History Alexandria to : The Human Tragedy of the Interstate Slave Trade

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Four-Part Series Published October, 2014 in the Alexandria Gazette Packet. Donald Sweig, who retired in 2002 after more than 27 years as the county historian for Fairfax County, holds a Ph.D. in American history from the College of William and Mary. This article is drawn from his earlier scholarly, statistical analysis of the Alexandria-to-New Orleans slave trade, which was awarded the Charles Thomson Prize by the National Archives of the , and The Organization of American His- torians, and from his doctoral dissertation “Northern Virginia Slavery.” He is an occasional contributor to The Connection Newspapers. Sweig www.ConnectionNewspapers.com Alexandria Gazette Packet ❖ October, 2014 ❖ 1 History Alexandria to New Orleans: The Human

By Donald M. Sweig, Ph.D.

This is the first article in a four-part series.

On May 17, 1828, the following adver- tisement appeared in the Alexandria Phenix

Photos by Louise Krafft/Gazette Packet Gazette:

Cash in Market~ The subscribers having leased for a term of years the large three story brick house on Duke Street, in the town of Alexandria, D.C. formerly occupied by Gen. Young, we wish to purchase one hundred and fifty likely young negroes of both sexes, be- tween the ages of 8 and 25 years. Persons who wish to sell will do well to give us a call, as we are de- termined to give more than any other purchasers that are in market, or that may hereafter come into market. Any letters addressed to the subscribers through the Post Office at Alexandria, will be promptly at- tended to. For information, enquire at the above described house, as we can at all times be found there. The historical marker outside 1315 Duke St., now the home his was neither the first nor the of the Northern Virginia Urban last such notice to appear in Al- League Inc. A view inside 1315 Duke St. of the Freedom House Museum that was Texandria or Washington news- formerly part of the slave pens. papers, but it commenced the the 20-year protection provided by the Con- business operations of the most successful stitution. On March 2, 1807, Congress pro- interstate slave-trading operation in the his- hibited further importation of slaves after tory of the United States. Over the next eight Jan. 1, 1808. This same legislation expressly years, in Alexandria pur- allowed the interstate transportation of chased from local planters and slaves providing that duplicate copies of Part 1 farmers, and shipped to his part- manifests listing slaves transported should ner at New Or- be kept and certified by U.S. Customs offi- leans at least 5,000 Virginia and cials. Thus, Franklin and Armfield operated Maryland slaves. Franklin and Armfield, as within the law of the United States. the firm came to be known, were engaged In fact, this statute, by prohibiting impor- in the transportation and sale of slaves tation of slaves, yet allowing the interstate within the United States; in compliance transportation of slaves, combined with a with the law, they did not bring into the surplus of slaves on the worn-out tobacco country any African or West Indian blacks. farms of Virginia and Maryland and a need The international slave trade involving all for more slaves to operate the newly devel- the major nations of Europe as transport- oping cotton and sugar plantations of the ers, much of Africa to supply the slaves, and deep South (, Mississippi, Arkan- both North and South America and the West sas, Alabama, east Texas), a need which Indies as markets for the enslaved blacks could be supplied in no other way, acted to had begun in the middle 15th century and create the interstate trade which was so continued in Cuba and Brazil until nearly profitable for Franklin and Armfield. the middle of the 19th century. In all, be- Location on the Potomac River, in the tween 10 and 15 million blacks were forc- heart of a region with many surplus slaves, ibly transported across the Atlantic Ocean. made the City of Washington and the town Of this number, fewer than 400,000, barely of Alexandria an early transfer point for 4 percent, were imported to all of British buyers and sellers of enslaved African- North America. Nevertheless, this 400,000 Americans. As early as 1802, an Alexandria was sufficient to establish racially based sla- grand jury had complained of the “Griev- very in every British North American colony, ance ... of persons coming from distant parts a situation which persisted in all of the new of the United States into this District for the American states at the time the federal Con- purpose of purchasing slaves.” It referred stitution was adopted. The Constitution, to the “wretchedness and human degrada- reflecting the needs and desires of Carolina tion” of marching black slaves “in our streets and Georgia, prohibited interference with ... loaded with chains as though they had the importation of slaves by the federal con- committed some heinous offence against gress until 1808, a period of 20 years. The our laws.” It lamented that “interposition need for such a prohibition is ample testi- of civil authority cannot be had to prevent mony of the inclination of many of the parents being wrested from their offspring, founding fathers to restrict the slave trade and children from their parents, without at the earliest possible date. respect to ties of nature.” Indeed, , of Fairfax County, opposed the ratification of the Constitution IN 1816, vituperative Virginia congress- Section of a ship’s manifest for a shipment of slaves from John by Virginia because (among other issues) it man John Randolph declaimed against this Armfield, in Alexandria, to Isaac Franklin in New Orleans in March, allowed this “infamous traffic” to continue “nefarious traffic” in the House of Repre- 1832. Each slave was entered on the manifest as to name, height, age, for another 20 years. The importation of sentatives and insisted it was not necessary and complexion, as required by federal law. blacks into the United States barely survived that “this city should be made a depot for Source: National Archives

