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An introduction to the : Current insights into the regional setting and energy resource potential of NW

Article in Geological Society London Special Publications · January 2018 DOI: 10.1144/SP469.1

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An introduction to the Triassic: current insights into the regional setting and energy resource potential of NW Europe

MARK GELUK1*, TOM MCKIE2 & BEN KILHAMS3 1Gerbrandylaan 18, 2314 EZ Leiden, The 2Shell UK Exploration & Production, 1 Altens Farm Road, Nigg, Aberdeen AB12 3FY, UK 3Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij (NAM), PO Box 28000, 9400 HH Assen, The Netherlands *Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: A review of recent Triassic research across the Southern Basin area demon- strates the role that high-resolution stratigraphic correlation has in identifying the main controls on sedimentary facies and, subsequently, the distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs. The depositio- nal and structural evolution of these sedimentary successions was the product of polyphase rifting controlled by antecedent structuration and halokinesis, fluctuating climate, and repeated marine flooding, leading to a wide range of reservoir types in a variety of structural configurations. Triassic hydrocarbon accumulations form an important energy resource across the basin, not only in the established fairway but also in Rogenstein oolites and carbonates. In addition, sand-prone sections in the , such as the Schilfsandstein, have the potential to be hydrocarbon reservoirs. Several Triassic intervals are now the focus for developing geothermal projects. A detailed understanding of Triassic reservoir quality and distribution is one of the main keys to efficiently unlocking the geothermal and remaining hydrocarbon potential across the basin.

A concise overview of the stratigraphic and palaeo- basin-wide reservoir and seal units from the UK in geographical development of the Triassic is pre- the west to in the east (Dadlez et al. 1998; sented here, including recent insights into the Lokhorst 1998; Evans et al. 2003; Geluk 2005; understanding of these complex systems. The chap- Feist-Burkhardt et al. 2008; McKie & Williams ters in this Special Publication deal mainly with the 2009; Bachmann et al. 2010; Barnasch 2010). These Triassic as a hydrocarbon reservoir, including explo- correlations can also be tied, supported by magneto- ration aspects in the Dutch and German offshore stratigraphy (Szurlies et al. 2012) and limited biostra- (Kilhams et al. 2018; Kortekaas et al., this volume, tigraphy (Kürschner & Herngreen 2010; Backhaus in press), the impact of overpressure models in the et al. 2013; Scholze et al. 2017), to equivalent succes- Terschelling Basin (Peeters et al., this volume, in sions further afieldintheNorthSeaarea,thusassisting press), the use of open access well data (van Kempen in developing an understanding of the regional palae- et al., this volume, in press) and enhanced gas recov- ogeographical evolution in response to tectonics and ery from the mature De Wijk gas field (Goswami climate. It has also become apparent that, for many et al. 2018). Franz et al. (this volume, in press) regions, much of the Permian and Triassic time periods also consider the deltaic systems of the and are missing in the sedimentary record (Fig. 1). their use as geothermal reservoirs in northern Ger- Antecedent Caledonian, Variscan and Permian many. An overview of historical Triassic hydrocarbon structures had a great bearing on the structural and discoveries and possible future geothermal aspects is depositional processes that operated in these basins. introduced as a framework for these chapters. The principal controlling lineaments are the Iapetus Suture and the Trans-European Suture Zone, mark- ing the northern margin of the Caledonian collision Triassic basin evolution (Smit et al. 2016). North of this line, focused rift tec- tonics prevailed; whereas, to the south, a wide exten- Over the last decade, various studies in NW Europe sion zone existed in areas of thickened Variscan crust have resulted in new insights into the sedimentary (Praeg 2004). As a result, the SPB is a complex amal- and tectonic evolution and resource potential of gamation of linked depocentres (e.g. the Polish the Triassic in the Southern Permian Basin (SPB). Trough, North German and Sole Pit basins). Fault High-resolution stratigraphic correlations have been systems inherited from earlier Permian rift systems carried out in order to consolidate the different strati- formed the backbone of the later Triassic graben sys- graphic frameworks in NW Europe, and to identify tems (Coward et al. 2003). During the Triassic,

