of Pakistan, she has passed up several sexual offers since she came to the country. In the army camp, she is drawn into an affair with her husband’s friend Mushtaq. From the first scene where Carol is present, her attractive looks are mentioned frequently and the narrator focuses on her body to a much higher degree than with the other characters. She is mostly described through Mushtaq’s male gaze:

‘His eyes, barely glancing at her face, nibbled on the curves beneath her sweater’ (115). Later, he is ‘hungrily ogling the rich, flame-licked hues of her body’ (178).

Mushtaq, who sees his wife very seldom since she does not want to live in the army camp, grabs the chance to enjoy himself and does not shy away from taking in Carol’s looks.

When Zaitoon runs away, she is alone for the first time in her life. She is no longer defined in relation to others. Cut off from society, she is no longer a woman, but a female human, or an animal struggling to survive. Before, she has been a daughter and a wife. Her roles have been defined with basis in her being a woman and she has been raised to embody the characteristics and expectations that her society has of her as a woman. Released from, or bereft of, her roles, Zaitoon’s culturally learned femininity is diminishing and her animal instincts take over her body. This transformation from woman to animal begins with Sakhi’s violent treatment of her. His attitude towards her is described as that of an animal trainer. Later, he calls her a ‘dirty, black little bitch’ (185) and, with no feeling of female solidarity, the women of the village also call her a bitch after she has run away.

The image of Zaitoon as an animal is predominant in the last part of the novel. This is the section of the novel that is most heavily packed with imagery, and almost all are connected to Zaitoon, her body and how her body is turning animal:

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature ‘Like vermin in search of dim crevices, Zaitoon felt safe only in the dark’ (194). ‘Overcome by a sudden panic, she began to scramble across boulders like a crab’ (195). It is, however, the image of Zaitoon as a bird that is most frequently used: ‘She was a fledgling far from its nest’ (195).

Later, Zaitoon comes upon a vulture, which she sees as mirroring herself:

Hating the bird, she sensed in a flash her own repulsive condition. A part of her perceived with painful clarity the vulturine length of her scrawny neck, her gaunt protruding shoulders, and the ragged blanket shrouding her hunched body as the feathers shrouded the bird’s. Hands spreadeagled, holding aloft the wings of her blanket, Zaitoon looked like a bird about to fly yet permanently grounded (207-8).

This feeling of becoming animal and becoming one with nature is increased during Zaitoon’s nine days in the wilderness. When she suddenly finds herself close to a snow leopard being hunted by a man, she feels ‘an electric panic from the animal transfer to her’ (209). In this situation she, the hunted runaway, identifies more with the hunted animal than the hunting human. In this part of the novel, nature is described both as healing and threatening. The mountains have been hostile, cold and Zaitoon is scared and nearly freezes to death when walking through them. When she enters lower lands, nature changes and takes on a friendlier face. It seems to want to help her and give her strength.

While Zaitoon is fleeing into the mountains, Carol gets to know what has happened, and she urges Mushtaq to do something to save Zaitoon. Mushtaq takes a laissez-faire attitude towards the tribals, and says that they can do whatever they want to do, as long as it is on their side of the river. If Zaitoon crosses the river, they might help her. Carol and Mushtaq get into a discussion about men’s jealousy and the way women are killed or have their noses chopped off, because their men suspect them of infidelity. Mushtaq is amused at Carol’s heated emotions. When he refuses to take her seriously Carol has a realisation: Suddenly a great deal became clear to her. 81

Department of English, University of Gujrat “So that’s all I mean to you,” she said. “That’s really what’s behind all the gallant and protective behaviour I’ve loved so much here, isn’t it? I felt very special, and all the time I didn’t matter to you any more than a bitch in heat. You make me sick. All of you.” She stood up and walked slowly to the Mess door. Watching her, Mushtaq found her gait no longer provocative but crushed, subdued, and oddly touching ”224).

This is the last conversation between Carol and Mushtaq. Whereas before he found her sexually attractive, he now finds her touching. He and his culture have slowly crushed her. Carol’s belief in human decency has taken a blow and her illusions about the people she has met and liked in Pakistan is shattered. She is no longer as self-assured and provocative as she was when she arrived. She has slowly been worked on to become more like the women that Mushtaq and Farukh are used to: A woman who knows her place. Mushtaq’s sexual attraction towards her has ebbed out, and now he feels tenderness towards her. She has become more like his wife and thus she is no longer interesting to him. Right after this, Carol has an experience that wakes her up for good from her sense of comfort. She and Farukh, in a moment of reconciliation, go down to the river for a walk and Carol sees something in the water:

A darkness swayed on the ripples, and, completing its rotation beneath the surface, the face bobbed up a young, tribal woman’s face. Carol made a strangled sound and fell to her knees.

She knelt frozen in a trance that urged her to leap into the air on a scream and flee the mountains. “Probably asked for it,” said Farukh. With a cry she brushed against his shoulder and, jumping over the rocks, clawed her way up the gorge (225-6).

When walking away with the bundle that is Zaitoon, Mushtaq starts planning Zaitoon’s future and thinks of how he can dispose of her. Sending her back to Qasim is no option. Qasim’s sense of honour would not permit

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature him to hide Zaitoon in his house, and he would either kill her himself or send her back to Sakhi to be killed by him instead.

Mushtaq thinks:

‘‘In a few hours he would quietly stow her away in the vehicle taking Farukh and Carol to Lahore. Let Carol take care of her! She could hide her in the States! Or perhaps Ashiq could propose marriage after a decent interval. She would be as securely hidden in his village’’ (245).

Zaitoon is at this point a woman with no name, no kin, no dowry or other property and, most important of all, she is a fallen woman. She has been married, she has disobeyed her husband, and she has been raped. Afzal- Khan, on the other hand, sums up the novel’s core message, and core problem, like this:

In The Pakistani Bride, Sidhwa does not offer any radical solutions to the dilemma of being a woman in a patriarchal culture. Zaitoon, despite her heroism, must remain an object in a culture whose history continues to marginalize women (274).

Despite the circular movement of the novel and the bleak future for women predicted in the end, The Pakistani Bride does touch upon a way for women to improve their situation, although it is not spelled out clearly. Carol has vague and conflicted ideas about a female understanding that reaches out across cultures. When she and Zaitoon meet, Carol at first feels ambivalent about the younger girl and feels irritation when confronted with her demure attitude. Then, as Carol unwittingly forces Qasim to reveal to Zaitoon that he is not her real father, she sees Zaitoon crying, and tries to comfort her.

In the instant their eyes met, the green and black of their irises fused in an age-old communion – an understanding they shared of their vulnerabilities as women. For an intuitive instant Carol felt herself submerged in the helpless drift of Zaitoon’s life. Free will! She thought contemptuously, recalling heated 83

Department of English, University of Gujrat discussions with her friends on campus. This girl had no more control of her destiny than a caged animal … perhaps, neither had she, Carol sat back feeling drained of emotion (136).

The female ‘communion’ between Carol and Zaitoon gave Carol the chance to see and understand some of what frustrated her before. At the end of the novel, Carol sees the ‘fateful condition’ of the many girls in Pakistan. She can see how the women are trapped inside a role that does not give them much choice about how to behave and what to do. Carol also sees how female friendships become life-saving in this culture, and how the high importance put on the female world is the women’s defense mechanisms when overpowered by the male society.

This is the nearest The Pakistani Bride comes to proposing a way out for the women who are oppressed in this culture. Women have to stick together and help each other, like Carol has tried to help Zaitoon, like Zaitoon’s mother- in-law tried to defend her when Sakhi beat her and like Miriam tried to persuade Qasim to marry Zaitoon to a Punjabi. Most of these efforts are useless and are overruled by men. But the female world is there for support, and this support system will at least try to catch their sisters when they fall. Here identification mechanism used by these female characters because they are all a part of this environment in which their condition is pitiable and they want to change it but they are members of these families, they are in group so they have to face difficulties of life and fight with them through different self defense mechanisms.

Rationalization is another device employed by Ziatoon. According to Kaplan, rationalization is a way that a person deals with undesirable feelings by providing plausible reasons for doing or not doing something so that the person does not feel that he loses face or self-esteem. It also gives a person a chance to learn new experiences.

From the above discussion, it is clear that Zaitoon uses defense mechanisms to cope with her realistic anxiety. Defense mechanisms are important for personality development. It is related to self-adjustment. Using defense mechanisms, a person can develop either satisfactory adjustment or

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature maladjustment. For Zaitoon, defense mechanisms support her to have satisfactory adjustment in many ways.

Using defense mechanisms, Zaitoon has developed satisfactory adjustment in many ways. It is important to mention that defense mechanism has interpersonal value. In Zaitoon’s case, it serves to protect her mind from bad feelings during her life. She does not feel that her desires for love, freedom and companion bother her life. Suppression and rationalization helps her to overcome the frustrating situations in life. To put in other words, defense mechanism eases Zaitoon’s life.

However, since defense mechanism is important for personality development, Zaitoon learns and adjusts herself throughout the story. The character of Zaitoon has been developed from the beginning until the end. Zaitoon reaches both satisfactory adjustment and maturity. According to Richard S. Lazarus, a successful-adjustment person must have analytical thinking, sociability, stability, confidence, personal relation and home satisfaction, and these qualities can be seen through the development of Zaitoon.

Zaitoon develops her sociability and personal relation. According to the story, it is obvious that Zaitoon has difficulty adapting herself to other people at first because of feminine characteristic. However, when she learns from her experiences, Zaitoon develops emotional stability, personal relation and confidence after she faces a lot of unexpected experiences of mistreatment and mockery. According to Rattana Yantip, a person who has satisfactory adjustment will be able to control his feeling and emotion. Similarly, Zaitoon can control her feeling as it is seen when she is mocked by the outlaws and she learns from that situation. Besides, defense mechanisms help Zaitoon gain more experiences. As Ernest R. Hilgard mentions, defense mechanisms can lead the user to have new experience. Actually, she has never had these experiences before. Moreover, rationalization allows Zaitoon to learn about simple life.

The ending, however, brings a quick stop to the wave of female experience and strength that has risen through the second part of the novel. The women’s rebellion is stifled and the men assume control with the rape, the killing of the tribal girl, and Mushtaq taking total control of the situation. 85

Department of English, University of Gujrat The women are silenced, and the men take charge of the planning of the women’s further lives. Zaitoon will live, but what kind life she will live is highly uncertain. Carol has decided to go back to the United States, but Farukh gets the last word when he says that she might change her mind when they get back to Lahore. Despite Zaitoon’s rebellion and Carol’s realisation concerning her husband’s culture, there is no real change in the women’s lives by the end of the novel. The women start as dependent on male protection, and end in the power of men. Male dominance is perpetuated, and the rebelling women’s wills are defeated and their bodies and pride are broken.

More importantly, Zaitoon reaches freedom and maturity. She escapes from the society for it. She learns for her own experiences and finally learns what is meaningful for her. She chooses to believe in what she judges by herself not to follow other people’s rules. She reaches her physical and spiritual freedom. She is now free from her father, husband, in-laws, tribal brutality and hardship. So there is a hope that women will be able to stand up for themselves and try to change their lives.

10. Conclusion The study of Pakistani Bride by Sidhwa read through the lens of defense mechanisms apparently illustrates that protagonist employs defense mechanisms to cope with their anxiety. Zaitoon encounters both realistic and moral anxiety. Similarly, Zaitoon has realistic anxiety. It is found that her anxiety force her to use defense mechanisms. Because of her effective defense mechanism’s employment, Zaitoon consequently overcomes her undesirable feelings, threatening situations, and she has good adjustment and eventually reaches maturity. Zaitoon uses repression for three reasons. First, her father forces her to have anxiety, and she represses it. Zaitoon’s father cannot fulfill her desire. Zaitoon quests for parental love, but her father cannot spend much time with her. As a result, she has anxiety. However, she has to repress it so that he can live peacefully in her home. Zaitoon, a new bride, is desperately unhappy in her marriage and is contemplating the ultimate escape, the one from which there is no return.

This study showed that Zaitoon employs suppression to cope with their undesirable feeling. Zaitoon encounters social expectation. Zaitoon experiences difficult situations that causes her to employ suppression

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature instead of fighting back. Additionally, Zaitoon uses rationalization for the same purpose. She has tried to provide reasonable reasons for her behavior when she has a conflict.

However, repression helps her to live peacefully in the society. In our society, sometimes children are expected to be something that adults want them to be even though they do not want to be. Like Zaitoon, children may repress their anxiety in order to live peacefully. It is important to keep in mind that defense mechanisms have both good and bad effects. According to Kaplan, the moderate use of defense mechanisms is good because they help protect users’ mind. However, the overuse of defense mechanisms is bad because users will be dominated and lose self. Zaitoon uses repression moderately, so they can come back to the real world and understand themselves. Unlike Zaitoon, children as well as adults in our society may not be able to get back to the real world. They may be dominated by defense mechanisms and have mental illness. As important as repression, he emphasized the value of suppression. Zaitoon survives in bad circumstances because she knows how to suppress her feelings. Like Zaitoon, people may rationalize in order to do something. Sometimes people are not confident to do things so rationalization can ease their mind and supports them to experience and learn new things. Although they use defense mechanisms, they can come back to the real world and reach maturity.