2 ❖ Alexandria Gazette Packet ❖ October, 2014 www.ConnectionNewspapers.com History Tragedy of the Interstate Slave Trade slaves.” Yet the newspapers continued to Virginia. Armfield later married Franklin’s carry advertisements for the local traders. niece and, in 1828, the two men formed a Samuel J. Dawson, Jesse Bernhard, and partnership to engage in the slave trade. Samuel Meek advertised to buy in John Armfield, who operated the Alexan- Georgetown; John dria end of the busi- W.Smith and E.P. ness, was a careful and Legg were among successful business- those who operated man. He, like his part- at Alexandria. By ner Franklin, is re- the 1830s, James H. puted to have made Birch, William H. over half a million dol- “Yellow House” lars (in 19th-century (from the color of value) in the slave the building where trade. How then did he conducted his this business operate business) Williams, in the City of Alexan- and Joseph W. Neal dria? and Company John Armfield pur- bought slaves in chased slaves at the Washington City, as firm’s “establishment” did numerous on Duke Street from planters who came 1828 until 1836. He to buy for them- not only purchased selves. Alexandria slaves brought to him was soon recog- by farmers and plant- nized as “the best ers, but had agents or Detail from a 19th-century broadside protesting the slave trade in point from which to buyers at Richmond Alexandria. Library of Congress. start both coastwise and Warrenton in Vir- shipments and over- ginia, and at Balti- the Shenandoah of Georgetown and the “bore the character of a gentleman, of fair land coffles.’’ It be- more, Frederick, and Ariel and of Norfolk, often character for integrity and openness in his came “the place Easton in Maryland. sharing these ships with other traders. By dealings, and one who was ever ready to most favored” for The majority of the 1834, they owned four ships of their own; afford any facilities forredressing whatever beginning such slaves were trans- the United States, the Tribune, the Uncas, abuses might grow out of the nature of his journeys. ported to New Orleans and the Isaac Franklin, which was built at business.” George Drinker, an Alexandria Isaac Franklin by ship from October especially for their trade. The Quaker and abolitionist, confirmed this es- was operating as a through April of each ships sailed from Alexandria once a month sentially positive picture of Armfield and slave trader in Mis- year. at first and later once every two weeks. A added that Armfield was very careful to sissippi as early as typical cargo was from fewer than 100 avoid purchasing or transporting free 1819. In 1824, he THE FIRM initially slaves to more than 250, the average being blacks, and often went “to much trouble and met John Armfield used whatever ships a little less than 200. Once a year, during expense ... to keep his business free from driving a stage in were available such as the summer, they transported slaves by every thing that would contravene the “coffle,” or chain gang, overland to Missis- laws.” sippi. The following year, 1835, a Boston aboli- The best descriptions of Franklin and tionist, Professor E. A. Andrews, recorded Armfield’s Alexandria “establishment” come that Armfield had by his efforts to prevent from abolitionist writings of the early 1830s. kidnapping and his honorable mode of deal- Many abolitionists came to Washington to ing “acquired the confidence of all the protest slavery and the slave trade before neighboring country.” In fact, Andrews had the Congress, and several of these men been assured that this reputation extended came across the river to Alexandria, in- even to the Alexandria slave community, spected the slave “prison or jail” on Duke and that when faced with being sold, many Street, and recorded what they saw. By this Alexandria slaves requested that they “be time, Franklin and Armfield were at the sold to Mr. Armfield.” Even so, trading in height of their business. the buying and selling of other human be- The Rev. Joshua Leavitt of New York vis- ings was at all times a nasty and disrepu- ited the “establishment” in late January table business. 1834. Leavitt had been told that Armfield To be continued in next week’s Gazette Packet.

