Revankar and Senthil 1

Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources:

A headline from the Defender at its height of operations. .

https://www.libertarianism.org/articles/chicago-defender-how-black-owned-newspaper-fo

ught-racial-equality

This primary source is a picture of a headline from the Chicago Defender editorial during

the heights of its operation. While we talked about how the federal government didn’t

favor the publishing of the paper due to its radical views and support for popular

demands for safety, equal rights, and the recognition of black soldiers who fought in

Europe, this image shows the other face of the federal government that responded to the

demands of and addressed the injustice.

Chicago Defender Charities archives. (n.d.). Retrieved April 14, 2021, from

https://chicagodefender.com/tag/chicago-defender-charities/

This page from the Chicago Defender (Chicago Defender Charities) gave us many

images to put on our website. These images mostly helped us explain the long and short

term impacts of the Chicago Defender.

Davey, Monica, and John Eligon. “The Chicago Defender, Legendary Black Newspaper, Prints

Last Copy.” The New York Times, 9 July 2019,

www.nytimes.com/2019/07/09/us/chicago-defender-newspaper.html.

This New York Times issue talks about the legacy the Chicago Defender has left behind

after publishing over a century. It talks about how the current challenges the paper is

facing due to a shift to technology for news instead of papers and gives an in-depth

history of how it all started. From this source, we were able to use many images and Revankar and Senthil 2

quotes (primary sources) for our website to portray the impact the paper had on society in

multiple ways.

“Front Page of the Chicago Defender.” Chicago Defender, 4 Apr. 1925.

This front page of the Chicago Defender features the main headline for the day“Klan

burns k…” This image depicts the gruesome acts of the Ku Klux Klan towards Black

Americans and Abbotts honest coverage of these crimes. It shows that the Defender

wasn’t afraid to write about controversial events happening in the South and was

campaigning for a change of the Black Americans.

“Front Page of the Chicago Defender.” Chicago Defender, 21 July 1951.

This front page of the Chicago Defender features the main headline for the day “Cicero

Riots Over Vets,” and we believed this would be a perfect image to use for our

background collage for our website, because it justifies a claim we made regarding the

paper--that it sought to call out the constant violence and rioting associated with race.

Because this was an everyday topic for the paper, we felt it was important to include this

example.

“Front Page of the Chicago Defender.” Chicago Defender, 6 May 1926.

This front page of the Chicago Defender features the main headline for the day “Bessie

Coleman, Aviatrix, Killed,” and we knew that this picture of the paper would also be

perfect for the putting together the background for our website because it provided a

visual depiction of the way the Defender followed the stories of great Black American

figures, such as Bessie Coleman. In this case, the headline announces Coleman’s death, Revankar and Senthil 3

so this image also testifies to the way the Defender wouldn't shy away from sharing

strong emotions, such as grief, with its audience.

“Front Page of the Chicago Defender.” Chicago Defender, 29 Oct. 1955.

This front page of the Chicago Defender features the main headline for the day “Hooded

Men Shoot 12 In Dixie.” We used this image of the paper for the background because it

provided an example of the blunt, honest language that the Defender wrote with. The

headline in this case serves to not only provoke caution, but also call attention to the

prevalence of hate crimes all across the country.

“Front Page of the Chicago Defender.” Chicago Defender, 10 Sept. 1955.

This front page of the Chicago Defender displays various headlines surrounding the

lynching of a 14-year old boy, Emmett Till. We believed this would be a perfect fit for

our background because it serves as justification for our discussion of how the Defender

really brought the most painful, often controversial topics into national spotlight. In other

words, this front page justifies our characterization of the paper.

Front page of the Chicago Defender on August 2, 1919. (2020, June 2). Retrieved April 12,

2021, from https://www.chicagohistory.org/chi1919/ (Originally photographed 1919,

August 2).

This image served as the background image for our website. Though not all the text is

visible, the big, bold words “RIOT SWEEPS” in a way represent the truth of black lives

during the early 20th century that Abbott made his goal to share with everyone.

Jackson, Jay. “‘As Others See Us: Untouchable.’” Chicago Defender, 1934 July 1934. Revankar and Senthil 4

This primary source is a cartoon from a 1934 edition of the Chicago Defender. The

cartoon’s portrayal of a complex situation, the divisiveness amongst black Americans,

especially with regards to differences between skin tones, implies that the Chicago

Defender had a fairly comprehensive understanding of the social situation afflicting black

Americans. Many other cartoons by Jay Jackson portray similar social tensions, and these

helped to shed light on the nuances of societal oppression.