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Krech, Devid, Crutchfield, Richard S. and Livson, Norman. “Theory of Personality.” Elements of Psychology. New York: Knopt, 1969.743-769.

Kumar, Mohit. "cultural divergence in bapsi sidhwa’s ‘an american brat’." Research Journal of English Language And Literature4.1 (2016): 554-557.

Kulke, Eckehard. The in India: A Minority as Agent of Social Change. Delhi: Bell Books, 1978.

Lazarus, Richard S. "Psychological stress and the coping process." (1966).

Marwah, Ane Frislid Sveinhaug. When I raised my head again: feminism and the female body in Bapsi Sidhwa’s novels The Pakistani bride and Cracking India. MS thesis. 2008.

McWilliams, N. Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy – A practitioner’s guide. New York: Guilford. (2004)

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Prawit Whankhom. “An Analysis of Freud’s Oedipus Complex Reflected in D.H. Lawrence’s Main Character’s Personality.” Thesis (M.Ed. English). Mahasarakham: Mahasarakham University, 2002.

Powers, Janet M. "Bapsi Sidhwa." Asian American Novelists: A Bio- Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook, edited by Emmanuel S. Nelson (2000): 350-56. Print.

Ratana Yantip. “The Relationship among Child’s Rearing, Interpersonal Reactions and Adjustment of Matthayomsuksa 3 Students.” Thesis (M. Ed. Education). Bangkok: Srinakharinwirot University, 1979.

Rengachari, Lata. “The Subcontinental Expatriate Woman’s Novel as a Melting Pot for History and Politics: A Study of Bapsi Sidhwa’s An American Brat”, Parsi Fiction -2. Op. Cit., 2001.

Ruanruthai Sutchapan. Modern Literature. Bangkok: Ramkhamhang University Press, 1983.

Sidhwa, Bapsi. An American Brat: A Novel. Milkweed Editions, 2012. Print.

Sheela, G., and K. Muthuraman. "conservative east versus modernized west: a study of bapsi sidhwa’s an american brat." Asia Pacific Journal of Research Vol: I Issue XII (2013).

Sripen Prasertsuk. “An Analysis of Mark Twain’s Children Characters.” Thesis 90 (M.A. English). Bangkok: Srinakharinwirot University, 1978.

Srivastava, Swati, and Avneesh Kumar Singh. "A Study of Female Figure in Bapsi Sidhwa’s ‘the Pakistani Bride’and Tehmina Durrani’s ‘My Feudal Lord’." Anlisticum Journal of the Association for Anglo-American Studies 4 (2016): 56-64. Print.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Textbook Evaluation: Analyzing English Textbook I of Federal Board at SSC Level in the Light of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Arshad Mahmood Muhammad Iqbal Butt Sidra Mahmood Abstract Textbooks play a vital role in a successful teaching-learning process. This means that quality education heavily depends on the quality of textbooks. Therefore, it is imperative to maintain their quality by passing them through rigorous evaluation and assessment procedures. The study at hand analyzes English Book I of Federal Textbook Board by applying the Cognitive Domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The said textbook is taught in federal schools at SSC level, which is a fundamental stage in the cognitive development at early childhood phases. The research employs mix-method approach as it is both qualitative and quantitative in nature; qualitative due to its nature of an in depth study of the texts and quantitative because textual analysis was carried out. The research tool used is “question analysis”. The study aims at finding out the degree to which the exercises of the textbook satisfy the Cognitive Domain, existing/missing domains, order followed by the sub levels of the Cognitive Domain and congruency of the exercises with the content of the units in the textbooks. The results show a lack of balance with regard to Cognitive Domain. In other words, all the sub- levels of the Cognitive Domain are present but their order is random. There is no congruency of the content with the exercises as well. It is, therefore, suggested that the textbook needs rigorous revision from time to time. Their designing should be performed according to set criteria and there should be clear learning objectives. The research proposes a link between English Textbook and its role in ESL/EFL teaching thus claiming a valid and continuous evaluation of the textbooks as the call of day for quality ESL/FEL teaching. Keywords: Bloom’s Taxonomy, Cognitive Domain, English Textbook, Federal Board, Educational Objectives

1. Introduction It is from the times of Plato and Aristotle that education was idealized and considered as the foundation of a balanced society. Education is not 91

Department of English, University of Gujrat something haphazardly imparted; it is the result of a careful planning. Curriculum is one such example of planning. According to Kelly (2004, p.2), curriculum means the various types of programs of teaching and instruction.

Various educational factors collectively make curriculum, hence it can be considered a broad phenomenon carrying various tools to impart education in an educational setting. Among them, textbooks play a central and fundamental role in teaching learning situations for all subjects including English language teaching. In the underdeveloped and developing countries, textbooks are the first medium that children come across and have an exposure to, and in many situations, they are the only source which the learners have access to. Naturally, it applies to Pakistan too. According to Hamza (2004, p.03), the main teaching, learning, and reference tool for language teaching in Pakistan is the textbook.

A textbook comprises content carrying material to mold and modify the ideologies, values and behaviors of learners. But the content alone is not sufficient; exercises at the end of each lesson are provided in order to further clarify the content thus making learners imbibe the material to the fullest. This efficient procedure of evaluation, if adopted, will affect all the stakeholders i.e. students, teachers and the education system per se and will lead to plausible solutions for the improvement and upgradation of textbooks. Keeping in mind the importance of textbook evaluation and the gap in Pakistani context, especially with regard to English textbooks at SSC Level vis-à-vis Bloom’s Taxonomy, the present study was carried out.

1.1 The Statement of Problem In Pakistan, a variety of textbooks are used as instructional material in the educational institutions at lower and higher levels. There is a lack of composite procedure to evaluate these texts on regular intervals. Different models are available to check and test the prescribed educational objectives through evaluation of the texts. In this context, a possibility exists which allows analysis of English Textbook I of Federal Board at SSC level in light of the selected model, Bloom’s Taxonomy.

1.2. Objectives of Study The objectives of the study are;

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature • To explore whether the exercises of English textbook I of Federal Board at SSC level follow Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives • To investigate the existing/missing domains and trace the order followed by exercises according to the Cognitive Domain • To find out the conformity of content with exercises

1.3. Research Questions 1. To what extent do the exercises of English textbook I of Federal Board at SSC level follow Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives? 2. How many sub levels of textbook are existing/missing in accordance to the Cognitive Domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy? 3. What is the order followed by the sub-levels of Cognitive Domain in the selected exercises of the textbook? 4. How far do the contents of the lessons conform to the question items in the exercises of English textbook?

2. Literature Review As English language teachers, it is surprising to encounter the vastness of English language. There are half a million symbols with millions of sentences and millions of people using it across the world. There are thousands of publications in the form of magazines and newspapers every year. How to grab all this huge bulk and how to deal with it? Labrant (1940) asks, “What can or must youth do with this? How can and must we help him?” The best answer is to ponder over the part played by language in civilization and its function as the only communicative tool. Language is a reliable tool for imparting and receiving information and here begins the hurdle of successful communication of ideas and in turn, their understanding.

Labrant (1940) comments that, to meet the needs of living in our society our students need: Experiences with literature which will extend and enrich understanding of others; experiences with literature which will extend understanding of one's self; experiences in reading, speaking, and writing which will promote mental hygiene, wholesome attitudes and expression; experience which will enable the individual to use intelligently the abundant literature, broadcasts, and cinemas produced 93

Department of English, University of Gujrat by machines and men; experiences which will make him, in short, understanding of himself and others.

In Pakistan, Urdu’s status is of national language whereas the official language of government and its higher education institutions (HEIs) is English. The constitution of Pakistan is written in English. Ali, S. et al., (2014) are of the view that Pakistan should emphasize promotion of English language among general people if it wants to compete with the world in the fields of technology, trade, science, economic development and commerce.

According to Marckwardt (1963), English as a Second Language means that it is used as an instructional medium in schools. It is quite true in case of Pakistan since the use of English is quite common in educational set-up around the country.

Pakistan is a country with multilingual and multicultural social make- up. All the provinces have more than one language. The representative nature of English has made it a prestigious language (Haque, 1982; Rahman 1998, 2002). Governments, when elected, pay special attention to the teaching of English and make it a part of their policy with the objective of achieving democratic epitomes of equality in opportunity. But certain hindrances appear in the course of action as Shamim (2008) says that Pakistan has two-stream education policy which hinders providing equal chances of ELT learning at various level. This has resulted in the unsolved nature of the problem till this time.

According to Doll (1964), the definition of curriculum from only a content of a course has changed to all other related activities for the learners in the learning process. As mentioned above, there are a number of definitions attached to the word curriculum but Tanner and Tanner (1980) provide the most encompassing one. They believe that it is the systematic giving of knowledge and experience to the learners to enable them gain control of the both. The brief discussion above can be inferred in terms of curriculum being a program not only in classrooms with textbooks but a pervasive concept having co-curricular and extra-curricular activities as well.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature In the case of Pakistan, curriculum designing has hardly ever been ideally systematic in terms of the ground realities and new challenges. Hence, the new concepts and methodologies should be adopted from time to time to update the curriculum. This vast view attached to the curriculum makes it a pervasive concept carrying bulks of factors, all contributing directly or indirectly to the development of learners.

In Pakistan, the task of curriculum revision or development has been assigned to the Curriculum Wing, an organization specifically designed for the said purpose which works under the legislation of Ministry of Education. Curriculum wings are also established at provincial level, which work according to the instructions of the central authority. Alongside, CRDCs, the Curriculum Research and Development Centers have also been formed to design or revise curricula. The Curriculum Wing sends the curriculum to the provincial wings or CRDCs where after the required procedures, it is sent back to the Ministry of Education for approval. There are committees at national level as well to assist in such tasks and they are also major stakeholders in the process. The final draft, after all the consultations, is sent to the Secretary of Education at Federal Level where, after the approval, it is dispatched for the formulation of the textbook to the provincial textbook boards.

Textbooks are a primary source in formal and informal educational set up. These textbooks prove to be of huge assistance for the teachers and students both. The instructional content for assessment and testing along with the examination system depends on the textbooks. Rehman et al., (2006) supports the grading and assessment system by saying that textbooks have significant role in our teaching-learning situation because they provide confidence to teachers by saving their time, energy and enable them to deploy their skills successfully and at the same time, enabling learners acquire multidimensional development.

The formal medium of communication i.e. English bears the status of second/foreign language in Pakistan. This has been a long journey but still many of the goals are unachieved. A number of ways have so far been applied to teach English but the most fundamental medium of instruction and study is the textbook. Hamza (2004, p. 3) states that, “The main teaching,

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Department of English, University of Gujrat learning, and reference tool for (English) language teaching in Pakistan is the textbook”.

A comprehensive set of goals and objectives have been set for English language teaching but they are not followed and hence do not reflect the guidelines in the policies. The reason is, “Textbooks prescribed for the level do not include the needs of the learner. Moreover, there was no change/modification/development incorporated in them during last two decades (Shah, 2007, p. 101). Another gap in the textbook is the lack of further development resulting in the inappropriate assessment of the adeptness of the curriculum. Shah (2007) opines again that analyzing the achievement of learners is linked to a valid evaluation. However, in Pakistan, the examination system measures the memory of the learners rather than focusing on the assessment of skills of language. The result is absence of upgradation of these books according to the necessary needs as mentioned by Rahman (2002, p. 317), “The textbooks at the higher secondary level had not been revised for nearly twenty years.” The absence of interest produced inappropriate textbooks which were not only lacking the intended outcomes but hindered the various strategies to English language teaching. Siraj (1992) suggested that both the secondary and college textbooks do not give relevant skills to the learners needed for English.

A systematic and well organized set of methods in evaluation and monitoring would help in strengthening the teaching and learning in classroom (OFSTED, 1999c). Generally, it is the principals who bear the responsibility of monitoring and evaluation at school level. It renders chances to share information, propositions, perceptions, responses about success and failure. Ellis (1994) states, “individuals are more motivated when they are communicated clearly.”