Author Donald Sweig, who retired in 2002 after more than 27 years as the county historian for Fairfax County, holds a Ph.D. in American history from the College of William and Mary. This article is drawn from his ear- lier scholarly, statistical analysis of the Alexandria-to-New Orleans slave trade, which was awarded the Charles Thomson Prize by the National Archives of the United States, and The Organization of American Historians, and from his doctoral dissertation “Northern Virginia Slavery.” He is an occasional con- May 17, 1828, this advertisement appeared in the Alexandria Phenix tributor to The Connection Newspapers. Gazette Sweig www.ConnectionNewspapers.com Alexandria Gazette Packet ❖ October, 2014 ❖ 3 History

The human tragedy of Alexandria to New Orleans the interstate slave trade. By Donald M. Sweig, Ph.D. sports, and others engaged in conversation, which was often interrupted by loud laugh- Continued from last week’s Gazette Packet ter.” Several of the women were clutching young children tightly to themselves, as if ranklin and Armfield’s slave-trad- to prevent any separation. Library of Congress ing “establishment” was located Leavitt was able to visit the Tribune, which Fnear the outskirts of what was was loading at that time in the Alexandria then, in the 1830s, the town of harbor. He was told by Armfield that the Alexandria. The main building was three firm had purchased its own ships to pre- stories, handsomely painted, with green vent overcrowding, which resulted in the blinds. Appended to the main building was slaves becoming sick and arriving at the a large yard, perhaps 300-feet square, en- market “in bad order.” But Armfield was no closed by a high “close board fence” neatly humanitarian. It was to his financial inter- Civil War-era photo of Franklin and Armfield Slave Pen. Showing the whitewashed and filled with numerous est to have the slaves appear fresh and original 1812 main building (on left, three-stories with the two chim- small buildings. Over the door hung a healthy, and John Armfield was a man who neys), the probable kitchen and tailor shop (low building on right with simple sign: “Franklin and protected his interest carefully. two chimneys), and some sort of roofed area of unknown use behind the Part II Armfield.” Inside the fence was The hold of the Tribune was divided into white-washed wall. a high brick wall, also white- two compartments, one to transport about slaves in Alexandria, and those who buy manifest, which had been certified by the washed, with the enclosed 80 women and the other about 100 men. them in New Orleans are respectable,” he Customs Collector at Alexandria, listing courtyard about half covered by a roof. “On either side were two platforms, run- wrote. “Judge (Bushrod) Washington sold each slave by name, age, sex, height, and The pavement inside the wall was re- ning the whole length, one raised a few his slaves from ; ... I have met color. The purpose of this manifest, with a ported to be clean, with a pump in the cen- inches, and the other about half way up to here a minister of the gospel who told me detailed description of each slave onboard, ter to provide an “ample supply of water.” the deck.” On the platforms, which were without remorse that he had bought a slave was to assure that none of the slaves on the In the roofed area was a large table where about 5 1/2 to 6 feet deep, the slaves would and afterwards sold her. A member of one ship were from outside the United States, the slaves ate from tin plates, The fare was lie as closely together as possible. of our Presbyterian churches,” he contin- such as being exchanged for African slaves bread and boiled meat which the abolition- The captain of the Tribune observed that ued, “sold another member of the same at sea. A close analysis of more than 3,500 ist visitors found wholesome in quality and the slaves were not forcibly confined, that church, to go to New Orleans.” Thus, slaves listed on the manifests for 28 ship- sufficient in quantity. The courtyard was he did not even lock his hatchway, but al- Armfield as a facilitator of the trade should ments from 1828 to 1836 provides a unique apparently used only for exercise and meals. lowed the slaves to come on deck as they not, in Leavitt’s view, be singled out for so- insight into just what the trade meant to Otherwise, the men and women were se- pleased, and that he never had the least cial censorship. However, whatever Leavitt’s the African-American slave community from questered separately