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WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 1 2 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace Cultural-Humanitarian Foundation “Sukhumi”

Ekaterine Gamakharia

Women in Search of Peace

The Perspectives of the Women of Georgia on Peaceful Future

Concluding document of the joint project of Cultural-Humanitarian Fund “Sukhumi“ (Kutaisi) and Association of Women of Abkhazia (Sukhum/i)

Published with the support of Swedish International Women’s Organization KVINNA TILL KVINNA

KUTAISI 2012 4

About the Author

The main focus of Ekaterine Gamakharia’s work is on human rights, particularly those of women and of internally displaced people (IDPs).

Ekaterine Gamakharia is a participant of a number of national and international conferences, trainings and seminars on women’s rights, conﬂ ict resolution and peace-building.

Her ﬁ rst employment was with Cultural Humanitarian Fund “Sukhumi”. In 2000-2006 she was the Director of the Women’s Rights Protection Division there. She still continues to work for Fund “Sukhumi” as a consultant.

In 2006 Ekaterine Gamakharia was awarded the John Smith Memorial Trust Fellowship to study democratic institutions in Great Britain.

In 2006-2007 she was awarded Edmund Muskie Fellowship to study international human rights law in the US.

In 2006-2007 she completed her Master’s Degree in the International Human Rights Law at Indiana University, US.

In 2007-2008 she worked as a National Consultant on IDP issues for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in Tbilisi, Georgia.

Since 2008 she has lived in Baku working as a freelance consultant and trainer for various NGOs.

Ekaterine Gamakharia is the author of analytic reports, books and manuals: “The Role of Women in Peace Building”, “Women at the Negotiation Table”, “The Road to Peace”, “Phenomenon of Women’s Leadership”, “Gender and Political Parties”, “Local Government and Gender”. WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 5

FOREWORD

The project was implemented by Cultural Humanitarian Fund “Sukhumi” (FS) in Kutaisi and the Association of Women of Abkhazia (AWA) in Sukhum/i. Joint Georgian-Abkhazian project “Conﬂ ict analysis from gender perspective: women’s vision of potential scenarios for the future of Georgia and Abkhazia” was supported by Swedish International Women’s organization KVINNA TILL KVINNA. Project implementers, FS and AWA exploited all their resources – their reputation, trust of their communities, human and technical resources - for the purpose of developing women’s vision of possible models of peace initiatives. The project started in 2010 and continued up to December 2011. Findings of the research are made available in a number of publications.

Long term goal of the project: Promotion of gender approach to Georgian-Abkhaz conﬂ ict resolution.

Aims of the project: • Preparation of women for participation in peace processes, and giving them the opportunity to express their “creative views” on the peaceful settlement of Georgian-Abkhaz conﬂ ict; • Developing a speciﬁ c agenda for the negotiations and women’s perspectives for possible unconventional models of peaceful coexistence of Georgians and Abkhazs

In the course of two years the implementers worked with their respective communities, but also held joint meetings to discuss the results. If required, certain alterations to the planned actions were introduced on the basis of mutual agreement. The factor of mutual trust and coordination of actions helped overcome the difﬁ culties arising in the process of work. The challenge lay mainly in the fact that over 400 participants were 6 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

involved in the project from both sides. These were women of very diverse social backgrounds, ages, world views. On the one hand, this caused certain difﬁ culties, on the other it offered the possibility to research and analyze the degree to which the women were prepared to become active participants of peace-building processes. It remained for the researchers to conclude from the variety of viewpoints what potential for breaking down stereotypes the society has and what its capacity for change and accepting the existing reality is. This publication is the concluding document of the joint Georgian- Abkhazian project and is produced by the Georgian side. The Abkhazian side has published it as a separate document.