According to Gay (1985), evaluation means an organized way of data collection and analysis to make decisions. Chambers (1997) is of the view that the selection of an appropriate textbook is not simple as there can be many stakeholders and thus the plausible solutions can be resisted due to the difference of perceptions. The better way is to involve a whole team relevant to the task.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 2.1. Bloom’s Taxonomy Dr. Benjamin S. Bloom along with his colleagues, Frost, Hill, Englehart and Krathwol, in 1956, devised a taxonomy called Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives which is a key paradigm in the testing, evaluation and curriculum development. The taxonomy comprised three domains: Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor. The sub categories of Cognitive Domain were Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. According to Woolfolk (2005), the real life of the learners includes behaviors from these three domains which may occur simultaneously. If students are indulged in writing (psychomotor), they are also involved in remembering (Cognitive) and at the same time pose emotional responses (Affective) to the assigned activities/tasks as well.

The group of researchers and experts devised the objectives of the Cognitive and Affective Domains, but could not succeed in framing the objectives for the third domain, the Psychomotor. It was then attempted by many other researchers to give a valid domain of the Psychomotor. Kumari & Mohamma (2007) comment that as discussed already, there was no model proposed by the committee for the psychomotor domain but different people attempted to devise it in various ways.

Hamblen (1984) has exemplified the peculiar ways in which the taxonomy can be applied in Art studies. He explained the level and type of thinking related to understanding a specific work of art, for example, Guernica, as below:

(a) Who has painted Guernica? : Knowledge

(b) Describe the subject matter of Guernica: Comprehension

(c) Relate the theme of Guernica to the current work: Application

(d) What compositional principles did Picasso use in Guernica? Analysis

(e) Imagine yourself as of the figures in Guernica and describe your life history: Synthesis

(f) What is your opinion of Picasso’s Guernica? Evaluation 97

Department of English, University of Gujrat Kegan (1977) in his research study “Using Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy for Curriculum Planning and Evaluation in Nontraditional Educational Settings” has mentioned the taxonomy to be a useful tool in evaluation. Forehand (2005) in his study “From Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology” claimed that in all the contexts the taxonomy can render help. He stated that Bloom’s Taxonomy can be helpful in any learning process initiated by an instructor.

3. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework for this study is the Cognitive Domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. In 1956, Benjamin Bloom led a group of educational specialists who categorized the way people learn into three spheres. One of them is the Cognitive Domain, which focuses on perceptive results. There are six major levels within the Cognitive Domain, as specified by Bloom, and these are: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application (lower level cognition), and Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation (higher level cognition). The purpose of selecting Bloom's taxonomy is its importance since its development. Is has been very important and influential since it was introduced first as it puts forward a comprehensible framework for understanding and appreciating the varying levels of learning which a normal learner goes through during his formal schooling. Bloom’ taxonomy very clearly suggests that students must get hold of lower levels of learning in order to be able to attempt more complicated and challenging tasks during the later stages of learning. Bloom's taxonomy suggests encouragement and fostering of higher-order thought in the minds of students by building up from lower-level cognitive skills.

A brief description of the theoretical framework is given below:

3.1.1. The Cognitive Domain

Level One (Knowledge) This level involves remembering and recalling of the previously learned information from simple facts to theories as a whole. The information is recalled to the mind as it was.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Level Two (Comprehension) This is the second level in which the understanding of the academic goals is the base towards knowing the trends. The learners are expected to convert a thing from one medium of interaction to another and also to acquire the expertise of presentation and extrapolation of issues.

Level Three (Application) It is the third stage where the learned knowledge and skills can be applied in new and novel situations. The learners become able to apply the theories and formulae in the practical scenario where ever a need arises.

Level Four (Analysis) This is the fourth level where the learners learn to split apart the major chunk of information into smaller bits and pieces and then study it in separate sections. Every piece of information bears an underlying organizational structure and principles. The learners at this level learn to understand this underlying structure and to read and grab the idea of the constituent parts of this structure. The learners in this way even understand the internal relationship in this bulk of information or knowledge.

Level Five (Synthesis) This is the fifth level of the taxonomy where the learners master the skills of combining the separate bits of information into a united whole. This level, in theory and practice, is opposite to the analysis level i.e. the fourth level. The learners become able to formulate something new out of the existent bulk of information which is mainly in pieces. The writing skills of the learners are enhanced at this level and they become able to express various issues in a valid manner.

Level Six (Evaluation) This is the highest and complicated level of taxonomy where the learners are supposed to make judgments about the value of the concepts, ideas and materials. In the process, the learners are to select the most effective way out or solution. The learners become able to probe into a matter and view its philosophical aspects. A critical ability is the outcome of the mastery of this stage where learners become able to find the merits and demerits of issues and phenomenon.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat 3.1. Research Methodology and Research Tools This study is mixed method research i.e. qualitative and quantitative both. An in-depth study of the textbook has been carried out which makes it qualitative research. According to Krippendorff (2004), reading and analyzing the textbooks come under the category of qualitative approach. The study has used the technique of “question analysis”. This technique analyses the questions in a textbook in order to know whether the questions fulfill the intended purpose or not. The content and question items in the exercises were cross checked to find the relevancy of the questions with the material in the content, thus creating the categories of relevant and irrelevant questions. The existing and missing domains of the taxonomy were identified.

Further, the research data was analyzed quantitatively in simple numbers, percentages and calculations. So, this study is also evaluative, and analytical in nature as well as qualitative and quantitative. The primary research sources was the English textbook I of Federal board at SSC level.

4. Data Collection and Interpretation Cognitive Domain is the first and the foremost domain in the taxonomy of educational objectives. It tries to test and enhance the development of the cognition of the learners through information which assists the task from LLC to HLC. Affective and Psychomotor are the two other domains within the taxonomy which check the emotional and physical grooming of the learners but they are not addressed in this thesis. It can be proposed that the major focus during the designing of instructional materials is on the Cognitive Domain and that is the reason that books are devised in way so as to deal and function in response to the Cognitive Domain.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature

Figure 1 Cognitive Domain

4.1. Analysis of Federal Board English Textbook I Federal Board of English Textbook I contains 12 units.

Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain

Units 1-12

The data has been shown in the table and graph 1 below.

Lev Knowl Comprehe Applic Anal Synth Evalua Total els edge nsion ation ysis esis tion questi ons in All

Tot 14 76 23 5 15 6 139 al

% 10.07 54.67 16.54 3.59 10.79 4.31 100

Table 1 All Levels of Cognitive Domain of FTBB Book 1

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Department of English, University of Gujrat

140

120

100

80

60 Total 40 % 20

0

Graph 1 All Levels of Cognitive Domain of FTBB Book 1

The table 1 contains total questions and percentage of Cognitive Domain in English Book I of Federal Board along with graphical representation. After placing all the question items into the relevant sub levels of the Cognitive Domain along with a critical discussion on their nature, the data has been converted into tabulated form as seen above.

Looking at Table 1, it can be observed that a total of 139 questions were found in relevancy to the Cognitive Domain. Out of them, 14 were placed in the sub level of Knowledge comprising a ratio of 10.07 % of the total. 76 questions were of Comprehension mounting to 54.67% which makes the largest proportion among all the sub levels. Application contains 23 items making a percentage of 16.54. Analysis is 3.59 with 5 items, Synthesis is 10.79 with 15 items and Evaluation is 4.31% with 6 queries. There is a plain discrepancy among the number of question items allotted to the respective six sub levels of the Cognitive Domain as is shown in Table 1. The major portion has been allotted to the sub level Comprehension with a percentage of 55 while the least has been given to Analysis and Evaluation with 3 and 4

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature percent. The only sub level which shows a tendency of proportion is Application with a percentage of almost 17.

4.2. Existing/Missing Sub Levels Regarding the second research question which deals with the existing and missing domains, it can be put forwarded after an in depth analysis that the prime focus was on the Cognitive Domain and its sub level and all of the sub levels are present in the exercises, although the ration of each sub level is different. There is no question item in all the exercises designed with the intention to incorporate or improve the Affective ability within the learners. The third domain, Psychomotor is present but to a negligible extent. There are few questions in all the twelve units designed to enhance the learning process through psychomotor skills.

4.3. Order of the Sub Levels of Cognitive Domain The order of the domains and the order of the sub levels within the Cognitive Domain are not systematic. There is randomness within the exercises from the perspective of LLC and HLC. From unit-1 till the end, there are questions related to Cognitive Domain and Psychomotor Domain with Affective Domain being absent. Taking into consideration the Cognitive Domain, there is not visible format of LLC-HLC; furthermore, there is no calculated allocation of question items of each sub level within the exercises of the allocated units.

4.4. Conformity of the Content with the Exercises Considering the conformity of the content with the exercises, it can be argued that the exercises carry a lot of questions which do not conform with the content taught to the learners. The exercises are mainly divided into two portions, one part dealing with the questions based on the content addressing the various domains and the sub levels within the Cognitive Domain and the other part carrying the concepts of grammar. This discrepancy is within the exercises, there is content meant for reading and based on those reading, questions about grammar are given to be answered. It seems that there are two contents simultaneously, one, the content of the lesson, and the other, the content within the exercises which is exactly demands the same rigorous reading and then answering the questions. Such

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Department of English, University of Gujrat questions have been tagged as Non-conformed (NC) and hence, will be termed as “Irrelevant questions”.

4.5. Critical Discussion: FTBB Book I It is evident from the analysis of sub levels of Cognitive Domain that they are not systematically inculcated. In FTBB Book I, the sub level of Comprehension carries the largest number with 76 items while Application is second with 23 items out of a total 139 questions in the exercises of the textbook. Synthesis is on position three with 15 items. The sub level of Knowledge carries 14 items in total which is the fourth position. The minimum number of items is within Evaluation with 6 items and Analysis with 5 items out of a total of 139 questions within the exercises of the textbook.

There is a lack of balance and equilibrium of the question items in the exercises of Federal textbook in terms of allocating to each sub level of the Cognitive Domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy. This can be supplemented from the above data which shows the imbalanced number of items allocated to the sub levels of the Cognitive Domain. The division of items shows one extreme or the other. Some of the sub levels carry highest number of items while others contain lowest. A balanced division would have been desirable.

There are no missing sub levels of the Cognitive Domain in the book. All of the sub levels are present, although the balance in terms of number of items has not been maintained and the order of each sub level has not been considered either.

There is absence of order in terms of placing the questions in each category as well as in terms of placing the sub levels from Lower order to Higher order as is demanded by the theme of Bloom’s Taxonomy where the central proposition is devising the questions in way so they may support the learning process from Lower order to Higher order and thus achieve cognitive development of the learners systematically. The first three sub levels cater the lower level cognitive needs (LLC) while the last three sub levels address the high order cognition (HLC). A comprehensive pattern would be to address them in order in the exercises of the textbook, i.e. starting from putting the questions of Knowledge and Comprehension in the initial exercises and moving forward systematically to place the questions of

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Application, Analysis, Synthesis and lastly, Evaluation. This would have provided an ordered, composed, comprehensive and coherent structure to the exercise.

The last point of consideration was to find the congruency of the questions in the exercises to the content of the textbook. Questions should be devised from the material taught in the content. If the learners are taught about a concept or viewpoint in the content, but the questions in the exercises ask about some other issues, it may create a sense of discomfort among the young learners. The better situation would be to ask about what is taught. In this way, the goal of a more valid learning can be achieved. Based on this proposition of the congruency of the questions in the exercises to the content of the units, the questions have been divided into ‘conformed’ and ‘non- conformed’. The questions dealt in the content have been categorized as conformed while the unaddressed questions have been categorized as non- conformed. Almost two third of the questions in the exercises fall in the category of the non-conformed; they deal with hard concepts of grammar having no clue in the content. This again might create an unfavorable situation for the young learners in terms of their cognitive development.

5. Findings This study was carried to find whether the questions in the exercises of FTBB Book I follow the Cognitive Domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy or not.

• It is evident from the Table that there is a lack of balance in terms of distribution of question items within each sub level of Cognitive Domain. The sub levels are either allocated too large number of questions or a smaller number otherwise.

• The second point of inquiry was finding the existing/missing sub levels of the Cognitive Domain. To this, it is said that no sub level of the Cognitive Domain has been skipped. All the sub levels are present in the exercises of the textbook as is shown in the tables.

• Regarding the order of the sub levels, it was found that a random placement is visible. There is no systematic order of placing the sub levels of the Cognitive Domain from the perspective of Lower Level

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Cognition to Higher Level Cognition within the exercise. Right from the first exercise till the last within the textbook, all types of question items could be found ranging from Knowledge to Evaluation.

• The last point of concern was to know about the congruity of the content with the exercises of the textbook which meant that the questions asked in the exercise should carry information in the content of the lessons. There was a huge discrepancy found in response to this point of inquiry.

• Mainly, two types of questions were found in the exercises, those which were based on the content and those which were related to the concepts of grammar. All the questions related to improve the grammar skills of the learners were found to have no link with the content and thus were tagged Non-conformed (NC) questions. Almost two third of the questions in the exercises were related to the concepts of grammar having no link to the content taught to the learners.