in cellars, the children difficulty with them. Leavitt, a minister, opinion was of this respectable trader of which Armfield drew his supply. staying with the women. commented that the enslavers should also human beings, closer analysis of John Most of the slaves were young men and The abolitionist visitors also found that not “lock down the hatchways upon the Armfield’s business indicates he was shrewd women apparently without families. Over the slave men were well clothed with shoes mind of the slave, and keep him from a free rather than kind, and that he had his per- 80 percent of the women with children were and stockings, which was apparently the enjoyment of the light of heavenly truth.” sonal profit, not the slaves’ well being, up- without apparent husbands, and most of the Virginia standard. The only raggedly The visit to Alexandria altered Leavitt’s permost in his mind. women appeared to be without husbands clothed boy was from Maryland. “That’s the view of the trade. While adamantly opposed When Franklin and Armfield’s ships ar- or children. Apparently Armfield was will- way they come from Maryland,” Armfield to slavery in all forms, he refused to con- rived in New Orleans, they were required ing to purchase women with children, but said, “you see the difference.” The women demn Armfield. “The very men who sell him to turn in to the Collector of Customs a had few qualms about separating male and girls were also clothed in “coarse but slaves from wives and family. apparently comfortable garments.” Three-quarters of the males and 90 per- In the cellar, both the rooms, which sepa- cent of the females were under the age of rated the slaves by sex, were provided with 25. Nearly half the women were under age fireplaces or stoves for warmth. Next to the 16. This is not surprising, as young single yard was a kitchen where the slaves’ food slaves, the so-called “prime field hands,” was prepared, and a tailor’s shop where the would be easiest to sell and would bring slaves’ clothing was made. Before embark- the best prices at New Orleans. How then ing for New Orleans, each slave was pro- did Armfield assemble such a large propor- vided with two entire sets of clothing from tion of young, single slaves, especially the shop. The visiting Boston abolitionist women? Andrews found the clothing well made of Andrews had been told that women with good materials, with the women’s wardrobe children were harder to sell than those with- showing “considerable taste.” out. Analysis of the slaves that Armfield In the corner of the yard was a hospital, shipped from Alexandria strongly suggests which in January 1834 contained a sick, old that he regularly separated young women woman, whom Armfield had refused to buy, from their children and husbands. The high and a young woman with an infant beside percentage of single males supports this her on a pillow, indicating a recent child- Courtesy Elizabeth Cr view that Armfield did separate both men birth. In July 1835 the hospital was empty. and women from their families in order to Each of the slaves was provided with a blan- procure the young, single individuals who ket which was hung in the sun during the would bring the best price on the New Or- day. Both men also commented on the many leans market. Indeed, an unnamed slave iron bars, door grates, and security bolts to trader whom Andrews met on a Potomac be seen everywhere. This was a clear re- River steamer attested that he often sepa- minder that the blacks were not there by rated African-American slave families. The choice, and that the facility was, in fact, a owell, Ph.D. trader added: “I have often known them to prison. take away the infant from its mother’s breast Most of the slaves appeared to these visi- and keep it, while they sold her.” Although tors to be contented. The Rev. Joshua Leavitt the trader was speaking of his, not could not discover “any indication of de- Armfield’s, experience, Armfield purchased spondency or unhappiness;” Andrews re- Conjectural plan of the Franklin and Armfield “establishment,” on Duke from the same market, and clearly operated ported the slaves “were standing about in Street in Alexandria, ca. 1834. Adapted from original 1980s in a similar manner. groups, some amusing themselves with rude archaeologist’s conjectural plan. To be continued in next week’s Gazette Packet. 4 ❖ Alexandria Gazette Packet ❖ October, 2014 www.ConnectionNewspapers.com History

The human tragedy of Alexandria to New Orleans the interstate slave trade.