Jackson, Jay. “Bungleton Green.” The Chicago Defender, 28 Nov. 1942.

This cartoon titled “Bungletoon Green,” is part of a larger series of cartoons published in

various issues of the Chicago Defender. This particular cartoon depicts a young black

superhero--a rare fictional character to come across in the early 20th century. The public

wasn’t used to black characters being propped up as a character or personality of heroes,

and so this cartoon depicted a unique circumstance, substantiating our argument that the

Chicago Defender uplifted the black community.

Jackson, Jay. “‘That's Not the Way to Spell Ignorant Savages.’” Chicago Defender, 8 July 1939.

This cartoon by notable cartoonist for the Chicago Defender Jay Jackson is satirical in

that it mocks the way imperialism and the white man has installed a superiority complex

over black people. The Chicago Defender’s cartoons were known for their personality,

and successfully called attention to underlying social tension between racial groups and

inherent biases against black Americans.

Jacob Lawrence. "One-Way Ticket." Museum of Modern Art courtesy The Phillips Collection,

Washington D.C. via AP(The Associated Press) Revankar and Senthil 5

This image is a very popular painting depicting the mass migration of blacks from the

south to the north during the early twentieth century–the Great Migration. We used this

image on our tab about the influence of the Chicago Defender on the Great Migration.

Since this painting is a popular representation of the Great Migration, we thought it

would fit with the content on the page.

Jan Voogd. “Race Riots and Resistance: The Red Summer of 1919,” (New York: Peter Lang,

2008), 165. Accessed 2 Mar. 2021.

This website provided us with a quote describing the challenges the Chicago Defender

faced through its journey of propagating the black story to the racially diverse (and

divided) America.

Katz, Brigit. “The 'Chicago Defender,' an Iconic Black Newspaper, to Release Its Last Print

Issue.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 9 July 2019,

www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/chicago-defender-iconic-black-newspaper-releasi

ng-its-last-print-issue-180972586/.

This article gave a brief history of the paper and Abbot, the man behind the paper. It

complemented the information we found in other sources. We used an image (“Exterior

view of the "Chicago Defender" building in the 1950s”) and a quote from this article on

our website.

“‘Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916-1918’ Published in The Journal of Negro History (July and

October, 1919).” Great Migration Letters, 1918-1918, history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/260GMigration.html.

This primary source provided first-hand accounts of black migrants from the time period

1916-1918, or during the time of the Great Migration. This group of letters helped to Revankar and Senthil 6

provide insight into the perspectives of black migrants, and facilitated our understanding

of the Chicago Defender’s relationship to the Great Migration.

“One Must Be Extinguished.” Chicago Defender, 31 Mar. 1923.

This primary source depicts the struggle between liberty and the Ku Klux Klan, in

regards to the Chicago Defender, because as emphasized by Abbott in the editorial

provided in this March issue, the Ku Klux Klan was a major opponent of the paper, and it

sought to restrict the paper’s influence on the advocacy for civil rights. Abbott’s frank

tone in this editorial certainly demonstrates the Defender’s characteristically

straightforward, outspoken stance on these issues.

“‘Sir I Will Thank You with All My Heart’: Seven Letters from the Great Migration.” HISTORY

MATTERS - The U.S. Survey Course on the Web, historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5332/.

This online primary source was retrieved from the “History Matters” website, and

featured a compilation of seven letters, originally handwritten, regarding the Great

Migration. These letters aided in developing our understanding around the financial

struggles of black families at the time, as they conveyed true feelings regarding the

oppressive economic circumstances of the South. The specific quote from Natchez

displays desperation and fear regarding his family’s economic struggles, and implies that

a move to the North might mean recovery.

Shelton, Paul. Contributing Writer July 23. “Black Live Matters Files Lawsuit against the

Federal Government, CPD and the Fraternal Order of Police.” Chicago Defender, 24 July

2020, Revankar and Senthil 7

chicagodefender.com/black-live-matters-files-lawsuit-against-the-federal-government-cp

d-and-the-fraternal-order-of-police/.

This primary source was retrieved from the official website of the Chicago Defender.

Specifically taken from an article detailing a lawsuit against the law enforcement and

other authority for police brutality, it successfully conveys the heated sentiment

surrounding the Black Lives Matter movement in 2020. The picture helps us to portray a

long-term cause that the paper supported up until today.

