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The Occurrence of Red and Yellow Autumn Leaves Explained by Regional Differences in Insolation and Temperature

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The Occurrence of Red and Yellow Autumn Leaves Explained by Regional Differences in Insolation and Temperature Review Tansley review The occurrence of red and yellow autumn leaves explained by regional differences in insolation and temperature Authors for correspondence: Susanne S. Renner1 and Constantin M. Zohner2 Susanne S. Renner 1 2 Tel: +49 89 17861 250 Systematic Botany and Mycology, University of Munich (LMU), Menzinger Str. 67, Munich 80638, Germany ; Institute of Email: [email protected] Integrative Biology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland Constantin M. Zohner Email: [email protected] Received: 19 January 2019 Accepted: 24 April 2019 Contents Summary 1464 IV. The adaptive value of colour-changing leaves 1468 I. Introduction 1464 V. Outlook 1469 II. Phylogenetic and geographical occurrence of autumn colour Acknowledgements 1469 change 1465 References 1470 III. Physiological functions of autumnal leaf xanthophylls and anthocyanins 1466 Summary New Phytologist (2019) 224: 1464–1471 Red or yellow autumn leaves have long fascinated biologists, but their geographical doi: 10.1111/nph.15900 concentration in trees in Eastern North America (ENA) has defied evolutionary explanations. In this review, anthocyanins and xanthophylls are discussed in relation to their occurrence in Key words: adaptive explanation, different regions of the Northern Hemisphere, phylogenetic distribution and photoprotective anthocyanins, photo-oxidative damage, function during the breakdown of chlorophylls. Pigments in senescing leaves that intercept regional climates, solar irradiation, incident light and dissipate the absorbed energy extend the time available for nutrient resorption. xanthophylls. Experiments with Arabidopsis have revealed greatest anthocyanin photoprotective function at low temperatures and high light intensities, and high-resolution solar irradiation maps reveal that ENA and Asia receive higher irradiation than does Europe. In addition, ENA experiences higher temperature fluctuations in autumn, resulting in cold snaps during leaf senescence. Under common garden conditions, chlorophyll degradation occurs earlier in ENA species than in their European and East Asian relatives. In combination, strong solar irradiation, temperature fluctuations and, on average, 3-wk shorter vegetation periods of ENA species favour investment in pigments to extend the time for nutrient resorption before abscission, explaining the higher frequency of coloured species in ENA compared to Europe. We end by outlining research that could test this new explanation of bright New England autumns. followed by the eventual shedding of most leaves. During this I. Introduction process, plastid-located carotenoid pigments (xanthophylls), pre- In the temperate zone, decreasing day length and cold temperatures sent throughout the year but initially masked by Chl, become induce the breakdown of leaf chlorophyll (Chl) during senescence, visible. These pigments play a major role in deactivating the Chl 1464 New Phytologist (2019) 224: 1464–1471 Ó 2019 The Authors www.newphytologist.com New Phytologist Ó 2019 New Phytologist Trust New Phytologist Tansley review Review 1465 3 * 1 * triplet state ( Chl ) and singlet oxygen ( O2 ) formed during light (a) (b) excitation and help dissipate excess light energy (Ruban et al., 2002). The Chl breakdown process often is accompanied by the synthesis of vacuole-located anthocyanin pigments that also have a protective function against excess light and reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Chalker-Scott, 1999; Close & Beadle, 2003; Lee et al., 2003; Gould et al., 2018; Xu & Rothstein, 2018). During the past 20 yr, the possible adaptive value of yellow- or red-coloured autumn leaves has attracted the interest of both physiologist and evolutionary biologists. Indeed, Lev-Yadun & Holopainen (2009) mention that over 80 papers have discussed the adaptive value of autumn colouration. A review of autumn colour change published 10 yr ago, based on Fig. 1 Autumn leaves of the Asian species Cornus kousa (a) and the North- a meeting, ended on ‘the uncomfortable fact that there seem to be American Vaccinium corymbosum (b) showing that anthocyanin production more hypotheses, and more published reviews and opinion pieces, is sun-induced. Shaded parts of leaves remained yellow due to the lack of on the subject of red leaf colouration than sources of good anthocyanin, whereas sun-exposed parts turned red. Feild et al. (2001) experimental data’ (Ougham et al., 2008, p. 13). Over the past observed a similar pattern in Cornus stolonifera. Photos: E. I. Arndt. decade, better data have become available on the phylogenetic and geographical distribution of the phenomenon of