This publication is it consists of 5 parts: - Part I. Brief history of women’s involvement in peace processes and existing legal mechanisms of involving women in conﬂ ict resolution and peace-building. - Part II. International experience of women’s participation in peace building and concluding peace agreements. - Part III. Analysis of research “Women’s perspective: Peace-building process and prospects of settlement of Georgian-Abkhazian Conﬂ ict” - Part IV. Outcomes of the creative training “Peaceful Future through Women’s Eyes” - Part V. Main Perspectives. Lessons learned and Recommendations

The document is published in three languages- full version in Georgian, condensed version – in Russian and English. This publication will provide Georgian and Abkhazian as well as international community with extensive information on the views of women’s organizations, women peacekeepers and young people concerning the issues of reconciliation and conﬂ ict resolution. New training program, basis of peace-building using creative methods, is a priority of the project. Work carried out in this direction can be considered as the most positive example of cooperation of Georgian and Abkhazian women. The training program was developed jointly by fund “Sukhumi” and AWA at the meeting held in Istanbul and represents WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 7 a synthesis of elements of a creative game and the traditional model of conﬂ ict resolution training. Detailed information about the training is presented in part IV of the publication. Project implementers from fund “Sukhumi” would like to hope that the publication will familiarize the readers with the outcomes of the project and the ways in which they can personally contribute to women’s involvement in peace-building. 8 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

CONTENTS

Introduction 9

Part 1 – The history of women’s participation in peace-building and international legal mechanisms of involving women in conﬂ ict resolution 12 1.1. Brief history of women in peace-building 12 1.2. Key international documents and legal mechanisms of involving women in conﬂ ict resolution 15

Part 2 - International experience of women’s participation in peace-building and concluding peace agreements 22 2.1. Rwanda 22 2.2. Somalia 24 2.3. Sri Lanka 25 2.4. Guatemala 26 2.5. Northern Ireland 28

Part 3 – Summary of research Analysis “Women’s perspective: Peace-building process and prospects of settlement of Georgian-Abkhazian Conﬂ ict” 30

3.1. Research aim and methodology 30 3.2. Research fi ndings 31 3.2.1. People to people diplomacy and its challenges 31 3.2.2. IDPs in peace building and confl ict resolution processes 31 3.2.3. Importance and potential of the strategy “Involvement Through Cooperation” for confl ict resolution 32 3.2.4. Resources for confl ict resolution 33 3.2.5. Conclusions 37

Part 4 – Outcomes of the creative training “Peaceful Future through Women’s Eyes” 39

Part 5 – Main Perspectives. Lessons learned and Recommendations 46 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 9

INTRODUCTION

What is a woman? I assure you, I do not know. I do not believe that you know. I do not believe that anybody can know until she has expressed herself in all the arts and professions open to human skill.

Virginia Woolf

Gradual ascension of women to leading positions in social and political life and their civic participation in addressing topical issues that concern society in the whole world have led to a number of positive and progressive social changes. Of particular importance is the involvement of women in the process of decision-making on the issues of confl ict resolution and building stable long-term peace. When a woman’s voice is heard, recognized and considered as signifi cant and valuable, sustainability of economy and social stability become more realistic and attainable. Unfortunately, existence of numerous international and national legal documents securing equal rights and opportunities for women to participate in politics, economic development, peace building and confl ict resolution does not guarantee their actual involvement in these processes. Women are still frequently excluded from peace talks and any areas that involve decision-making oriented to signifi cant social changes. This undoubtedly undermines the idea of democracy and threatens social stability of the community. It has to be emphasized that the claim of the importance of women’s involvement in reconciliation and peace-building processes in this study is not based on the premise that “all women are peacekeepers by nature”. There are women who are rather aggressive and who take part in 10 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

hostilities. For instance, in the period of 1990-2003 girls under the age of 18 served in the military forces of 55 countries and participated in armed conﬂ icts in 38 of these countries.1