Staples, Brent. “'The Defender,' by Ethan Michaeli.” The New York Times, The New York

Times, 4 Jan. 2016,

www.nytimes.com/2016/01/10/books/review/the-defender-by-ethan-michaeli.html.

This book by Ethan Michaeli (we were able to access an excerpt from “The New York

Times”) provides a detailed history of the Chicago Defender and the efforts of the

successor to ensure the integrity of the paper was upheld. Composed of multiple

interviews of politicians to get their perspective of how the Chicago Defender shaped

American journalism, this source provided us with quotes from major political figures

(such as Obama) and also images to incorporate into our website.

Stovall, Mary E. “The ‘Chicago Defender’ in .” Illinois Historical Journal,

vol. 83, no. 3, 1990, pp. 159–172. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40192302. Accessed 28

Feb. 2021.

This journal article provided information on how the Chicago Defender related to the

Progressive Era during the early twentieth century. It discussed the perspective held by

the paper when addressing government, business, social, and political reform and how it

impacted the actions taken by the black audience and society. This source also provided Revankar and Senthil 8

us with some quotes/excerpts and cartoons/images published in the paper which we could

analyze and use for our website.

Tolly, Victor. “Front Page of the Chicago Defender on November 15th, 1940.” , 6 Feb. 2020,

www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/chicago-defender-1905/.

This front page of the Chicago Defender includes the main headline for that day,

“Hansberry Decision Opens 500 New Homes to Race.” We decided to use this picture of

the paper for the background of our website because we thought it would fit the theme of

outspoken headlines we had, and it would also spotlight a small success in the the

struggle for black Americans’ financial security, as new homes to races implies that more

of the population is to be housed.

“VIDEO: Activists Demand D.C. 'Defund' Police amid Peaceful Protests after City Renames

Street 'Black Lives Matter Plaza'.” Edited by David Martosko, Chicago Defender, 8 June

2020,

chicagodefender.com/video-activists-demand-d-c-defund-police-amid-peaceful-protests-a

fter-city-renames-street-black-lives-matter-plaza/.

This primary source from the official website of the Chicago Defender is a picture

depicting adamant Black Lives Matter protesters in 2020. The picture helped us to

convey the paper’s advocacy of civil rights until today, which is a significant continuity.

The Chicago Defender’s site to this day follows up on issues regarding the black

community, never failing to do justice to its founding principles in 1905.

Secondary Sources: Revankar and Senthil 9

Bitner, Katherine A. “The Role of The Chicago Defender in The Great Migration of 1916–1918.”

Negro History Bulletin, vol. 48, no. 2, 1985, pp. 20–26. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/44176620. Accessed 2 Mar. 2021.

As the title suggests this journal article described the role Abbott's paper played in the

first wave of the Great Migration during the years 1916-1918. It helped us understand the

philosophy of black equality The Defender conveyed to its readers during this time

period.

Brack, Naomii. “The Chicago American Giants (1911-1956) •.” Blackpast, 28 Jan. 2021,

www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/the-chicago-american-giants-1911-1956/.

From this source, I used the image (Chicago American Giants, 1919, With Rube Foster in

the Dark Suit (Public Domain Image)). Abbot posted many pictures in his paper to show

stories of black achievement, especially in the North, such as the baseball team depicted

in the picture.

"Chicago Defender." Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 19 Aug. 2020.

academic-eb-com.eres.qnl.qa/levels/collegiate/article/Chicago-Defender/2511. Accessed

27 Feb. 2021.

This reference source was one of the first sources we looked into, and it really helped us

to determine whether we wanted to further delve into the topic while choosing the focus

of our project. It provided us with basic, foundational information that we then used to

branch out and research different aspects of the Chicago Defender. The general overview

that this source provided of the noteworthy newspaper took into account all of the

significant outcomes of the success of the Chicago Defender. Revankar and Senthil 10

Datcher, Mary L. “The Legacy of John H.H. Sengstacke: How He Influenced Black America.”

Chicago Defender, Real Times Media, 3 Aug. 2017,

chicagodefender.com/the-legacy-of-john-h-h-sengstacke-how-he-influenced-black-ameri

ca/.