The research was restricted to the application of only the Cognitive Domain with the exception of Affective and Psychomotor domains. The reasons were; while designing textbooks, the focus relies mainly on the development of the Cognitive Domain of the learners and the length of the study was increasing beyond the maximum limits if the textbook would have been checked for all the three domain of the taxonomy.

5.1. Recommendations It is necessary that textbooks should be designed in accordance to a certain model which might cater the needs of the learners and thus fulfill their language learning goals. Clear and simple objectives of language learning in terms of cognitive development should be set which would channelize the teaching learning process to achieve the purpose with ease. Clear instructions should be provided for both the teachers and learners to handle the textbooks and exercises.

Exercise should be congruent to the content taught to the learners. This would ensure quality learning on the part of the learners who otherwise, would feel difficulty to retain their interest in the exercise if they do not carry

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature information in the content. And lastly, an on-going review, assessment and evaluation of the textbooks in the context of the needs of the students in terms of ELT through experts in the relevant field should be assured.

There is no denial of the fact that teaching English as ESL/EFL needs the teaching of grammar as well. But grammar should be properly planned and systematically divided in both the book I and II of the SSC level. It would ensure the quality teaching at teachers’ end and a comfortable comprehension on the part of the learners.

The textbooks for the young learners especially at SSC and HSSC levels should be planned and devised by the experts in their relevant fields. These experts, in the areas of curriculum, syllabi, textbook adaptation, assessment and evaluation would enhance the quality to a higher level and ensure a quick achievement of the goals to a successful teaching of ELT

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Chambers, F. (1997). Seeking consensus in course book evaluation. ELT Journal 51(1), 29-35.

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Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom’s taxonomy: Original and revised. emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology.

Gay, L.R. (1985). Educational Evaluation and Measurement, Longman’s Green Co, New York, 6-9. 107

Department of English, University of Gujrat Hamza, N. (2004). Gender representation in English language textbook: English for undergraduates. Karachi: Centre for English Language, Aga Khan University of Health Sciences.

Haque, A. R. (1982). The position and status of English in Pakistan. World Englishes, 2(1), 6-9.

Kegan, D. L. (1977). Using Bloom's cognitive taxonomy for curriculum planning and evaluation in nontraditional educational settings. The Journal of Higher Education, 48(1), 63-77.

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Krippendroff, K. (2004). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage

Labrant, L. (1940). The Place of English in General Education. The English Journal, 29(5), 356-365.

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Rahman, T. (2002). Language, ideology and power: Language learning among the Muslims of Pakistan and North India. Oxford University Press, USA.

Rehman, A., Ahmed,K. & Sultana, R. (2006). Evaluation of Textbook of Economics at Higher Secondary School Level. Dera Ismail Khan: Gomal University Journal of Research.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Shamim, F. (2008). Trends, issues and challenges in English language education in Pakistan. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 28(3), 235- 249.

Siraj, S. (1992). Teaching writing skills at intermediate level in Pakistan. Unpublished). M. Ed. TESOL thesis, University of Manchester.

Tanner D. and Tanner L.N. (1980). Curriculum Development. N. Y: Macmillan Publishers.

Appendix 1

UNIT 1-12

Knowledge Level

Unit 1

What was the first revelation?

Match column A with B to find the exact meanings of the words. Column B Column A Eliminate Charm

(There are 14 more similar items)

UNIT 3

What are the two major means of communications?

UNIT 4

Who was Hazrat Abdullah Bin Zubair?

Vocabulary

Choose the correct meaning of the underlined words 109

Department of English, University of Gujrat It was so delicate situation.

a) Difficulty b). easy c). sensitive d) fragile

(There are three more similar questions)

Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions given below each sentence.

The Rasool migrated Makha to Madinah in 622 A.D.

Between b. from c. after d. into

(There are six more similar questions)

Unit 7

Who was appointed as the architect of the masjid?

Who constructed Masjid Sophia?

Circle the correct antonyms from the given choices of the underlined words.

The Sultan masjid is one of the most impressive monuments in the world.

Ugly

Unimpressive

Remarkable

(There are four more similar questions)

Unit 8

Who is the speaker in the poem?

Vocabulary

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Here are some words opposite in meaning. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

Village Melt

(There are seven more similar words for column A & B)

Unit 9

Vocabulary

Match column A with column B.

Column A Column B

Beside Prove myself right

(There are three more similar column A&B)

Unit 11

Vocabulary

Write the synonyms of the following words.

Disrupts (Para 1) nuisance (Para 2)

Rapid (Para 3) piercing (Para 4)

Unmonitored (Para 5)

Unit 12

Who was Helen Keller?

Comprehension Level

UNIT 1

111

Department of English, University of Gujrat What type of land Arabia is?

(There are seven more similar questions)

Vocabulary

Consult a thesaurus and find out the synonyms of the following words.

Dazzling, imaginations, remarkable, composed, preservation, bestowed, message, superstition, abandon

UNIT 2

Answer the following questions.

How will you define patriotism?

(There are four more similar questions)

What makes us stay alert in the wake of foreign invasion?

Vocabulary

Guess the meaning of the following words. Confirm your meaning from the dictionary.

No. Word Guessed meaning Dictionary meaning

1. Conservation

(There are three more similar questions)

UNIT 3

Answer the following questions.

What is the most important function that media performs?

(There are three more similar questions)

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Vocabulary

Explain the following phrases as used in the text.

Geared up, global villages, a click away, constructive role, raise awareness, to keep an eye, a mouth piece of the downtrodden.

UNIT 4

Answer the following questions.

What happen when Abu Jehl asked about Hazrat Abu Bakr Sidque?

(There are four more similar questions)

UNIT 5

Answer the following questions.

What is the central idea of the poem?

(There are two more similar questions)

List the words that heighten the sound effect in the poem.

In “Daffodils” similes are used in stanzas 1 and 2. Can you tell what two things are compared to in each of these stanzas?

Pick out one example of personification from the poem.

Underline the words and phrases that depict clear imagery in the poem.

Which imagery the poet refers to in the poem?

Vocabulary

Use thesaurus to find three more synonyms of the following words.

Saw glance gaze

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Shine twinkle sparkle

UNIT 6

Answer the following questions.

How much confidence did Quaid e Azam have in his nation?

(There are seven more similar questions)

Vocabulary

Encircle the option for the underlined words that relates to the next.

“We are a nation” he affirmed three years before the birth of Pakistan. told said emphatically broke in

(There are four more similar questions)

Consult a thesaurus and find the synonyms of the following words.

Morale, voyage, ambition, nomenclature, Identity, distinctive, emergence, struggle, numerous, strong, ideology

Write the antonyms of the following words.

Confidence, honor, belief, separate, unity, political

UNIT 7

Answer the following Questions.

Why Sultan Ahmad Masjid is also known as Blue Masjid?

(There are three more similar questions)

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Vocabulary:

Consult a thesaurus and find out the synonyms of the following words.

Embellish, integrate, splendor, majesty, illuminate

UNIT 8

Answer the following questions.

Whom does the speaker refer to in the first stanza of the poem?

Why does the speaker stop on ‘the darkest evening of the year’?

Why does the horse impatiently await the next move of his master?

(There are two more similar questions)

The speaker in the poem is captivated by the beauty of nature. Why doesn’t he stop for long to enjoy nature’s beauty?

Some statements are directly supported by the poem; some are inference based on evidence from the text while some are to be supported by any evidence. Put a tick in right column.

Statements Directly Inference Statement not supported by base on some supported by the poem evidence and evidence from the poem

It is a cold and dark winter.

(There are six more similar questions) 115

Department of English, University of Gujrat Underline the words and phrases that depict clear imagery in the poem.

Identity alliterations and metaphor in the poem

Circle the correct option.

The poem is suggestive of profound thoughts about

A scene of woods in winter

Reality of life and death

A song of enjoyment

(There are four more similar questions)

UNIT 09

Answer the following questions

Why did the nurse ask Hira sister to come and talk to her?

(There are four more similar questions)

Rearrange these sentences in correct sequence.

We do not have much hope for her.

(There are seven more similar statements)

UNIT 10

Answer the following questions.

What are the effects of drug addiction?

(There are seven more similar questions)

Vocabulary

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Guess the meaning of the following words from the text. Write the meaning in the middle column. Confirm the meaning by using a dictionary.

No. Words from text Guessed Dictionary meaning meaning

1 Long-term

(There are seven more similar words)

UNIT 11

Answer the following questions.

How do you define noise pollution?

(There are five more similar questions)

UNIT 12

Answer the following:

Describe the thought expressed by the author in the first paragraph.

(There are seven more similar questions)

Read the life history of Helen Keller. Arrange the details in chronological order.

Vocabulary

Consult a dictionary to find meanings of the given words.

Sluggish, quiver, animate, panorama, buoyant, dormant, manifold, convolutions, kaleidoscopic, epicurean, impending

Encircle the option that relates to the text.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat For each of these words from the passage, give one word or short phrase which has the same meaning.

Emphasize (line…..2) appreciative (line…..10)

Lush (line……43) pageant (line….21)

Writing Skills

What is the epicurean motto? Discuss.

Application Level

Unit 1

Use the following words in the sentences.

Century, conquest, influential, determination, delegation, quietly, urge, ignorance

Writing Skills

B-Write an essay on “The kindness of the Rasool SAW

UNIT 2

Use the following words in sentences.

Sacrifice

(There are six more similar words)

Writing Skills

D-Write an essay on any one of our national heroes. (170-200 words)

E-Write a short dialogue between a political activist and a teenager in which the political activist tries to make the teenager understand the importance of patriotism.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature UNIT 3

Complete the sentence choosing the right option.

Media a very constructive role for the society . (play/plays)

(There are five more similar statements)

WRITING SKILLS

Write a paragraph on “Uses and abuses of Internet /mobile phones”

Write an essay on Advantage and Disadvantages of Television” (Word limit 170-200)

UNIT 4

B-Consult a dictionary to find the meanings of the following words/phrases and use them in sentences.

Mad with anger, fit of fury, reveal the secret, resolute, alleviate, migration, companion, refuge, gave away, determined.

Unit 5

D-Here is a list of few similes, Metaphors and personifications. Can you identify them? Write ‘S’ for Simile ‘M’ for Metaphor and ‘P’ for personification.

Time is money The apple of my eye

(There are five more similar columns)

UNIT 7

C-Use the following words in sentences.

Impressive, dexterously, spacious, humility, Flamboyant

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Department of English, University of Gujrat WRITING SKILLS

B-Describe in your own words the architecture of any historical place in Pakistan.

UNIT 8

WRITING SKILLS

B-Write an essay contrasting living in the city with living in the country. (170-200 words).

Unit 9

B- Identify the phrases and idioms in the lesson and use them in sentences.

WRITING SKILLS

B- Write a personal narrative. Focus on the following points.

Include choice of time period in your life.

Include clear statement of personality traits at that time.

Include significant details and an incident to portray personality.

Unit 10

B- Write an essay on “Drug Abuse, a Threat to Society”. (170-200 words).

Unit 11

Cause and effect and solutions

Do you worry about pollution? Complete the table below with your partner. List the causes of noise pollution. What are their effects? Can you think of some solutions to these problems?

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature

Causes Noise Effects of noise Solution Pollution pollution

Honking Irritability Strict rules to check honking

VOCABULARY

B- How many words can you form from these root words?

Pollute Construct Develop

C- Chose five words you have made from the root words and use them in sentences.

WRITING SKILLS

Write a paragraph on “Effects of land Pollution on Human Health”

Write an application to the principal of you school for arranging separate bins for dry waste (plastic, glass, paper.)

Write a letter to Executive Officer Environmental Protection Agency in you city, informing him about the irregular collection of solid waste in you are.

Unit 12

WRITING SKILLS

C-Write a paragraph on the difficulties of a special child. .

Analysis Level

UNIT 2

How will you elaborate Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s quote?

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Department of English, University of Gujrat “We must develop a sense of patriotism which galvanizes us all into one united and strong nation”

UNIT 5

Paraphrase the last stanza of the poem.

UNIT 6

What can be the possible solution to our present problems?

UNIT 8

E-Paraphrase the following.

The woods are lovely, dark and deep.

But I have promises to keep.

And miles to go before I sleep

And miles to go before I sleep.

The set of units 9-12 carries no item pertaining to the level of analysis.

Synthesis Level

UNIT 1

Writing Skills

Summarize paragraph 2 of the lesson in three to four sentences.

UNIT 2

Writing Skills

Summarize paragraph 4 of the lesson in three to four sentences

Summarize the lesson in your own words.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature UNIT 3

Summarize the lesson with the help of following mind map.

UNIT 4

Writing Skills

Summarize the lesson by completing the following mind map.

Write a character sketch of Hazrat Asma (RA).

Unit 5

B- Write a summary of the poem “Daffodils”.

UNIT 6

Writing Skills

Write a paragraph on Quaid e Azam as a progressive and moderate democrat. (60 to 70 words.)