By Donald M. Sweig, Ph.D. trade received special condemnation by the Continued from last week’s Gazette Packet. abolitionists. It was thus for good reason that Armfield’s he extent of the forced separa assistant assured the visiting abolitionist tion and sale of young slave chil Andrews, in 1835, that “they were at great Tdren away from their mothers pains to prevent” the separation of families has long been a vexing question, and “to obtain, if possible, whole families. and historians have often been especially .. In one instance,” the clerk continued “they concerned with this issue. In 1931, the his- had purchased, from one estate, more than torian Frederick Bancroft asserted that “the 50, in order to prevent the separation of selling singly of young [black slave] chil- family connections; and in selling them, dren privately and publicly was frequent they had been equally scrupulous to have and notorious.” He added that them continue together.” This had cost the Part III such children were “hardly firm “not less than one or two thousand less than a staple in the [in- dollars, which they might have obtained by terstate slave] trade.” separating them,” as they sold better in In 1975, two American scholars (Robert small lots. It was, the Reverend Leavitt Fogel and Stanley Engerman), utilizing thought, ultimately profitable for the firm computer analysis, declared that this was to lose on an isolated sale” in order to gain not so, that the percentage of black slave National Archives the good will of farmers and planters in children under age 13 sold at New Orleans Photograph of the former Franklin and Armfield “Slave Pen,” during the Maryland and Virginia.” was only 9.3 percent, and amounted to no Civil War. The building had been sold to Price, Birch & Co. in 1850. Armfield told Leavitt that “he would never more than 234 per year. The historian sell his slaves so as to separate husband and Herbert Gutman attacked these results in That this was not mere coincidence is no children under age 10 after the new Loui- wife, or mother and child.” The trader said the New York Times, claiming that the com- apparent by two other factors. Prior to Feb- siana law, John Armfield was simply re- he had been offered a troublesome slave puter had “trivialized the number of chil- ruary 1829, Armfield advertised in the lo- sponding to market reality, and was not “for twelve and one half cents, if he would dren sold.” A careful analysis of the ship- cal papers for slaves from 8 to 25 years old.. acting out of any concern for African-Ameri- carry him to New Orleans.” Armfield as- ments by John Armfield in Alexandria to The next advertisement in April 1829, when can slave children. Armfield, a businessman, serted that he had refused to purchase this Isaac Franklin in New Orleans, however, the sale of children under 10 was prohib- simply bought what he could sell. slave, even at such an attractive price, as provides a different and more useful under- ited in New Orleans, offered to buy “likely It was also no coincidence that in 1833, “the fellow had a wife in the neighborhood standing of the number of young slave chil- Negroes from 12 to 25 years of age, prime 1834, and 1835, the very time Armfield was and they did not like to be separated.” It is dren sold separately in the Alexandria to field hands.” The offer to buy young chil- visited by abolitionists who had come to unlikely that Armfield actually bought with New Orleans trade. dren, who he could not sell, had been with- Washington to press antislavery with the such care. And, a cursory analysis of the Statistical analysis of the 3,570 slaves on drawn. Additionally, there was an enormous Congress, that Armfield increased his pur- slave sale records in New Orleans indicates the Alexandria manifests shows that 145, increase in the number of children listed chases of slaves in family groups. Abolition- that Franklin regularly divided slave fami- or 4.5 percent, were