This source, obtained from the official website of the Chicago Defender, shed light on the

major influences of John H.H. Sengstacke, nephew of Robert Abbott (the founder of the

paper), and major contributor to the paper as well. He was, like most of the Chicago

Defender writers, enthusiastic about the future of the black American community, and

sought to build passion within their sphere of influence. This particular source continues

to list the effects on black America that John H.H. Sengstacke had with his work with the

Chicago Defender.

Davis, Pablo J. " (1868-1940)." New Georgia Encyclopedia. 01

November 2019. Web. 01 March 2021.

This source detailed the life and significance of Robert Abbott, the founder of the

Chicago Defender. Though less-known, Abbott was an influential historical figure, and

made many contributions to black America. This source details his goals with his work

with the Chicago Defender, and goes into further detail describing the obstacles he faced

while running the paper, which included constant condemnation from the unimpressed

white population of the South, who largely despised his newspaper for its exposure of

their racism.

DeSantis, Alan D. "A Forgotten Leader: Robert S. Abbott and the Chicago Defender from

1910–1920." Journalism History 23.2 (1997): 63-71. Revankar and Senthil 11

This article really helped us understand how the Chicago Defender was different from

other black presses during its time and why the content was considered a radical approach

to reformation of black lives in America . It briefly covered the major topics we wanted

to talk about in our project (the Progreessive Era, WW1, and effect on Journal) so we

were able to use this source to help analyze the effects of the paper on the readers.

Detweiler, Frederick German, 1881-1960. “The Negro Press In the .” Chicago, Ill.:

The University of Chicago press, 1922.

This book gave a brief overview of all the different Black presses in the United States. It

helped us understand the difference between the publications of different newspapers and

explained Abbott's subject approach to the news.

“Early Chicago: The Great Migration.” WTTW Chicago, 11 Sept. 2018,

interactive.wttw.com/dusable-to-obama/the-great-migration.

This secondary source provided us with an image originally retrieved from the Chicago

Defender Archives. This visual gave us a deeper understanding of the circumstances that

resulted in the Great Migration. In the image, a large black family is seen, and because of

restrictions on economic opportunities in the South, it is understandable that a black

family such as the one pictured would need to flee to the North. The website also

contained other pictures that enriched our understanding of black American’s stakes in

the Great Migration.

Gaillot, Ann-Derrick. “Chicago Defender Newspaper 'Re-Educated' Journalist about Black

America.” Street Roots, Street Roots, 28 Feb. 2016,

www.streetroots.org/news/2016/02/25/chicago-defender-newspaper-re-educated-journalis

t-about-black-america. Revankar and Senthil 12

This secondary source is from the Street Roots Organization, and featured an interview

with Ethan Michaeli, a journalist and author of a book titled, “The Defender.” In the

interview, Michaeli spoke highly of the Chicago Defender, and it’s significant influence

over his perspective of black America. A quote from his interview placed a spotlight on

how the Defender placed emphasis on how prevalent and obvious black Americans’

struggles against legal inequality and social inequality, among other disparities, were.

Grossman, James R. “Blowing the Trumpet: The ‘Chicago Defender’ and Black Migration

during World War I.” Illinois Historical Journal, vol. 78, no. 2, 1985, pp. 82–96. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/40191833. Accessed 4 Mar. 2021.

This journal article informed us on the different way the Chicago Defender played a role

in the first major “Great Migration” during the 1910s. The paper propagated the better

lifestyle blacks could live in the North (economically, socially, etc.) compared to the

South.

Jones, Felecia G. "The Role of the Black Press during the" Great Migration."." (1986).

This article helped us analyze how the content (multimedia, editorials, etc.) published by

the Chicago Defender influenced the Exodus of southern blacks to the North. It provided

many references to the cartoons included in the paper which could be used on our

website.

Lee, Ronda. “Bud Billiken Parade: Black Legacy And Heritage.” HuffPost, HuffPost, 7 Dec.

2017, www.huffpost.com/entry/bud-billiken-parade-black_b_11426150. Accessed 2 Mar.

2021.

This article was a personal narrative/reflection of Ronda Lee and her experience with the

Bud Billiken Parade hosted by the Chicago Defender. It shows one of the various Revankar and Senthil 13

initiatives started by Abbott to take action on his mission to make a better life for black

Americans.

Leslie. “Social Protest and Unrest ‘The Language of the Unheard.’” The Crusader Newspaper

Group, Chicago Gary Online, 10 June 2020,

chicagocrusader.com/social-protest-and-unrest-the-language-of-the-unheard/.