From:KILHAMS, B., KUKLA, P. A., MAZUR, S., MCKIE, T., MIJNLIEFF, H. F. & van OJIK, K. (eds) Mesozoic Resource Potential in the Southern Permian Basin. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 469, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP469.1 © 2018 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved. For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on January 26, 2018

M. GELUK ET AL.

Fig. 1. Chronostratigraphic diagram of the Permian and Triassic deposits in The Netherlands and adjacent areas (after Geluk 2005). names and numerical ages are after Cohen et al. (2013). ‘Golden spikes’ are indicated. The and replace the former Scythian. Two intra-Triassic unconformities are present – the Hardegsen Unconformity (Olenekian) and the Early Cimmerian Unconformity (). Over large areas of the Southern Permian Basin, these unconformities result in large intervals of missing section. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ NITOUTO OTETRIASSIC THE TO INTRODUCTION AN byguestonJanuary26,2018

Fig. 2. Geological cross-sections of various Triassic basins in NW Europe: T1, Lower and Main Buntsandstein; T2, Solling, Röt and Muschelkalk; T3, Keuper; JJ, . Note the difference in scale between these basins, with the thickest Triassic successions in the Glückstadt and Horn graben. The depth scale is in kilometres. Two-fold vertical exaggeration. Modified after Geluk (2005) and references therein. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on January 26, 2018

M. GELUK ET AL. progressive basin modification by extensional tec- conditions throughout the Triassic (Fig. 3), although tonics occurred as a result of fault propagation from the degree of aridity fluctuated across the region, both the Boreal and Tethyan regions (Bachmann possibly in response to warming induced by volca- et al. 2010). From the onwards, rift- nism from Large Igneous Provinces and, more ing concentrated mainly in the Central and Northern locally, by episodic marine flooding increasing North Sea, and the Horn and Glückstadt grabens humidity. Warming may have influenced monsoon (Fig. 2), together with onshore graben in the UK strength, evaporation rates, temperature gradients and eastern (Bourquin et al. 1997, 2002; Ruf- and the ability of monsoons to penetrate the conti- fell & Shelton 1999). The degree of extension across nental interior (McKie 2014). In response to these the basins varied and resulted, in combination with changes, fluvial systems cyclically expanded and the pre-existing structural grain and the presence of contracted across the basin, alternating with wide- underlying mobile salt, in a wide variety spread playa, aeolian dune fields and, more rarely, of tectonic structures (Fig. 2). perennial lakes. Larger-scale eustatic sea-level The palaeolatitude and location of the SPB within changes caused episodic flooding of the SPB and Pangea resulted in generally arid to semi-arid provided a fluctuating base level that also controlled

Fig. 3. Synopsis of Triassic climatic settings. (a) Late Triassic (–Norian) Pangean climate zonation (after Sellwood & Valdes 2007), placing the SPB region in the arid to semi-arid zone (red rectangle). (b) North to south climate variations through the Triassic (modified after McKie 2017). The plots are qualitative, with relatively drier conditions to the left and wetter to the right. O, Olenekian; A, ; L, ; C, Carnian; N, Norian; R, Rhaetian; ITCZ, Intertropical Convergence Zone. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on January 26, 2018