under age 10, and 308, on the manifests ages 11 and 12 over the ism was very strong in the early 1830s, and lies for easier sale. But, it was shrewd busi- or 8.62 percent, were under age 13. Thus, number ages 9 and 10 in Armfield’s ship- the breaking of slave families by the slave ness for Armfield to have good public rela- it would appear that the percentage of chil- ments after April 1829. He tions with the local Maryland dren in the Alexandria shipments supports was again buying in accor- and Virginia slave owners. the computer analysis. On closer examina- dance with the law, in order Whatever Armfield said or tion, it is not so simple. to maximize his profit. Leavitt heard, it is obvious In January 1829, the Governor of Louisi- Armfield exhibited little con- from the high percentage of ana signed into law new legislation prohib- cern about keeping slave young, single, African- iting the separate sale of children under 10 children with their mothers, American slave men and years of age, or of mothers from children when he purchased so many women that Armfield of similar age, except orphans. This meant, single children ages 11 and shipped from Alexandria to of course, that single children under age 10 12. And, the true cost of such New Orleans, that the sale purchased in Virginia or Maryland by John transactions was paid by the and transportation of local Armfield could not be sold in New Orleans African-American children Virginia and Maryland slaves by Isaac Franklin. Indeed, the apparent ne- he bought and by the moth- resulted in many broken cessity for such statutory prohibition of the ers from whom the children families and many separa- separation and sale of young slave children were separated. tions from family and kin. in Louisiana, clearly indicates that such Finally, the trader that For the African-American sales were frequent and common. Further, Andrews spoke with on the slaves involved, the price of this new statute greatly affected the way in Potomac steamer admitted Armfield’s profit was very which Armfield bought slaves. that he sold many young high indeed. This was espe- Among the slaves in the shipments from children separately in Caro- cially so before it became Alexandria to New Orleans before the new lina (where there was no law good business to buy slaves law took effect, single children under age prohibiting their sale), but in families. Even so, at all 10 comprised about 13 percent, and under added: “they won’t go in Mis- times, the ready market for age 13 over 20 percent. This is over twice sissippi; Armfield never takes prime-age, single men and the 9 percent predicted by the computer them if he can help it.” This women in the Deep South analysis of Fogel and Engerman. For the first was in 1835; back in 1828 and the high percentage of three shipments after the new law went into when he could still sell such individuals among the effect, the percentage of single children young, slave children, National Archives Alexandria shipments testify under age 10 shipped by Armfield dropped Armfield obviously “took Civil War- era photograph of an interior area of the former to the disastrous effect of the from 13 percent to zero, and of children them,” as 20-percent of his Franklin and Armfield “slave pen.” The iron gate and marketplace on African- under 13 from 20 percent to 3 percent. slave shipments were such barred window was commented on by northern abolition- American slave families. Clearly, the new Louisiana legislation had children. When he changed ists who visited in the 1830s. This was probably a staged a significant effect on which slaves were his advertisements to buy photograph. Notice the two Union soldiers peering through To be continued in next purchased by John Armfield. slaves and when he bought the gate. week’s Gazette Packet. www.ConnectionNewspapers.com Alexandria Gazette Packet ❖ October, 2014 ❖ 5 History Alexandria to New Orleans: The Human