This source brilliantly detailed the social developments of black America and the fight

for civil rights and financial independence, with a specific focus on the Chicago

Defender’s relationship with these topics. This source helped us to outline many of the

effects of the Chicago Defender that we included in our argument, or was within the

scope of our close research.

Lewis, Femi. "The Power of the Press: Black American News Publications in the Jim Crow Era."

ThoughtCo, Nov. 18, 2020, thoughtco.com/african-american-news-publications-45389.

This website helped us compare the Chicago Defender to other black press in the same

time period. The Chicago Defender was considered the most radical because of its bold

and gruesome content that illustrated the truth of black lives in America and the hardships

and tragedies they faced. The Chicago Defender was best known for utilizing yellow

journalism to call for change in the black society in America.

Madeo. “May 5, 1905: First Issue of the 'Chicago Defender' Is Published.” Home, 5 May 2020,

calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/05.

This website gave us information about the response to the Chicago Defender during the

WWI period. It talks about how “radical” that paper was viewed as and therefore was

accused of sedition. This fit our “Journalism” tab since we wanted to explain how

controversial the paper was. Revankar and Senthil 14

“May 5, 1905: Chicago Defender Founded.” Zinn Education Project, 2021,

www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/chicago-defender-founded/.

This source was fascinating to us because we know Howard Zinn, the founder of this

website, for exposing the side of the oppressed in many specific contexts, but always in

general U.S. history. He calls out the predominant biases and motives of oppressors, and

exposes the suffering of the oppressed. His source provided us with multiple primary

source photographs of the background of the Chicago Defender, and really took into

account the huge impact that the paper had on the way that Americans viewed black

Americans. Though stirring up controversy, as mentioned by this source, black

Americans were enlightened by this paper, and this source did an admirable job of

describing this.

Michaeli, Ethan. Preface: Delphi on the Prairie. “The Defender: How the Legendary Black

Newspaper Changed America.” United States, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016.

This book helped us understand how the Chicago Defender has shaped politics and

government and still plays a role in the career of many important political figures today

(like Barack Obama).

Milkis, Sidney M.. "Progressivism". Encyclopedia Britannica, 8 Oct. 2019,

https://www.britannica.com/topic/progressivism. Accessed 1 March 2021.

This website provided a basic explanation of the Progressive Era. From this source, we

were able to understand what reforms the Chicago Defender focused on and how the

paper was able to tell the story of black Americans through the reform movements. Revankar and Senthil 15

Mooney, Amy M., “Seeing ‘As Others See Us’: The Chicago Defender Cartoonist Jay Jackson

as Cultural Critic,” MELUS, Volume 39, Issue 2, Summer 2014, Pages 115–120,

https://doi.org/10.1093/melus/mlu009

This book clearly states Abbott's mission for writing the Chicago Defender. This helped

us form a cohesive thesis that included Abbott's mission along with how his writing

impacted communication of the black story.

Moser, Whet. “Four Ways the Chicago Defender Changed America.” Chicago Magazine, 12 Jan.

2016,

www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/January-2016/Ethan-Michaeli-Chicago-Defen

der/.

This secondary source described the political influence exercised by the Chicago

Defender, as well as its coverage of famous figures such as Barack Obama and Michael

Jackson and its major involvement in the Great Migration. We found the image of then

presidential candidate John F. Kennedy and John Sengstacke (a publisher of the paper) to

be indicative of just how powerful the Chicago Defender had become by the later 20th

century.

Nelson, Stanley. “Black Press: Soldiers Without Swords.” YouTube, featuring Joe Morton and

Ron Carter, California Newsreel, 1998,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruQarGb3368.

This video clip was from the film “Black Press: Soldiers Without Sword.” This was the

first film to present the history of the Black press and convey its crucial role in the

construction of modern African American identity. It recounts the largely forgotten

stories of generations of Black journalists, such as Robert Abbott (the creator for the Revankar and Senthil 16

Chicago Defender), who risked their life and livelihood so African Americans could

represent themselves in their own words. This clip really helped further our argument that

Abbott paper was one of the more dominant and radical ones to be published and

successfully conveyed the story of black Americans.

Person. “When Black Kids - Shut out of the World of Children's Literature - Took Matters into

Their Own Hands.” Salon, Salon.com, 19 Feb. 2021,

www.salon.com/2021/02/20/when-black-kids--shut-out-world-of-childrens-literature--too

k-matters-into-their-own-hands_partner/.