The main grounds for arguing for the important role of women’s participation in the process of peace-building and dealing with violent and protracted confl icts are as follows: - Women’s voice in the peace processes is a realization of the idea of social justice and is based on the principles of equality and human rights. Peace achieved through active involvement of women, who represent a half of the society, has a far greater chance of sustainability than a peace agreement reached in the talks of high government offi cials; - Women carry the main share of responsibility for their children and other vulnerable family members. Thus, excluding them from the sphere that directly infl uences the welfare of each family and individual would promote social injustice and insecurity; - Women have experience in the issues of war and peace that is substantially different from that of men and they need to be encouraged to bring their unique abilities to the process of peace-building; - Women are frequent victims of physical violence during war and post-confl ict period. So they have the right to be directly involved in reconciliation and building a fair and long-term peace; - Women tend to focus on practical issues of creating adequate standard of life and physical security. They are the ones who prioritize issues related to education, health care, nutrition, child care, human wellbeing and security.

It should be noted that often public perception of women as “victims” of confl ict prevails and overshadows the essential role they play as peacebuilders during the confl ict and in the post-confl ict rehabilitation period. Evidence proves that women can act as peacekeepers and ambassadors for peace at the times of confl icts contributing to the beginning of dialogue between the confl icting groups. They are willing to make the fi rst steps to

1 Susan McKay and Dyan Mazurana “Where are the Girls? Girls in Fighting Forces in Northern Uganda, Sierra Leone, and Mozambique: Their Lives During and After War.” Mon- treal: International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development. 2004, page, 21 available at http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/MCKAY/Documents/girls%20ang%20v5.pdf WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 11 reconciliation and forgive for the sake of life and security of their children and husbands. At the times of hardship women combine the functions of family hearth keepers and breadwinners, they are the carriers of cultural values and social standards, they have to maintain peace in their families and create even in the environment of violence and destruction. Therefore, who would appreciate peace more than a woman and who deserves to play a key role in building peace more than a woman does?

The presented study consists of 5 parts and has the following structure: the fi rst part describes origin and brief history of women’s peacekeeping, provides traditional and historical examples of women’s participation in peace-building. It also includes information on international and regional documents and mechanisms that guarantee women’s equal participation in confl ict resolution processes at offi cial as well as informal levels. The second part introduces successful experience of women’s participation in peace-building and confl ict resolution in Rwanda, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Guatemala and Northern Ireland. The third part presents the fi ndings of the qualitative research conducted with women from different parts of Georgia. The focus of the research is the distance traveled in the peace process and the prospects of resolution of Georgian-Abkhazian confl ict. Participants of the survey discuss the resources that need to be used more actively in the peace- building process, the role of people to people diplomacy and the importance of involving internally displaced people in confl ict resolution. Interviewees share their views of the most effective methods and ways of settling the protracted Georgian-Abkhazian confl ict and suggest specifi c issues that need to be included in the agenda of negotiations. The fourth part generalizes the results of a four-day creative training where 16 young female participants attempted to take a novel, creative look at the possible scenarios of Abkhazia’s future and suggest their ideas regarding the ways of confl ict resolution. The fi nal fi fth part presents the main perspectives, lessons learned and recommendations based on the analysis and generalization of the data obtained during the process of research and training. 12 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

PART I

THE HISTORY OF WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN PEACE-BUILDING AND INTERNATIONAL LEGAL MECHANISMS OF INVOLVING WOMEN IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION

1.1. BRIEF HISTORY OF WOMEN IN PEACE-BUILDING

The involvement of women in peacekeeping efforts dates as far back as violence and confl icts themselves. History provides numerous examples of women successfully performing the functions of peacekeepers. In the Caucasus Mountains where blood feuds were an accepted mode of life it was women whom society entrusted with the responsibility of reducing the number of victims. For instance, a woman could prevent bloodshed simply by dropping her headscarf between the fi ghting men. If there was a blood feud between two clans, a woman from either of the feuding families could put an end to hostilities by suckling a baby from the other clan. Sometimes this happened by mutual agreement. However, it could also occur against the wish of the opposing side. When pursued by enemies a man could fi nd shelter in women’s quarters as no act of vengeance, especially murder, could be committed in the presence of women.