Write an essay on “Quaid e Azam our National Hero” with the help of following mind map.

UNIT 7

Writing Skills

Write down the summary of the lesson. Focus on the following points.

History of Mosque, Architecture, Importance

UNIT 8

Writing Skills

Summarize the poem “stopping by the Woods on A Snowy Evening” adverb Phrases. 123

Department of English, University of Gujrat UNIT 9

Writing Skills

Write a summary of the story in your own words retelling the nurse’s struggle and how the problem was solved.

Unit 10

Writing Skills

Summarize the lesson “Drug Addiction” with the help of following mind map.

UNIT 11

C- In paragraphs 3,4, 5, 6, and 7 the writer is describing the cause, effect and solution of noise pollution . Identify and summarize these.

UNIT 12

Writing Skills

What does the author mean by saying the seeing see little? Explain in a paragraph.

Evaluation Level

UNIT 2

C- Which steps should be taken to make our nation patriotic?

Unit 3

B- Answer the following questions.

5-Give three reasons in support of your favorite TV program.

Unit 4

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature C-Answer the following questions.

7-What message do you get from the life of Hazrat Asma (RA)?

8-Her life would always be a beacon of light for us. How?

UNIT 6

A-Answer the following questions.

5-How can we become a strong nation?

UNIT 12

A-Answer the following

6-“To me the pageant of seasons is an unending drama,” comment.

The last set of units 9-12 carry one question in unit-12 pertaining to the level of evaluation. Units 9, 10 and 11 carry no question of Evaluation.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat A Comparative Analysis of Sohni Mahiwal and Cinderella: A Proppian Model of Narratology Saima Jamshaid Rubina Kamran Riaz Ahmad Mangrio Raza-E-Mustafa Abstract The present study is a comparative analysis of ‘Sohni Mahiwal’ (Punjabi folktale) and ‘Cinderella’ (English fairytale) in the light of Propp’s Model of Narratology, which he presented in the “Morphology of Folktales” (1928). Propp proposes the idea that all the fairytales have the same underlying structures. He talks about two basic ideas in a narrative Fabula (Story) and Sujzhet (Plot). He says that every time the plot remains the same, but the story is changed. He proposes 31 functions and 7 characters of narration, found in every fairytale. The present research is an investigation whether Proppian model is applicable for all sort of literary genres without the influence of time, geographical boundaries and cultural differences. The study also investigates the similarities and disparities in application of Propp’s model on Punjabi folktale and English fairytale. The results from the analysis of the tales reveal that both the selected stories contain more similar characters and functions proposed by Propp. The time, geographical boundaries and culture do not influence the representation of characters and functions in any narration. Key Words: Proppian model, Shoni Mahiwal, Cinderella, Functions, Characters 1. Introduction A Narrative is a way of interpreting the world around us. In other words, it is a kind of rewording of circumstances. People are encircled by narratives in daily life. These narratives may be oral or in written and are found in the form of different fairytales, folktales and legends. The term fairytales and folktales are used interchangeably. Throughout the history, various narratives have been told and passed on from one generation to another. They are the representatives of different cultures. Every narrative has some moral lesson to teach people. Every narrative is based on some set narrative

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature rules and principles. These principles discussed in details by Propp. His study is a great and the most impressive contribution to the understanding of plot structure. Propp’s contribution not only helps screen play writers but also proves to be a blessing for the narrative structural analysts of fiction. The very interesting and important thing is the functional analysis of folktales. In the detailed analysis of hundreds of Russian fairytales, Propp compiles a list of thirty-one functions and seven characters. He finds that these thirty-one functions and characters remain unchanged in all folktales. Some tales contain all functions and characters, while others contain fewer functions and characters. Narratology or narrative theory focuses on the structural units in any kind of visual or literal text. Structuralism stresses that each element gets meaning from its relations to every other element in the system and specific culture. Propp follows Saussure’s idea of sign, signified and signifier and applies it on the human narrative. According to narrative theory, every narrative has two parts: story, i.e. what happens to whom and discourse, that is “how the story is told” (Allen, 1992, p. 69). The focus of the narrative analysis is the interaction between different genres of narrative discourse. It analyzes the outlines and the plot summary. It also pays attention towards different characters, the process of providing information and the relationship between the narrator and the real world (Stam, Burgoyne & Flitterman- Lewis, 1992). Propp’s thirty one functions of narrative have opened the new research horizons for the future researches in the field of literature. Various researchers have done a lot of work in this field. Ahmed and Noor (2015) have worked on Arabian Nights: Hatim Taii by applying Propp’s model. Apriliana (2012) has worked on Snow White and the seven Dwarfs. He has analyzes 19 functions of Propp’s model. The present research is unique in its nature, as it is a comparative analysis of English fairytale and Punjabi folktale. Such a comparative analysis has not been done yet. The purpose of the comparative analysis is to see if Proppian model is equally applicable to various literary genres. 2. Propp’s model the more comprehensive model Propp was the first person who presented the very first model of narratology. After Propp various scholars such as (Staruss, 1958; Bremond, 127

Department of English, University of Gujrat Barthes, Todorov 1966 & Gremmies, 1971) also contributed in the field of narratology. However, as compared to the models presented by these scholars Propp’s model is more comprehensive- as it analyzes any narrative by breaking down tale in small units, which is the reason for the selection of this model for the analysis in this research. 3. Methodology The research is based on the qualitative analysis of fairytales and folktales in the light of Proppian model ‘Morphology of folktales’ (1928). Propp finds thirty one functions in tales. The tales to be analyzed in this study Sohni Mahiwal (Punjabi folktale) and Cinderella (English fairytale) are taken from two different cultures and time periods to find out to what extent Propp’s model is applicable. 4. Aim and objective The present work aims at investigating whether Propp’s 31 functions are equally applicable to different types of narratives 5. Research Question 1. To what extent the functions proposed by Propp are applicable for all sorts of narratives such as without the influence of time, culture and geographical boundaries? 2. What are the similarities and disparities in the application of Propp’s model in Punjabi folktale and English fairytale? 6. Data Collection The data are taken from different genres of literature given below: Fairytale: Cinderella by Perrualt (2008) Folktale: Sohni Mahiwal by (2012) 7. Data Analysis Procedure/Techniques Having analyzed hundreds of Russian folktales, Propp (1985) noted a similar narrative structure in all fairytales. He provides the following definition of the wonder tale based on his analysis of tales in Afsanaev’s collection: Every story starts with some villainy action, or the desire to attain something……. It moves ahead with the departure of the hero from his home. During his pursuit, a

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature donor helps him by providing with some magic agent to find the object of his research. Then, the story has a combat, return and a pursuit (p. 102). According to Propp, All tales have thirty one functions, however not all functions occur in a tale. Propp adds that when a tale has any number of the functions, these functions create a main framework in the narrative (Propp, 1968:25—65). These functions can be seen below: Functions: Initial Situation: According to Propp the initial situation in the narrative does not perform any function, so it is not included as a function. The rest of the functions may be gathered into six different groups (Propp, 1968, p. 25). The initial situation has nothing to do with narrative, only the characters are introduced at this level. 1) Preparation: i) Absentation: The story begins when a family member leaves the house ii) Interdiction: The hero has to face different prohibitions and rules iii) Violation: Hero violates all the prohibitions/ iv) Reconnaissance: The villain inspects the hero v) Delivery: The villain tries to get information about the hero vi) Trickery: The villain uses different strategies to deprive the hero of his belongings vii) Complicity: The victim gets impressed by the villain without knowing his malicious intentions Complication viii) Villainy: A family member of the hero is get harmed by the villain ix) Mediation: To fulfill the wish of the family member the hero is requested and goes for the requested mission x) Beginning encounter: Hero makes a plan to take the revenge from the villain Transference xi) Departure: Departure of the hero from his house xii) 1st function of the Donor: The hero has to undergo some testimonial and after getting passed is granted a helper or some magical agent xiii) Hero’s reaction: The hero shows some resistance for the helper

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Department of English, University of Gujrat xiv) Provision of magical agent: The hero takes help from the magical helper xv) Guidance: The hero is taken to his quested object Struggle xvi) Struggle: A face to face fight takes place between the hero and the villain xvii) Branding: The hero overcomes the villain xviii) Victory: The villain faces the defeat xix) Liquidation of lack: Everything is set right Return xx) Return: The hero comes back to home xxi) Pursuit: The hero is welcomed by the family xxii) Rescue from pursuit: The hero is rescued from pursuit xxiii) Unrecognized arrival: The hero reaches home but no one recognizes him xxiv) Unfolded claim: False claims are made by the false hero xxv) Difficult task: The hero has to go through some difficult trial to prove himself xxvi) Solution: The hero gets successful in the task Recognition xxvii) Recognition: The family recognizes the hero xxviii) Exposure: The reality of the false hero comes to light xxix) Transfiguration: The fake hero is replaced xxx) Punishment: The villain gets punish xxxi) Wedding: The hero is appreciated, crowned and get married Characters Propp (1985) locates characters in fairy tales according to their functional unity, and not to their psychological characteristics. The deeds of characters (the donor or provider, the helper and the villain) are naturally more important than their psychological structures or psychological depths on the personification level. According to Propp (1985), not all narratives necessarily convey these functions, but if they do, they are composed of those listed above. Those functions can be combined with the roles below defined by Propp (1985) as well. 1. Hero is always the major character in the narrative around which the story revolves. He is the strongest person who overcomes all the difficulties.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 2. For having action, fighting in the narrative there is always a villain who is always against the hero and tries to harm him. 3. The donor provides the hero with some magical assistance for his safety. 4. Hero is always helped by a helper who saves him from the pursuits and questions. 5. Hero always has to fulfill difficult tasks assigned by the father of the princess/heroine. 6. Sender/dispatcher is one who always assigns hero some difficult tasks. 7. Hero after the completion of difficult tasks is rewarded in the form of to be crowned or married. (Cited from Hansen et. al. 1998, p. 149) 8. Data Analysis Procedure The analysis is based on two sections. Section one is the analysis of Sohni Mahiwal (Punjabi folktale) and Section Two is the analysis of Cinderella (English Fairytale). 9. Data Analysis 9.1 Section One: Sohni Mahiwal (Punjabi folktale) Table. 1 The Analysis of Dramatis Personae S# Characters

1 The Princess/Heroine: Sohni

2 The Villain: Sohni’s father, mother in law and sister-in-law

3 The Helper: The pitcher

4 The Hero: Mahiwal

5 The False Hero: No false hero is there

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Department of English, University of Gujrat

6 The Dispatcher: There is no dispatcher in the narrative.

7 The Donor: Sohni’s father who helps Mahiwal by giving him the job of taking care of his buffalos. 9.2 Analysis of Functions Function 0: This function is talks about the beginning of the tale. The characters and their background information are provided. During the Mughal period, in the city of Gujrat near Chenab there lived a potter Tulla who had a beautiful daughter named Sohni. One day a young merchant named Mahiwal visits Tulla’s shop and gets impressed with the beauty of Sohni and falls in love with her. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 1) a) Absentation Mahiwal a young and handsome trader named Izat Baig departs from his house for trade purpose with a caravan. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 1) b) Interdiction: The father of Sohni prohibits Sohni not to meet Mahiwal. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 3) c) Violation: Sohni violates the restrictions imposed by her father and keeps on meeting Mahiwal. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 3) d) Reconnaissance: Sohni is investigated by her father and is advised not to meet Mahiwal. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 3) e) Delivery: Sohni’s sister-in-law suspects her and collects information about her. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 4)

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature f) Trickery: There is no such function in the narrative in terms of Propian model that villain promises hero/heroine and cheats by not fulfilling the promise. However, there is villainous action of changing pitcher. g) Mediation: Mahiwal becomes successful in searching Sohni. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 6) h) Departure: Mahiwal departs from his house and arrives where Sohni’s resides, after her marriage. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 6) i) Branding: Sohni meets Mahiwal and spends the nights with him in his hut. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 7) j) Victory and completing lack: Sohni does not allow her husband to come closer to her and finally meets Mahiwal. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 7) k) Solution: Sohni meets Mahiwal. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 7) l) Villainy: Sohni’s sister-in-law changes her pitcher with a raw pitcher dried in the sun. While crossing the river in the pitcher, when Sohni reaches in the middle of the river the pitcher melts and she drowns. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 7) m) Wedding/ending:

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Department of English, University of Gujrat According to Propp, every tale has a happy ending. This narrative ends with apparently a sad event as both Sohni and Mahiwal drown. In fact it also has a happy ending, as both the true lovers drown together and met for forever. (Qalandar, 2012: p. 7) 9.2 Section Two: Cinderella (English fairytale) 9.2.1. The Analysis of Dramatis Personae S# Characters