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TRIASSIC

Fig. 4. Illustrative Triassic palaeogeographical reconstructions (after McKie 2017): (a) Main Buntsandstein (Olenekian) fluvial–aeolian deposition within continental basins; (b) Röt (Lower Anisian) restricted marine connection and evaporites; (c) Lower Muschelkalk marine flooding (Anisian); (d) Middle Muschelkalk basin restriction and evaporate precipitation; and (e) Schilfsandstein (Middle Carnian) expansion of Fennoscandian drainage in response to regional climate wettening. downstream fluvial architecture at these times (Franz (Fig. 4a). In Late Olenekian–Early Anisian times, et al. 2014). During episodes of marine restriction, the SPB area was episodically inundated by marine short-lived extensional pulses within the main rift water that entered the basin from the Tethys via the zones provided conduits for marine brines to enter Silesian gate in SE Poland (Bachmann et al. 2010). accommodation space, resulting in evaporite pre- Under dry climatic conditions, the evaporites of the cipitation and preservation (Barnasch 2010; Röt Formation were deposited in partially restricted McKie 2017). basins (Fig. 4b) (cf. Kovalevych et al. 2002). A The basal part of the Triassic succession, the major transgression occurred during the latter part Buntsandstein, is dominated by continental clastic of the Anisian (Middle Triassic) via the Silesian deposits. Ephemeral fluvial systems drained north- and Burgundy gates. Ongoing arid conditions and wards off the Variscan fold belt and southwards off low clastic supply led to the deposition of the Fennoscandia, and flowed towards basinal playa in shallow-marine carbonates of the Lower Muschel- the central SPB (Geluk & Röhling 1997). In the pre- kalk (Fig. 4c). An interruption to the marine connec- vailing arid climate, these fluvial deposits were sub- tion with the Tethys resulted in basin desiccation and ject to aeolian reworking in their distal reaches the precipitation of anhydrite and halite of the Late Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on January 26, 2018

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Anisian Middle Muschelkalk (Fig. 4d)(Bachmann wetter climate conditions, higher discharge rivers et al. 2010) before fully marine conditions were were able to expand across the SPB. The Carnian re-established during the Early Ladinian Upper Schilfsandstein represents the largest of these sys- Muschelkalk. During the Late Ladinian, marine- tems (Fig. 4e) and was possibly driven by a major influenced conditions receded from the SPB, climate excursion (Fig. 3b) resulting from volcanism although episodic flooding is recorded by thin associated with the Wrangellia Large Igneous Prov- marine intervals and the penetration of marine brines ince (cf. Ruffell et al. 2015). to form substantial Carnian halite accumulations. In the latter stages of the Triassic, the climate With ongoing rifting and thermal subsidence, gradually became more humid (Kozur & Bachmann the depositional systems gradually expanded and 2010) as a result of the northwards drift of Pangea onlapped over the highs around the basin margins and the increasing maritime influence from both in Middle–Late Triassic times (e.g. Paris Basin, the Boreal and Tethyan seaways. Deltaic and onshore UK). However, a major change in basin shallow-marine conditions dominated during the palaeogeography occurred from the Ladinian/Car- Rhaetian over the northern half of the area across nian onwards, when Fennoscandia became the dom- and NW (Bachmann et al. inant sediment source area and the Variscides ceased 2010; Franz et al., this volume, in press). to source large fluvial systems (van der Zwaan & Spaak 1992). In general, sediments of these Fenno- scandian systems were contained within the Central Triassic energy resources North Sea (represented by the Skagerrak Formation), leaving the SPB dominated by mud-prone and evap- Hydrocarbons associated with Triassic reservoirs oritic playa conditions (Keuper); however, during occur in various sub-basins across the Southern

Fig. 5. Distribution of Triassic-hosted hydrocarbon fields in the NW European region. Map after Glennie (1998), Lokhorst (1998), Goldsmith et al. (2003) and Bachmann et al. (2010). The preserved Triassic basin area represents the extent of the Basal Shale interval. Red dashed boxes represent the study areas from this Special Publication. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on January 26, 2018