By Donald M. Sweig, Ph.D. or may not have purchased the problem slave, that he was offered for “twelve and a Continued from last week’s Gazette Packet. half cents,” but it seems most improbable that so shrewd a businessman as he, would hat is also clear from the refuse what was essentially a free slave, slave names on the mani- whom he could sell in New Orleans for $500 Wfests of the slave trade ships to $1,000, simply because the slave had a is that the enslaved African- wife on a nearby plantation. The large num- Americans of Virginia and Maryland did ber of single women among Armfield’s have a rich and extended family structure. slaves, the 80 percent of women with chil- Numerous families appear on the manifests, dren but without an apparent husband, the from young slave men and women with one 84 percent of males without any identifi- infant, through apparently husbandless able family, all suggest that African-Ameri- mothers, often with several children, occa- can family disruption of all kinds was com- sionally an apparently wifeless father with mon. Armfield and his agents simply bought children, and finally complete, even three- what would sell. generational families. For example, a mani- In the case of the young children after fest for February 1832 includes Ben Tho- 1829, and of families after 1834, what mas and his wife Milly, both age 40; their would sell worked to the benefit of the three daughters, Ann, Serina, slaves. But the ready market for prime-age, Part IV and Matilda, ages 20, 18 and single men and women in the Deep South 13: three sons age 18, 11, and and the higher percentage of such individu- 9; and a 20-month old infant als among the Alexandria shipments testify who was clearly the child of 20-year-old to the disastrous effect of the slave trade Ann Thomas. on African-American slave marriages and In another case, on the manifest for the families. And, the number of slaves involved Tribune in October 1835, appears the name was not insignificant. Dick Johnson, Senior, age 75, and directly Leavitt reported in 1834 that 1,000 slaves below that Dick Johnson, Jr., age 19. The had been shipped the previous year and that junior and senior seem to tie the two men Franklin and Armfield alone would dispatch together. Was the older man the younger’s 1,200 slaves in the coming year. For 1835, father or grandfather? If, as seems likely, the available manifests (others are still miss- the manifest was filled in by asking each ing) indicate that over 1,400 slaves were slave his or her name as they boarded the exported that year. A veritable surfeit of ship, the family pride reflected in the an- slaves flowed from Alexandria to New Or- swer of Dick Johnson, Senior and Junior is leans: 318 in three weeks in February; 201 apparent. in March; 352 in five days in October; 344 Family groups accounted for only a small in 10 days in November; 281 in December; percentage of Armfield’s early shipments, 140 in January 1836. A total of 977 slaves a mere seven percent for the first three were shipped in the last three months of years. This percentage later doubled to 14 1835 alone (1,117 with the January ship- percent of all slaves shipped, and after ment). 1834, when market pressure not to sepa- In November 1836, Armfield’s last ship- rate families increased, the number of slaves ment, an astounding 254 slaves were dis- shipped in family groups increased to more Courtesy, Elizabeth Coppinger, Beersheba Springs, Tenn. (1981) patched on one ship, the Isaac Franklin. The than 37 percent for the final three years of Photograph of the grave marker of John Armfield in Beersheba Springs, majority of these slaves probably came from Armfield’s operation. Tenn. northern Virginia and southern Maryland, In one shipment in 1834, for example, we but it seems significant that even the Balti- find an impressive array of African-Ameri- more trading houses complained of diffi- can slave families and family names: King he bought more families it was surely be- ily integrity, suggest that Armfield was re- culty obtaining slaves, and only 208 slaves — mother and six children, ages 5 to 20; cause he needed to do so, most likely for sponding to social pressure and protecting were shipped from Baltimore in 1836. All Lucket – mother and four children, 7 to 13; solid business reasons. the source of his slaves by buying rather of this testifies to the business success of Dorsey — mother and four children, 9 to The local planters from whom Armfield than separating more slave families. John Armfield as a trader, and to the im- 18; John and Hannah Gage and children 4, bought his slaves were the prime targets of But, despite the assurances given to both portance of his “establishment” on Duke 2, and two months; Speake — seven chil- the abolitionist pressure not to sell slaves Leavitt and Andrews that groups of slaves Street in the history of Alexandria. dren only, ages three to 17, including twin or divide slave families, and many planters who were acquainted and family groups Franklin and Armfield retired from the girls aged 10; Lucy David — age 22, her may have had misgivings about the moral sold easier and for a better price, and that slave-trading business late in 1836. Two of infant son and three other children; Gaige rectitude of human bondage. If a planter the firm would never sell so as to separate the firm’s ships, the Tribune and the Uncas, — mother and three children; Paine — saw slave families owned by a neighbor torn husbands and wives or mothers and chil- were sold to William H. (Yellow-House) mother, father and two children; Charles asunder by a trader, he might decide to dren, and despite the increase of slave fami- Williams, a well known trader in the fed- and Permillia Greene with five children ages manumit his slaves in his will, rather than lies in Armfield’s shipments, the high per- eral city. The “slave pen” on Duke Street two months to nine years; Butler — mother consign them to a similar fate. But, if he centage of apparently husbandless mothers and the ship Isaac Franklin were sold to and two children, 13 and 7; and Amelia had confidence that the trader would at and of young single adults suggests that George Kephart, Franklin and Armfield’s Blackwell with four children, ages 8, 5, 3 least respect the family ties, the planter such separations were quite common, es- former agent in Frederick, Md. Kephart may and 1. could, perhaps, allow his executors to sell pecially before it became better business to have been less careful about his reputation Such a large number of families in one the slaves and, at the same time, still keep buy families after 1834. and more anxious for a fast profit than shipment of slaves most likely came about peace with his conscience. Therefore, the It also seems unlikely that John Armfield Armfield, He is reputed to have shipped as by Armfield buying an entire plantation significant increase in the percentage of and his partner made a fortune trading many as 400 slaves at one time in the Isaac laborforce, probably at an estate auction. slaves apparently purchased in family slaves in only eight years , and became the Franklin. Even though this 1834 shipment of fami- groups after 1834, combined with largest dealer in Virginia and Maryland by In the early 1850s, the Duke Street es- lies was not an isolated incident, Armfield Armfield’s excessive assurance to the aboli- asking every slave they bought whether or was a careful and shrewd businessman. If tionists regarding his respect for slave fam- not he wanted to leave home. Armfield may See History, Page 35