This secondary source provides an interesting perspective that gave us insight into a

black child’s perspective of American children’s literature, which often excluded the

black community’s experience from its narratives. The picture depicts three boys holding

issues of the Chicago Defender, and this conveys the dependence on the paper from all

members of the black American community, and its influence and presence as an

uplifting aspect of written work produced in America.

Rahman, Rasul. “Black History Month Robert Abbott.” BEACON, 29 Jan. 2019,

wybeaconnews.org/10098/black-history-month-people-of-distinction/black-history-mont

h-robert-abbott/.

This website gave us a better understanding of Robert Abbotts background and what

motivated him to start publishing The Defender. Though we weren’t able to incorporate

much of the information into our website, it provided us with an image (of Robert Abbott

him) for us to use on our website. This source, with the purpose of honoring Black

History Month, recognized Robert Abbott, though a less-known historical figure, as an

influential man in the fight for the black community’s rights. Detailing his peaceful ways Revankar and Senthil 17

of advocacy, with the Chicago Defender, he is depicted as someone with significant

priorities, which support the greater good of the black American community.

Reedus, Glenn. “Quotation of the Day: The Chicago Defender, Influential Black Newspaper,

Prints Final Copy.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 10 July 2019,

www.nytimes.com/2019/07/09/todayspaper/quotation-of-the-day-the-chicago-defender-in

fluential-black-newspaper-prints-final-copy.html.

This secondary source was from the New York Times and it provided us with a quotation

from Glenn Reedus, a former editor of the Chicago Defender, during the time of the

paper transition from paper form to online. To us, the quote highlighted the openness and

expansiveness of the paper’s content, which enabled it to become so revolutionary among

other papers in American journalism in the 20th century.

“Remembering the Chicago Defender, Print Edition (1905 - 2019).” National Museum of

African American History and Culture, Smithsonian, 15 Aug. 2019,

nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/remembering-chicago-defender-print-edition-1905-2019.

This source detailed the legacy of the Chicago Defender and after providing insightful

background information regarding the paper, it went into detail about the various

movements and developments it contributed to, such as the black rights movement and

the Great Migration, which contributed to the eventual financial independence of the

black American population This source aided us with our research in that it supplemented

the knowledge of the Chicago Defender’s contributions to positively impacting the black

community. Revankar and Senthil 18

Staff, Tadias. “Tadias Magazine.” Spotlight: The Chicago Defender, One of America's Oldest

Black Newspapers at Tadias Magazine, 2020,

www.tadias.com/06/10/2020/spotlight-the-chicago-defender-one-of-americas-oldest-blac

k-newspapers/.

This secondary source provides us with a picture that we thought displayed the longevity

of the Chicago Defender’s advocacy for communicating “the black story.” Obama is seen

in the picture before his time in Congress, and this implies that perhaps his work in civil

rights with the paper might have impacted his success as a politician later on. The site’s

page covers the names of famous black figures affiliated with the paper, such as Langston

Hughes and Jesse Jackson, and this shows the paper’s far reach.

“The Chicago Defender.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service,

www.pbs.org/blackpress/news_bios/defender.html.

This website provided us with a brief background of the paper. Then it went on to discuss

how it differed from the other paper in the Black press of the time (it was much more

radical and straightforward than other papers). We were also able to use many images

from this source on our website.

“The Great Migration – America in Class – Resources for History & Literature Teachers

from the National Humanities Center.” America in Class, National Humanities Center, 10

Apr. 2012, americainclass.org/seminars/flvs/the-great-migration/.

This website provided us with a cartoon (“THe Awakening”) published in one of the

editorials of the Chicago Defender. The cartoon illustrates the pull factors attracting

southern Blacks to the industrial north during the Great Migration. Revankar and Senthil 19

Theodore Kornweibel Jr. (1994) ‘The most dangerous of all Negro journals’, American

Journalism, 11:2, 154-168, DOI: 10.1080/08821127.1994.10731612

This article explains how threatening the content published in Abbots paper was to the

racially segregated American society. His “radical” means to expose the harsh truth of

black life in America didn’t please federal political identities and they made various

attempts to shut down the black “yellow journalism.” This source helped us introduce the

idea of “yellow journalism” into our research and understand how progressive Abbott's

approach was to writing The Defender.