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TRIASSIC

Permian Basin, the East Irish Sea, the Central and reservoir quality by groundwater and palaeosol Northern North Sea, and the Wessex Basin carbonate cementation. (Fig. 5), largely associated with sand-prone fluvial In the Polish part of the SPB, no hydrocarbon systems such as the Sherwood , accumulations have been encountered in Triassic and the Skagerrak and Lunde formations. In the rocks. Here, reservoir rocks are present in the Southern North Sea and adjacent onshore areas, Lower Triassic but charge and seal are an issue hydrocarbons mainly occur in the of the (Bachmann et al. 2010). Lower Triassic Buntsandstein. Other reservoirs of Exploration for further Triassic-hosted oil and secondary importance are the Rogenstein lacustrine gas continues across the basin, especially in rela- oolites and the marine dolomites of the Lower tively underexplored areas where data can be reinter- Muschelkalk (Palermo et al. 2008). preted in the context of new research (e.g. Kilhams Various publications provide more details of the et al., this volume, in press; Kortekaas et al., this many Triassic fields across the region (e.g. Gold- volume, in press). One element which could aid fur- smith et al. 2003; De Jager & Geluk 2007; Bach- ther exploration is the investigation of possible Tri- mann et al. 2010). In the Southern North Sea and assic source rock intervals. These are generally adjacent onshore areas, Triassic gas volumes are considered absent in the Triassic red beds. However, modest when compared to the (see Kil- the identification of thin coaly intervals in the Rhae- hams et al. 2018) but form a number of important tian of offshore Denmark, NW Germany and The fields (e.g. Caister, G14-A and L09). The offshore Netherlands could provide a local hydrocarbon extension of the West Netherlands Basin also exhib- source (Nielsen 2003). its a number of Triassic-hosted gas fields, such as The recent demand for clean energy and the Q16-A. The onshore equivalent area has been impor- development of geothermal energy is an exciting tant historically, with a number of Triassic fault new element for Triassic resources with increasing blocks charged with hydrocarbons (e.g. Gaag- economic importance. Several Triassic intervals Monster, Botlek and Pernis West). Another trend are subject to investigation for future geothermal of the Triassic fields is associated with the margin exploitation. The results of such projects have of the Basin in The Netherlands and emphasized the importance of a sound geological Germany (e.g. Sleen, Roswinkel and De Wijk understanding of the subsurface to achieve econom- (De Jager & Geluk 2007; Goswami et al. 2018)in ically attractive projects (e.g. Wolfgramm et al. The Netherlands, and Hengstlage, Rehden and Apel- 2009; Pluymaekers et al. 2012; Franz et al., this dorn in Germany). The underground gas storage volume, in press). capacity in Triassic reservoirs is utilized in Germany, both in depleted gas fields (Allmenhausen, Döttlin- gen, Kalle and ) and in aquifers (Berlin and Conclusions Bucholz). Studies published during the last decade have sup- In the Central and Northern North Sea, wide- ported an increased understanding of Triassic stratig- fl spread uvial reservoirs extend through the Middle raphy and palaeogeographical evolution, leading to – and Late Triassic succession (Anisian Norian), an improved definition of reservoir and seal distribu- forming the basis for economic hydrocarbon accu- tion, trends in reservoir properties, and the potential mulations in the Alwyn, Beryl, Judy, Marnock and for hydrocarbon plays in reservoir intervals in addi- fi Snorre elds, amongst others (cf. Evans et al. tion to the recognized Buntsandstein. Geothermal fl – 2003). In the East Irish Sea, the uvial aeolian Ani- aspects of similar subsurface targets are now being sian Ormskirk Formation forms the main reservoir explored, and require similar understanding. It is (e.g. Morecambe Field; Stuart 1993). In the Wessex hoped that the following chapters will provide fur- fl Basin, the predominantly uvial Sherwood Sand- ther inspiration to unlock the remaining geological – stone of Olenekian Anisian age forms the main res- questions and the resource potential of the Triassic ervoir in the Wytch Farm Field (McKie et al. 1998). interval in NW Europe. In general, the best quality reservoirs are either contained within high net-to-gross, well-connected Geoff Warrington (University of Leicester) is thanked for fluvial channel successions, or within aeolian suggestions on the text and for information on reservoir reworked sections associated with dry climatic epi- ages. Two anonymous reviewers are also thanked for sodes. Proximal fluvial sections tend to be immature their ideas which greatly improved the manuscript. and poorly sorted, and constitute less effective reser- voirs; whilst, at distal locations, in the absence of aeolian processes, sections tend to be mud-prone References – and poorly connected. Middle Late Triassic reser- BACHMANN, G.H., GELUK, M.C. ET AL. 2010. Chapter 9. Tri- voirs were associated with generally less arid con- assic. In:DOORNENBAL,H.&STEVENSON, A. (eds) Petro- ditions and can show extensive degradation of leum Geological Atlas of the Southern Permian Basin Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on January 26, 2018

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