autumn coloura- Holopainen, 2009). We end by laying out a new explanation for tion, the pathway of Chl degradation and the protection of why leaf colouration is more critical for North American and Asian senescing cells from oxidative damage (Archetti, 2009; Lev-Yadun woody species than for European species. We also outline further & Holopainen, 2009; Landi et al., 2015; Viola et al., 2016; Gould research that could clarify the adaptive value of red and yellow et al., 2018). These data prompted us to revisit the function and leaves, and the role played by regional temperature and irradiation evolution of autumn colouration. differences that affect the phenological behaviour of long-lived A key aspect of Chl breakdown is the recycling of nutrients, woody plants. especially the nitrogen (N)-rich proteins in the organellar cell walls (Matile et al., 1999; Keskitalo et al., 2005). Nutrient resorption II. Phylogenetic and geographical occurrence of needs a functioning metabolism, which in turn requires that cells be autumn colour change protected from oxidative damage when photons are no longer fully used in photosynthesis. This sets up the expectation that autumn Transplantation experiments have shown that individuals maintain colouration should be especially important under environmental their autumn colour change when grown in different places conditions of high light intensities and low temperatures, damaging (Archetti et al., 2009), and many predictably colour-changing senescing leaves (Fig. 1). This expectation can now be tested against cultivars are available commercially, implying a strong genetic basis ‘big data’ temperature and irradiation maps that provide high- for patterns of autumn colour change. Even so, before 2009, there resolution measurements on the long-term monthly averages of were no data on the phylogenetic distribution of autumn leaf temperatures and solar irradiation in North America, Europe and colours. In that year, Archetti (2009) compiled the autumn leaf Asia, the continental regions most relevant to the topic of autumn colours of 2368 tree species from 400 temperate zone genera, colouration in arborescent species. In combination, the new including both deciduous and evergreen groups, and then recon- climate and irradiation data, experiments on the environmental structed the evolutionary origin of red and yellow autumn leaves conditions under which anthocyanins are most beneficial for using the 567-taxon phylogeny of Soltis et al. (2007) and standard senescing leaves (Gould et al., 2018), the relative frequencies of red, parsimony reconstruction. Archetti categorized species as having yellow and noncoloured leaves in different regions of the World, (or not) green, yellow or red autumn leaves, and for a few also and common garden experiments on Chl breakdown in Northern distinguished yellow-orange, brown-yellow-orange, yellow-red Hemisphere species (Zohner & Renner, 2017; Zohner et al., 2017) and other combinations. He found red autumn leaves in 290 have led to a new framework for an adaptive understanding of (12%) species from 70 (17.5%) genera and yellow (independent autumn colouration. from red) in 378 (16%) species from 97 genera (24%). The list In this review, we begin with the geographical and phylogenetic includes hundreds of nondeciduous species (e.g. 125 species of distribution of autumn colour change, summarize current phys- Rhodendron,53ofPinus, numerous Cupressus, Cotoneaster) as well iological understanding of the function of anthocyanins and as arctic, temperate and subtropical species. xanthophylls in senescing leaves, and present the arguments in An analysis of autumn colour change in 1308 individuals from support of the photoprotection hypothesis (Gould et al., 1995, 711 deciduous woody species in a common garden in Munich 2018; Feild et al., 2001; Hoch et al., 2001; Wilkinson et al., 2002) (48°090N, 11°300E; 501 m asl) by a team of three observers from and those for bright ‘signalling’ colours as resulting from coevo- September to November 2017, found pure red autumn leaves in lution with herbivorous insects (Archetti, 2000; Hamilton & 5% (32) of the species, yellow and red leaves in 32% (228), and pure Brown, 2001; Archetti & Brown, 2004; Archetti et al., 2009), yellow leaves in 63% (451). There were no deciduous noncolour- including extinct herbivore–plant interactions (Lev-Yadun & changing species. In combination these data show that – as pointed Ó 2019 The Authors New Phytologist (2019) 224: 1464–1471 New Phytologist Ó 2019 New Phytologist Trust www.newphytologist.com New 1466 Review Tansley review Phytologist out by Archetti (2009, p. 707) – coloured senescing leaves are rare III. Physiological functions of autumnal leaf in flowering plants and gymnosperms overall, and it ‘should not be xanthophylls and anthocyanins taken for granted that they are a normal side-effect of leaf senescence’. However, in
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