1 Hero/Heroine: Prince/Cinderella

2 The villain/false hero: Cinderella's stepmother and sisters

3 The father/mother: Cinderella’s mother

4 The donor: The fairy godmother

5 The magical helper: The sliver slippers

6 The dispatcher: Cinderella’s stepmother

7 The hero or victim/seeker hero: The prince

9.2.2. Analysis of Functions: Function 0: This part of the narrative is not a function; it triggers other functions of the narrative. This situation is an important morphological element in the narrative as the initial life of the hero/heroine along with their names is introduced in this function. (Perrualt, 2008: p.01) a) Absentation: Cinderella's mother is the person, who abandons her in her childhood. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 03)

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature b) Villainy: The step mother always keeps Cinderella busy in completing home tasks. She also tries to deceive the prince by telling a lie that there is no one else in the house except for her daughters. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 01) c) Interdiction: The stepmother restricts Cinderella from going to the party and strictly advices her to complete all the home tasks before their arrival. The fairy godmother warns Cinderella to get back before midnight. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 30) d) Violation: Cinderella violates her stepmother’s orders and reaches in the party with the help of fairy godmother. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 35) e) Reconnaissance: The stepmother of Cinderella suspects her asking what she had been doing at home in her absence. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 37) f) Trickery: The step mother and her daughters deceive Cinderella by making a false promise to take her to the party, and she is trapped in their words and helps them in getting ready for the party. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 32) g) Complicity: Cinderella’s stepsisters and stepmother deceive her and make a false promise with her to take her to the party. Cinderella being so innocent helps them in selecting their dresses and in their hair. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 33) h) The Donor:

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Department of English, University of Gujrat The fairy godmother provides Cinderella new clothes and a magical carriage. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 34) i) Heroine’s reaction: The stepsister of Cinderella tries to prove her the owner of the glass shoe and the shoe does not fit to her. When Cinderella tries the shoe, it gets fit to her. Then, she gets the other shoe out of her pocket and puts it on too. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 34) j) Departure: Cinderella departs from her house to meet the prince. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 35) k) Provision of magical agent: The fairy grandmother gives Cinderella a pair of magical glass shoes. Due to the magical effect of the shoes the prince falls in love with her. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 36) l) Guidance: The godmother guides Cinderella to reach back home before midnight and provides her a magical carriage to go to the party. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 36) m) Victory: Finally, Cinderella succeeds in attending the party. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 36) n) Unrecognized arrival: When Cinderella reaches in the party no one recognizes her and she reaches home back without being recognized by her mother and sisters. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 37) o) Difficult task:

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Cinderella does the hard work of cleaning the lentils bowl into the ash in a hope that her stepmother will take her to the party. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 36) p) Solution: When the fairy grandmother finds Cinderella weeping, she asks her about her problem. After hearing about Cinderella’s wish to go to the palace the fairy grandmother helps her and provides her new dress and a carriage to go to the palace. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 36) q) Recognition: The prince recognizes Cinderella, when the shoe gets fit in her shoe. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 37) r) Exposure: The reality of Cinderella’s stepmother and sisters exposes before the prince when the shoe gets fit to Cinderella. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 37) s) Unfolded claim: Cinderella’s stepsisters claim to be the glass shoe girl. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 38) t) Wedding at last: The prince proposes Cinderella and finally they get married. (Perrualt, 2008: P. 38) 10. Discussion and Findings In order to have a comparative analysis of narrative structure and plot according to Propp’s model a similar analysis is performed. In the study Propp’s model is applied on two genres folk and fairytale. As for the question of applicability of Propp’s model is concerned; it is equally applicable on different genres without any discrimination of time, culture (Punjabi and English) and geographical boundaries. For getting the answer of second raised question, when Sohni Mahiwal and Cinderella are compared both the similarities and disparities are viewed in functions, but the 137

Department of English, University of Gujrat characters are the same in both the stories as illustrated in section 9.1 and 9.3.1. The diversities between the two genres explain the variants. Sohni Mahiwal is a Punjabi folktale, and is taken as true love story. However, Cinderella (English fairytale) is fictional narrative, and so more functions proposed by Propp are detected in it as compared to Sohni Mahiwal, which is a real life story.

In both the tales an underlying structure and plot presented by Propp theory can easily be identified. There is a beginning function known as ‘zero’ function is present in both the tales.

In Sohni Mahiwal and Cinderella the initial function the absence of parents is there. In Sohni Mahiwal no information about the parents of Mahiwal and Sohni’s mother is illustrated, while in Cinderella’s case her mother is dead.

In Sohni Mahiwal the first interdiction is imposed on Sohni from her father when he forbids her not to meet Mahiwal, and in Cinderella the fairy godmother advises her not to stay after midnight in the party. This shows a similarity in the two interdictions and that is to leave their activities.

In both the narratives, the 6th function is the sufferings of the protagonist caused by the villains. In Sohni Mahiwal, the father of Sohni is the first villain who restricts her from meeting to Mahiwal and gets her married to someone else. The second villain is her sister-in-law who changes the pitcher and causes her death. In Cinderella, her stepsisters and stepmother are the villains, who keep her busy all the time to perform the house hold tasks. They feel jealous of her and always have bad intentions for her.

Next is the 7th function, where the protagonists agree to the antagonists’ demand. Cinderella keeps on working all the day, helps her stepsisters in their preparation for party. In Sohni Mahiwal this function is not found.

There is very strong resemblance between the two narratives in the evidence of seeker hero/heroine. In Cinderella, the prince seeks Cinderella, while in Sohni Mahiwal, Sohni and Mahiwal both get succeeded in seeking one another.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature In fairy tales normally it happens that the heroine/hero is helped by a donor, a helper or some magical powers. The pitcher performs the role of helper in Sohni Mahiwal, although it does not possess any supernatural powers. The pitcher helps Sohni to meet Mahiwal. However, there is a show supernatural power in Cinderella. The fairy godmother- a supernatural force, has magical powers and helps Cinderella by giving her magical shoes, so that the prince may recognize her. Both the pitcher and the fairy godmother perform the same function in the stories.

Evidently, there are variants of 15th function. In the fairytales, it normally happens that the donor prepares hero or heroine to get some magical power, but in Cinderella this function happens without any preparation. Sonhi Mahiwal lacks this function.

In Sohni Mahiwal, both the hero and heroine lack the freedom to meet each other, while Cinderella lacks freedom to go to the party. This is known as function 8th and it leads to the 10th function when the hero/heroine decides on counteraction. Sohni as a counteraction keeps on meeting Mahiwal in the night and Cinderella goes to the party to meet the prince.

Sohni takes Mahiwal as the person she wants to see most in the world and wants to live with him forever. The fairy godmother helps Cinderella to dress up in such a beautiful manners that at a first glance the prince falls in love with her and dances with her only. In Propp’s model this function occurs at the 19th place. In Sohni Mahiwal, the young man Mahiwal spells bounds with the beauty of Sohni and falls in love with her at the first sight.

In propp’s model the 26th function is the false hero who claims the belongings of the hero. In Cinderella the stepsisters play this role and claim to be Cinderella, the owner of the glass shoe. In Sohni Mahiwal no such claim is found.

As per the function 21st and 22nd, the pursuit of the heroine and its counterpart are the other events seen. Sohni is always pursued by her husband and sister-in-law. Cinderella reaches home from the party without being recognized at the party by her family as the beautiful girl at the ball. Her mother becomes suspicious about her and pursues her “what has she been doing in their absence”? 139

Department of English, University of Gujrat The recognition function occurs in Cinderella when the prince recognizes Cinderella after the shoe gets fit to her. In Sohni Mahiwal this function is missing.

The transfiguration function (29) occurs in when the godmother gives Cinderella a new dress and shoes. This function is also missing in Sohni Mahiwal.

Finally, both Sohni Mahiwal and Cinderella gain their loved ones. But the striking feature is the end of the both the stories which is function 31st. In Sohni both the hero and heroine drown and die. The narrative shows a tragic end, while in Cinderella the prince and Cinderella get married and the narrative ends happily.

For the better understanding of similarities and disparities in functions in both the tales a check list is presented in Appendix 1.

11. Conclusion After analyzing Sohni Mahiwal (Punjabi folktale) and Cinderella (English fairytale) in the light of Propp’s thesis of the Morphology of the folktale, it becomes obvious that the structure and plot have many resemblances to the folktale in general and to the fairytale in particular. Further, it becomes evident that it is possible to define various actions and events with Propp’s fairy tale register. In this research a detailed analysis of the functions present in the tales are discussed. In both narratives several functions such as interdiction, violation, villains are similar. In both the narratives, Sohni and Cinderella both are seeker heroines. In Propp’s words, such heroines counteract in search of something missing. Cinderella has no dresses to go to the party and seeks help from the fairy godmother. On the other hand Sohni uses pitcher to meet Mahiwal.

Furthermore, both the strong heroines evade their heroes. In Sohni’s case, it is Mahiwal and in Cinderella’s case, it is the prince. Although, both the stories lack some functions and characters, but it does not effect on the underlying structures; story and plot. A few dissimilarities are due to the variants of text; real life and imaginary ideas. In a nutshell, the study concludes that Propp’s model being a revolutionary model is applicable to

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature all genres without any restriction of time, culture or geographical boundaries.

References Allen, R. C. (1992), Channels of Discourse Reassembled (2. Ed.). Chapel Hill: North Caroline University Press.

Berger, A. A. (1981), “Semiotics and Television”. In R. P. Adler (Ed.), Understanding Television: Essays on Television as a Social Cultural Force (pp. 91-114). New York: Praeger.

Ellis, J. (1982), Visible Fictions: Cinema, Television, Video. London, Boston and Henley: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Fiske, J. (1987), Television Culture. London and New York: Methuen.

Hansen, A., Cottle, S., Negrine, R., Newbold, C. (1998), Mass Communication Research Methods. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.

Kıran, A., & Kıran, Z. (2003), Yazınsal Okuma Süreçleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.

Kozloff, S. (1992), “Narrative Theory and Television”. In R. C. Allen, Channels of Discourse Reassembled (pp. 67 100). (2. Ed.). Chapel Hill & London: University of North Carolina Press.

Lévi-Strauss, C. (1966), The Savage Mind London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

Miller, W. (1993), Senaryo Yazımı, Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, No: 733.

Parsa, S., & Parsa, A. F. (2002), Göstergebilim Çözümlemeleri. İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi.

Propp, V. (1973), Morphology of the Folktale. University of Texas Press.

Propp V. (1989), Morphology of the Folk Tale. Translated by Media Kashigar, 1st edition. Tehran: NasharRouz.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Propp V. (1992), The Historical Roots of Fairy Tales. Translated by FeredoonBadrei, 1st edition. Tehran: Tous publications.

Propp, V. (1985), Masalın Biçimbilimi. İstanbul: Bfs Yayınları.

Perrualt, C. (2008), Cinderella: www.pitt.edu/~dash/perrault06.htm: Retrived 10:00a.m. 8-06-2017

Qalandar, M. (2012), Sohni Mahiwal pakistaniaat.org/index.php/pak/article/download/241/240: Retrieved at 1:00a.m. Date 10-6-2017

Silverstone, R. (1981), The Message of Television: Myth And Narrative In Contemporary Culture. London: Heinemann Educational Books.

Story, O. (2012), Projection, Identification, Empathy, Imitation, and Imagination are important processes. Appendix 1 The 31 Functions of Propp’s Model

S# Functions Sohni Mahiwal Cinderella

0 Initial Situation √ √

1 Absentation √ √

2 Interdiction √ √

3 Violation √ √

4 Reconnaissance √ √

5 Delivery √ √

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6 Trickery 0 √

7 Complicity 0 √

7a Preliminary misfortune

Villainy 8 √ √ Lack 8a √ √

9 Mediation √ 0

10 Beginning encounter 0 0

Departure 11 √ √

12 1st function of the Donor √ 0

13 Hero’s reaction 0 0

14 Provision of magical agent 0 0

15 Guidance 0 0

Struggle 16 0 0

Branding 17 √ √

Victory 18 √ √

Liquidation of lack √ 19 0

Return √ 20 0

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Pursuit √ 21 0

Rescue from pursuit √ 22 0

Unrecognized arrival √ 23 0

Unfolded claim √ 24 0

Difficult task √ 25 0

Solution 26 √ √

Recognition √ 27 0

Exposure √ 28 0

Transfiguration 29 0 0

Punishment 30 0 0

Wedding/Ending 31 0 √

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature Learner Autonomy: Pakistani Learners’ Perceptions, Attitudes, Motivation and Challenges Muhammad Zubair Aslam

Musarat Yasmin

Abstract Learner autonomy has drawn much interest from educationists and researchers around the world both in terms of second language acquisition as well as students’ learning orientation, classroom organization, and personal development. Classroom teaching in Pakistan has long so been teacher-centred that, even at the level of higher education, it is widely in practice resulting in a low quality of learning outcomes. This study aims at investigating learner autonomy in higher education in Punjab. The purpose is to examine the students’ views, attitudes and their orientation to the learning approach that they take on to develop and strengthen their knowledge. Firstly, through their views, the particular focus was to investigate whether teachers endeavour for the promotion of autonomy. Secondly, it has also attempted to determine the major challenge to independent learning. The study, therefore, also examined the gender differences in terms of learner autonomy. The data instrument was a structured questionnaire consisting of fifteen items on the attitude scale, the Likert-scale. Sixty students comprising an equal number of both genders from the University of Gujrat were sampled. Therefore, this paper finds out that both the teachers and the students have positive attitudes towards autonomy and active involvement in its promotion. Because learners at the university level can have better learning opportunity within teacher-supervised autonomy, this can improve their learning skills far better than doing everything on their instructors’ disposal. Challenges, i.e. marking system and fixed course outlines are present, but teachers have their commitment to promoting learner autonomy.