6 ❖ Alexandria Gazette Packet ❖ October, 2014 www.ConnectionNewspapers.com History Tragedy of the Interstate Slave Trade

From Page 34 more would have increased costs, decreased slave trade. some of the adjacent profits, and given the edge to Armfield’s land to the west, tablishment was conveyed to “Price, Birch competition, Epilogue: John was and Co.,” slave traders who had operated Standards for slave traders became more Armfield eventually archaeologically in- in Washington City, and had been driven restrictive as time passed. The number of retired to his planta- vestigated in the from the District of Columbia by the slave- young children sold singly declined in re- tion in Beersheba 1980s and is still trading prohibition of the Compromise of sponse to legal, and presumably, public Springs, Tenn. He standing today, and 1850. This firm’s name was on the building pressure. At the same time, the proportion died there on Sept. is a National His- when it was captured by Union troops in of slaves sold in family units increased — 20, 1871 (appar- toric Landmark. 1861. also because of social pressure. Yet, the large ently at age 74). His Detailed informa- The available evidence indicates that John number of young, single men and women slave-trading part- tion regarding the Armfield was neither an iniquitous barbar- sent south from Alexandria indicates that ner, Isaac Franklin, lives and fate of the ian nor an enlightened humanitarian, but African-American slave marriages and fami- died on his Tennes- thousands of Afri- rather a shrewd businessman. When it was lies were frequently disrupted to obtain see plantation on can-American slaves good business to divide families and sell those slaves most marketable at New Or- April 27, 1846, at bought by John young children, he did so. When it became leans — the prime field hands. age 57. Franklin’s Armfield in Alexan- better business to maintain the slaves in Finally, and most importantly, analysis of estate has been esti- dria and later sold family units, he did that. Because Armfield the business orientation of the slave trad- mated to have been by Isaac Franklin in was on good terms with the selling farmers ers must not be allowed to obscure the per- valued at perhaps New Orleans may be and planters of Virginia and Maryland, and sonal, human experience of the African- $750,000 (in 19th- lost to history. because he was able to monopolize the lo- American slaves, who were the essence of century value), Doubtless, many of cal trade, he was clearly operating by, or the trade. It was the African-American men, most acquired from their descendents establishing himself, the local standards for women, and children who were bought, his slave-trading op- Courtesy, Elizabeth Coppinger, Beersheba are still living in moral and ethical propriety in the buying, separated from their families, sold, and erations. All of the Springs, Tenn. (1981) Louisiana, Missis- selling, and treatment of slaves. Other trad- transported to New Orleans (not John Franklin and John Armfield as an old man. sippi, east Texas ers operating in this same market would Armfield, Isaac Franklin, nor the northern Armfield “establish- (and elsewhere), a have been subject to these standards in or- abolitionists), who testify, even in their si- ment” on Duke Street in Alexandria, except testimony to the hardiness of their forebears der to stay in business. To do less for the lence, to a new and painful understanding the original house built by General Young, who endured the painful experience of be- slaves might have jeopardized the willing- of the human tragedy that was the real and was torn down after the Civil War. That ing the essence of the Alexandria-New Or- ness of owners to sell their slaves; to do actual cost of the Alexandria – New Orleans original building at 1315 Duke Street, and leans slave trade.

May 17, 1828, this advertisement appeared in the Alexandria Phenix Gazette

www.ConnectionNewspapers.com Alexandria Gazette Packet ❖ October, 2014 ❖ 7 Courtesy, Elizabeth Coppinger, Beersheba Springs, Tenn. (1981) Photograph of the grave marker of John Armfield in Beersheba Springs, Tenn.

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