Keywords: Learner autonomy, learning orientation, attitudes, Pakistan, Punjab, higher education

1. Introduction Opposite to the concept of ‘scaffolding’ from Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is the concept of learner’s autonomy which lays stress on the independence of learners and which is also getting the considerable 145

Department of English, University of Gujrat attention from the researchers. According to Allwright (1988), the concept of learner autonomy was previously mainly linked with the move away from the traditional teaching style for new styles of teaching intending to introduce new methods. However, the present-day learner autonomy has got some different definitions. For instance, Holec (1981) has defined it as the ability to take charge of one’s own learning. The concept has gained much popularity among language teachers during the past couple of decades. Sometimes, the use of the concept of “learner autonomy” for different purposes has also lead to a situation in which it is, as Little (2003) has asserted, “widely confused with self-instruction.” This study, then, has applied the Littlewood’s (1997) model that comprised three levels but operating under one level the “learning approach” in the frame of reference of classroom organization. Meanwhile, it is widely believed that, as Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012) have argued, learners autonomy is the way to achieve improvement in the quality of language learning as well as enabling learners to make optimum use of “learning opportunities in and out of class.” Various models have also been proposed for it. For example, Nunan's (1997) model, which discussed five levels of autonomy, was related to language learning. However, Littlewood (1996) presented three levels of autonomy in his model.

The educational system in Pakistan, on the other hand, is highly teacher- centered along with instruction in traditional methods which compels students to do nothing but merely be the passive listeners who, later on, are evaluated solely by written tests and exams. Subsequently, like other Asian countries, it is an indication that learner autonomy is a little appreciative on the part of students in Pakistan (Nguyen, 2014). This study, thus, aims at evaluating the attitudes of the students of higher education towards learner autonomy among university students in the Punjab where the process of teaching, as well as learning, has long been taking place in the teacher- centered setting. Furthermore, it also identifies the variation among attitudes of both sexes. The rationale for this study was the latest fashion in students’ attitude about their learning in which they are but do not want to be bound by the instructors’ teaching methods and material merely acting as passive entities. Although the major trigger behind this can presumably be traced back to technological advancement due to which students or learners of the present time have far better access to a zone that is full of

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature development, the other strand in this theoretical framework can also assume to be the increasing development of students interest in learning, as Gremmo and Riley (1995) claimed that there are some additional key factors other than technological advancement and development in education.

1.1 Questions and Objectives Based on the perception of the students’ views and perception, therefore, this study intends to seek answers to the following questions:

1. What are the attitudes of university students towards learner autonomy and their awareness about being autonomous in their learning? 2. What are the challenges to learner autonomy for learners at the university level? 3. Do male and female students exhibit a difference in the level of autonomy?

Hence, also, the objectives of this study can be described are to determine the university students’ autonomy in learning at public sector universities of the Punjab, to find out the challenges in learner autonomy for learners at the university level and to find out if there are differences in the level of autonomy for male and female students.

1.2 Rationale and Significance The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan instructed all the public sector universities to abandon the two-year graduation (BA/BSC/B.COM) and master (M.A/M.SC) programs and replace them with the four year BS program by 2019. Majority of the universities, therefore, shifted their focus from two-year programs to four-year programs in 2017. So, as mentioned in the introduction section that the Educational system in Pakistan - especially up to the secondary level- is highly teacher-centered, therefore, it was the need of the time that the studies must be done in order to make a smooth transition and to minimize the problem from school career to the university career because having been brought up an educational career that highly differs from that designed for higher education poses challenges not only to the learners but also to the teachers. Thus, studies like the present one can help in figuring out remedies for the present and expected challenges.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Thus, to make an effective and smooth transition from the teacher-centered environment to the student or learner-centered, this study can help in making a shift toward the latter by highlighting the benefits of leaners autonomy and by promoting it at the higher education level. Therefore, the practical implications of this study would, especially, be helpful both on the part of teachers and that of learners as well. Also, this work is intended to help instructors at higher education level in comprehending the effectiveness of learner autonomy in universities, and also in developing, maintaining and promoting it for better educational outcomes.

2. Literature Review Little (2009) has claimed that, back in the 1980s, the learner was interpreted as the self-learning in adult education but now it is viewed as a matter of learners doing things not necessarily on their own but for themselves with the emergence of learner-centered theories. A seminal contribution to the work in the field of learner autonomy is attributed to Holec (1981) who pioneered this term in the “Council of Europe’s Modern Language Project,” and his definition is the essence of learner autonomy. Benson (2007) claims that Holec’s definition is an “attribute of learners, rather than learning situations” (p.22). However, numerous definitions without a single theory are available, and researchers have portrayed it differently. Nevertheless, it is established that variation is a matter of linguistics only.

In recent times across the world, learner autonomy has received increasing interest in its application as a theory not only in learning of language but also in teaching (Benson, 2013). Benson further notes that the contribution of literature during after the beginning of the 21st century was larger than that published during the two and a half decades before 2000. According to Little, learner autonomy benefits three major areas: the effectiveness in learning in immediate and long-term contexts, the minimization of barrier between the learner and living, and ultimately turning the learners into useful and active individuals in a society. Sakai, Takagi, and Chu (2010) studied learner autonomy in the language classroom by taking a sample from various colleges and university in Japan and Taiwan. They had a reasonable sample that consisted of 902 students. The results of their study noted that there is a difference in learner autonomy among male and female students in that latter are more autonomous than the former.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature However, Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012) conducted a recent and comprehensive study of learner autonomy. This study highlighted some salient and interlinked aspects of the concepts involving the nature of “learner autonomy,” teachers’ roles in its promotion, constraints on it concerning individual and institutional, social and individual perspective, and kinds of encouraging opportunities in learning that autonomy can offer. They used a mixed method – both an interview of twenty teachers and a questionnaire consisting approximately fifty items, with a five-point Likert- scale, which as they described were theme around the concepts of psychological, social, technical, political perspectives, the age and proficiency of learner, teacher role, the efficiency relation between learner and language - to draw their results. Through an experiment in her research, (Nguyen, 2012) investigated teachers’ role in promoting “learner autonomy” through the use of learner-autonomy-related teaching practices to understand it. Her research resulted in that the development of an autonomous culture in learning is contingent on the teacher.

Previously research showed some challenges in promoting learner autonomy. These challenges were of several types. Most common among those were psychological or dispositional, institutional, situational and socio-cultural (Yasmin & Sohail, 2018b). Saar, Täht, and Roosalu (2014) found institutional constraints as less challenging and easy to remove by the educational system as compared to psychological or cultural constraints. Most of the constraints were also found in overlapping. Learner related constraints such as learner dependence were found both psychological but also the effects of cultural structures (Yasmin, Sohail, Sarkar, & Hafeez, 2017).

Moreover, institutional constraints such as entrance exams found in Nakata (2011), examination system, traditional teaching practices and educational policies found in Yasmin and Sohail (2018a) and Nasri, Dastjerdy, Rasekh, and Amirian's (2015) research led to low level of proficiency and lack of motivation. The review of literature highlighted that above researcher explored the constraints through teachers’ voices. It is important to examine the perceptions of the main stakeholders-the students to study the prospects of learner autonomy. Present study intended to study learners’ perceptions at the university level. As girls have shown greater and better performance in education in Pakistan, this study also focuses on gender differences. 149

Department of English, University of Gujrat Gender differences were also explored by Sakai et al. (2010) in their research. Therefore, presuming that there exist differences, the investigation of the relationship of autonomy in gender differences can help in pedagogy and render some assistance to the promotion of autonomy.

3. Methodology This research follows the quantitative approach of research to seek answer under investigation. The instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire with a Likert scale with five answers for the respondents to choose from.

3.1 Research Design and Instrumentation This research employed the quantitative methods of study and used descriptive statistics for the analysis and interpretation of the data. The main tool for the collection of the primary data of the study was the questionnaire (see appendix). This close-ended structured questionnaire consisted of 18 statements that were designed to investigate (a) the students’ awareness about autonomy, (b) their attitude towards autonomy, (c) its promotion, and (d) challenges to autonomy. The questionnaire was maximally minimized in length and format. Consisting of two pages, there were three sections; the introduction to the present research, variable information (semester, gender, educational level, previous schooling, and educational field), general and specific instructions, and the statements/questions.

The questionnaire originally had 23 items which were reduced to 18 after having it piloted. After the reliability test, further three items were deleted to increase the reliability score of the test. The reliability score, then, was .640.

Table 1. Reliability score of the instrument Cronbach's Cronbach's Alpha Based on Alpha Standardized Items N of Items .640 .646 15

It was intended to measure the four constructs. First, five items on the questionnaire were meant to measure the students’ awareness (were related to cognition) about learner autonomy. Item 6 was about behavioural construct whereas item 7 and 9 were about students’ attitude about learner autonomy. Item 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 were about the promotion of

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature autonomy. These were intended to measure teachers’ attitude (from the perspective of the students) towards learner autonomy. Item 8 and last item (15) were concerned with the measurement of the challenge to autonomy.

3.2 Participants The sampling framework of this research was a non-probability convenient method. The target population of this study was the university students in Punjab. The accessible population was the students of the University of Gujrat, Gujrat (Pakistan). Out of this accessible population, 60 students from arts and sciences were taken using convenience sampling technique. However, most of the sample consisted of students of English. The sample was comprised of students from an equal number of male and female students. An equal proportion of students of both sexes were sampled as this study also hypothesized that, in terms of the autonomy of the students, there is a difference between male and female students. Cumulative percentage of undergraduates in the study was 66.7, and it was 33.3 for graduates.

The participants were requested to fill out the questionnaire. Upon their acceptance, they were handed over to the groups with three to five individuals. The larger groups were not selected because the researcher expected that the participants would give some serious considerations when they knew he is sitting with them and also to help them out in case they wanted some clarification about any point. They were briefed with some preliminary introduction to the research following instructions about filling out the questionnaire.

3.3 Method of Analysis A total of 66 questionnaires were got filled out by the participants of both genders (male/female) and educational level (BS/MS). However, only sixty questionnaires were considered. Four questionnaires had missing values for items while two questionnaires were rejected because the participants seemed to have filled them carelessly (i.e. they were almost all agreed or disagreed).

The data were analyzed using SPSS 25. The results have been explained through descriptive statistics. Then, items were categorized under five headings and explained the results verbally along with the presentation of mean scores and standard deviations. The reliability test was also conducted 151

Department of English, University of Gujrat on the instrument. Finally, a T-test was used to get the differences between male and female students. Research ethics about the anonymity of the respondents and the information they provided were followed while ensuring the collection of data. No personal information such as name, age, etc. was asked. Also, there was no clue on the questionnaire that could lead even the researcher back to them.

4. Results and discussion This part presents the research findings and their interpretations. Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics and shows an overview of the findings. Following that, the interpretations have been provided in line with the division of theoretical constructs set earlier during the development of instrumentation.

Table. 2 An overview of the findings Sr. Std. Statements N Min Max Mean No. Deviation 1 I understand what 60 1 5 3.48 .930 learner autonomy means

2 Independence in 60 1 5 3.13 1.186 learning means that I have to learn everything on my own.

3 Independence in 60 1 5 3.57 1.198 learning is when a student is allowed to decide how to learn and where to learn.

4 Learning on my own 60 1 5 4.03 .843 gives me the chance to use better learning opportunities.

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature 5 I can monitor my own 60 1 5 3.87 .853 learning; I know how much I can and have learned on my own.

6 I learn only from that 60 1 5 2.73 1.326 material (notes, books) which the teacher gives me to learn from.

7 It brings me confidence 60 1 5 4.23 .927 when I learn things on my own.

8 Independent learning 60 1 5 3.52 1.157 cannot take place without the help of a teacher.

9 Teachers allow me to 60 1 5 3.58 1.169 learn independently by making my own choices about how to learn.

10 Teachers appreciate me 60 1 5 4.03 1.221 when I contribute my own learning during class lectures.

11 Teachers encourage me 60 1 5 3.67 1.174 to learn outsides the boundaries of syllabus/outline.

12 Teachers give us 60 1 5 3.75 1.052 activities that help us with independent learning.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat 13 Group activities help me 60 1 5 3.50 1.384 with independent learning.

14 The marking system of 60 1 5 3.60 1.405 exam stops me to learn independently by not allowing me to use my resources.

15 The learning should not 60 1 5 3.80 1.132 be confined to the classroom.

4.1 Awareness The first five statements surveyed the students’ awareness of the concept of ‘learner autonomy’ as a mental representation. These items attempted to find out whether students are, implicitly or explicitly, aware of being independent in their learning and their efforts for self-learning.

The purpose of these statements (figure 1) was to find whether students in universities are aware of the concept of autonomy. The mean score (3.48) for the first statement gives us the positive answer and shows that students considerably understand – or at least know – learner autonomy as they were supposed to have an understanding about it. The next two statements (figure 1) analyzed their perception about the learner autonomy, for example, whether they see it as an entirely self-responsibility (statement 2) and whether students have the opportunity to decide on the learning methods and sources of their own (statement 3). With this, it could become apparent which situation they hold ideal for themselves. Therefore, the mean scores for statement 2, which is 3.13, is towards the positive side of the attitudinal scale and give us the finding that students appreciation and enthusiasm about making efforts to learn on their own. However, statement 3, which has a mean score of 3.57, has a considerably high score than statement 2. This, consequently, propounds that, instead of doing everything in the learning process on their own, they have high regard when teachers allow them to

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature choose their own sources for more knowledge. To illustrate in other words, guided autonomy has a preference for them.

The fourth statement in this construct measures whether the independence in learning provides them with the chance to utilize the present-day learning resources more efficiently and beneficially. The mean score for this statement is 4.03 which is a considerable score toward the positive side on the scale. This indicates that being independent in their learning provides university learners with better learning opportunities. Finally, the fifth and last statement in this construct examines the learners’ ability to check the progress of their learning and acquisition of knowledge when they learn entirely on their own, or in the second case; they have the option to learn on their own. The response score for this is 3.87 which is also a positive attitude to their cognitive awareness about learner autonomy. Therefore, being able to monitor their learning is useful to decide whether they should keep on or stop.

Figure 1. Measurement of awareness construct 155

Department of English, University of Gujrat Gender Differences. The T-test indicates that the difference was insignificant between the two sexes in statement 3 and 4 of the awareness construct. The differences (figure 2) surfaced in statement 3 and 4, which were about deciding on resources for learning and having a chance to employ better learning opportunities, indicate that male and female students have a different stance about being independent in their learning choices. Learning choices in this sense are, not explicitly but rather implicitly, controlled by the learners’ ZPD (zone of proximal development) which directly influences the learners’ choices (such as online lectures, tutorials, forums, book consultation etc.) as those who have exposure to a wide range of learning resources would definitely prefer employing the available options. Having these difference among the male and female students also reflects that students have a significant awareness of learner autonomy. The more they are aware of it, the more varied opinions will show up. Besides, this awareness plays a significant and beneficial role in the educational ends.

Figure 2. T-test for gender differences in the construct ‘awareness’

4.2 Behaviour Measuring merely the attitudes of the learners would not be sufficient to account for how they go along with being independent in learning. For this, the sixth statement measures the students’ behaviour towards autonomy through their act by examining whether they learn from the material that every teacher gives them or they just confine themselves to content

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Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature boundaries. The score for this was 2.73 (see figure 3) which is below 3 and, therefore, exhibits the negative response. In other words, more than fifty percent students, appear to be autonomous in their learning style. This behavioural pattern of the learners reflects that either they make or they have to make explicit efforts to achieve the learning tasks assigned. For that, the majority of them have consulted other available resources – which clearly shows their self-struggle and therefore and is related to autonomy.

Figure 3. Measure of behaviour construct Gender Differences. T-test score (.280) in behaviour construct shows that the difference between the behaviour of the students of both sexes is significant as it was measured 0.280. Thus, this variation among the male and female learners indicates their learning styles which are directly related to their autonomy. As figure (3) shows, female learners make fewer efforts to learn to depend merely on the material given to them by their instructors in the form of a specific book or notes of the lectures. Comparatively, male learners exhibited less agreement to this statement as their mean score is lower (figure 3) than that of female learners. This indicates that male students make more efforts to use other resources as compared to female students.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat 4.3 Attitude Attitudes are developed with exposure to or experiences with something. Three statements (figure 4) were used to measure the student’s attitude about learner autonomy. For example, statement 7 examines the outcome attitude of learner autonomy in students. The mean score (4.23) of this item was significantly high to the positive side of scale shows (figure 4). The result indicates if they are allowed to learn independently, they have comparatively more confidence for learning on their own. By this, their skills can become more improved as compared to the otherwise situation.

Since teachers’ play, a vital role in students learning, autonomy without the teachers’ support can be misleading and disastrous. Therefore, to find out how significant the teachers are in this regard, statement 8 examined the teacher’s role in autonomy in learning. The positive mean score 3.52 (figure 4) concludes that independence in learning is sufficiently dependent on teacher’ role. Without the assistance of teachers, learner autonomy cannot take place or cannot be as fruitful as it should be. Therefore, teachers play a critical role in this regard and the learner understands their importance.

The analysis of this construct indicates the significance of being independent in learning as it allows the learners to be confident in learning as well as acquiring new information. Confidence and learning on their own is also an important tool with which the students must be equipped as it not only reduces teachers’ load, but the learners are also able to learn more on their own. When the teacher becomes indispensable for a learner, it becomes a kind of barrier for him/her because the learners are unable to use their potential.

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Figure 4. Measure of attitude construct in leaner autonomy Gender Differences. T-test (figure 5) in this construct shows that both genders also vary in their attitude about whether or not independent learning can occur without the help of a teacher. The gender difference in this construct is only significant in statement 8 as the T-test result is 0.224 which indicates that male and female students vary in their opinion about the attitude about the role of the teacher in autonomy. The mean score of the answers from the male respondents is 3.32 whereas the score from the female respondents is 3.69. This indicates that female students have a high opinion about the teachers’ role in learner autonomy.

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Figure 5. T-test for gender differences in the construct "attitude"

4.4 Promotion/motivation The absence of motivation can surely be a challenge to learner autonomy. Referring to the interpretation of statement 9 (see section 0), there is a positive response that autonomy in learning is dependent on the role of teacher but how teachers play their role was examined through statement 10 to 14. These items are about the promotion of “learner autonomy.”

For example, statement 10 and 11 have a positive mean score of 3.58 and 4.03 respectively. This gives the interpretation of the teacher’s role in promoting autonomy. The scores of these two items reflect that teachers promote autonomy not only by permitting students to make their choices about the learning sources but they also have a positive attitude to it by appreciating their students’ being independent in their learning. Also, the positive mean score 3.67 (figure 6) of statement 12, shows teachers contribution in trying to remove the syllabus-related difficulty which often prohibits learners’ independence. The flexibility in syllabic boundaries carries promotion to students’ autonomy in learning.

Further steps to the promotion of autonomy also involve some strategic aspects. For instance, the positive mean scores 3.75 and 3.50 for the item 13

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Figure 6. measure of construct “promotion of autonomy”

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Gender difference. A t-test of this construct shows that the difference among the male and female learners is significant in just statement 12 “Teachers encourage me to learn outsides the boundaries of syllabus/outline.” The mean score of responses from the male students is 3.86 whereas that of female students is 3.66 (figure 7). This shows that male students are comparatively surer than female students about the inclusion of certain activities intended at enhancing learning skill and thus promoting autonomy during the teaching span.

Figure 7. T-test for gender differences in the construct

4.5 Challenges Marking system in the examination and the confinement of teaching to classroom sources are often the great hurdles to learner autonomy. Therefore, to see the learners’ perspective, statement 14 and 15 (see figure 8) on the questionnaire were about these challenges. They were intended to see whether certain restrictions exist as challenges.

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Figure 8. Measure of the challenge to autonomy Both of these statements got a positive response. The mean scores for statement 14 and 15 were 3.50 and 3.43 respectively (figure 8). These scores, thus, show that the marking system and the teacher-centered study are still the main challenges to autonomy and present finding resonate with previous results (Yasmin & Sohail, 2017, 2018b).

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Gender Differences. T-test scores of the statements related to challenges point out differences between the two sexes in statement 15 “The learning should not be confined to the classroom”. This mean score (3.75) for the responses from the female respondents shows that more female prefer the teaching not to be limited to only the classroom boundaries in the sense that there should be other opportunities for learning.

Figure 9. T-test for gender differences in "challenges"

4.6 Summary of Results a) The students appear to be aware of the concept of learner autonomy, its applicability, and usefulness for the educational career. b) The majority believes that they should be independent in deciding the sources to learn from, but they also believe that the ideal situation is a method in which they are allowed to autonomous but under the supervision of the teachers. To put it in another brief way, the teacher-guided autonomy in leaning has a preference for them. c) Learner autonomy is a way of giving the higher education students the opportunity to utilize the several present-day resources to gain maximum learning objectives and goals. d) Despite the present situation in which they have to follow a fixed course outline, more than sixty percent of students do not merely rely on the instructor and the content provided. e) Being independent in learning brings great confidence among students and also improves their skills.

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5. Findings and Conclusion This study attempted to examine the students’ independence in learning at the level of higher education in universities o Punjab. The questions that it tried to seek answers for were about learners’ attitudes and challenges regarding learner autonomy promotion. It has also tried to find out the difference of autonomy in learning among male and female students. The study found out the students of higher education in Punjab are well-aware about learner autonomy and strive to be independent in their learning and reject the methods that are traditional and teacher-centered. It is not appreciative of them to be completely dependent on the teachers. Instead, they make their own contributed efforts to make use of their creative abilities and modern resources to keep up with the present-day world in terms of education. As a result, this enables these learners to maintain a required level of monitoring to their learnings. Further, the behavioural style of students shows their opposition to traditional, worn-out, and teacher-centered methods of learning.

This study has also observed that teachers play a pivotal role in learner autonomy. They actively try to engage in its promotion by indirectly, sometimes directly, motivating their students. This results in bringing confidence in students by not driving them to rely on teachers for whatever they have to learn. Thus, the degree of freedom in the form of learner autonomy establishes a beneficial and strong relationship between the instructors and the learners. However, the marking system in the examination and the focus on instructor-centered instruction are the prominent barriers to the efficacy of learner autonomy. The future researcher is encouraged to direct their research to learner autonomy by incorporation of the perspectives of both the instructors and learners. The combined account of these two will help in more accurate results along with deeper insights into it.

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Department of English, University of Gujrat Recommendations: It is recommended for the future researchers who intend to address research on learner autonomy to interview the students to dig out more details that can help the university teachers. Secondly, it was a single-dimensional study that did not gather data from the teachers. Therefore, it is highly recommended that the university teachers’ attitudes about learner autonomy must also be studied. The result of those studies with incorporation of the present study would make the panorama clearer and the findings reinforced. These results combined can, then, be tested in the ESL classrooms to better the English language skills of university students. References

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Yasmin, M., & Sohail, A. (2017). Realizing Learner Autonomy in Pakistan: EFL Teachers’ Beliefs about Their Practices. International Journal of English Linguistics, 8(2), 153. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n2p153

Yasmin, M., & Sohail, A. (2018a). A Creative Alliance Between Learner Autonomy and English Language Learning: Pakistani university teachers’ beliefs. Creativity Studies, 11(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3846/23450479.2017.1406874

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1.1 T-test Results Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Sig. t df (2-tailed) I understand what learner autonomy .405 58 .687 means Independence in learning means that -.593 58 .555 I have to learn everything on my own. Independence in learning is when a - 58 .089 student is allowed to decide how to 1.727 learn and where to learn. Learning on my own gives me the 1.575 58 .121 chance to use better learning opportunities. I can monitor my own learning; I .221 58 .826 know how much I can and have learned on my own. I learn only from that material (notes, - 58 .284 books) which teacher gives me to 1.081 learn from. It brings me confidence when I learn .685 58 .496 things on my own. The learning should not be confined - 58 .054 to the classroom. 1.966 Independent learning cannot take - 58 .224 place without the help of teacher. 1.228 Teachers allow me to learn .810 58 .422 independently by making my own choices about how to learn. Teachers appreciate me when I -.407 58 .686 contribute my own learning during class lectures. 169

Department of English, University of Gujrat Teachers encourage me to learn - 58 .215 outsides the boundaries of 1.255 syllabus/outline. Teachers give us activities that help .735 58 .465 us in independent learning. Group activities help me in .000 58 1.000 independent learning. The marking system of exam stops -.883 58 .381 me to learn independently by not allowing me to use my own resources.

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