The history of Georgia knows cases when women ofﬁ cially acted as peacekeepers. For instance, Queen Mariam, the widow of King George I (the daughter of Senekerim II Artsruni, King of Armenia) headed the delegation to Byzantium to conduct peace talks with the emperor Romanos III on behalf of the Kingdom of Georgia. Her mission was accomplished successfully and peace between the two countries was secured by a wedding of the Georgian King Bagrat IV (Mariam’s son) and the Emperor’s niece. Women have also been involved in resolving internal conﬂ icts in WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 13

Georgia. In 1188-1189 during the revolt of barons headed by Kurtlu- Arslan, Queen Tamar sent two noblewomen Khuashak Tsokali and Kravai Jakeli to conduct negotiations and they managed to ﬁ nd a compromise and quell the uprising peacefully. In 1600 a delegation travelled to Istanbul to free the King of Kartli, Simon I from captivity. Among the members of the delegation were Gulchara, a woman diplomat of XVI-XVII cc., daughter of King George X, and her brother David. During her stay in the Sultan’s palace Gulchara earned his mother’s trust and became very close to her. The sultan and his mother asked Gulchara to assist them in their negotiations with Abas I during Ottoman- Persian war (1602-1612) and promised to free King Simon in return. In order to reach some consensus between the sides Gulchara met with both the Sultan and the Shah several times and in 1612 having successfully completed the negotiations returned to Istanbul together with the Persian ambassador. An excellent diplomat and negotiator Gulchara played an important role in concluding the peace treaty between the parties.

The turn of the XX century saw emergence of active feminist, suffragette2 and pacifi st movements. A good example of the fi rst women’s peace organization is the Women’s Peace Party established by American feminists Jane Addams and Carrie Chapman Catt. Jane Addams, one of the fi rst activists of American social reform movement, a pacifi st, founder of Hull House3 and the fi rst president of Women’s Peace party, together

2 Suffragettes - members of the movement for women's suffrage. The suffragettes opposed to discrimination against women in the political and economic life, available at (in Russian) http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki 3 Hull House facilities included kindergarten classes, a library, a gym, a book bindery, a public kitchen, a labor museum, an art studio as well as a cooperative residence for working women. It also housed dozens of clubs, an artists’ group, a music school and even a drama group. It offered classes in English, cooking, sewing and literature and attracted thousands of people from the neighborhood slums. Thanks to the support of wealthy Chicago philanthropists Hull House expanded to a massive 13-building com- plex which provided space for the settlement’s extensive social, educational and recre- ational programs. The infl uence of Hull House led to establishing the fi rst juvenile court in the United States (1889). Addams used her infl uence to improve laws on woman and child labor, compulsory schooling and labor safety in industry. Like other well-educated women she was involved in lobbying, data collection, statistics and forming public opinion. available at http://n-t.ru/nl/mr/addams.htm 14 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

with Carrie Chapman Catt, the President of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, the founder of the League of Women Voters and the International Alliance of Women, organized a convention with 3000 women delegates. The main aim was an appeal for peace, arms reduction and nationalization of the production of armaments. The women opposed militarism in culture and American government.

In 1915 the Women’s Peace Party with the help of a Dutch pacifi st Aletta Jacobs and German feminists Anita Augspurg and Lida Gustava Heymann organized International Women’s Congress in the Hague to protest against the war then raging in Europe and causing deaths and destruction. 20 resolutions were passed by the participants of the congress. In May and June, 1915 small delegations of congress participants were dispatched to fourteen different countries for dissemination of the resolutions. The President of the USA Woodrow Wilson remarked during the meeting with Jane Addams that these resolutions are among the best documents designed for the purpose of peacekeeping and he even “borrowed” some of the ideas for his proposals announced later. In spite of all the obstacles the congress in the Hague established a new international organization called the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace. In May, 1919 the II International Congress of Women was held in Zurich (Switzerland), Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom was established and Jane Addams was elected as its international president. The league advocated “confl ict resolution based on human solidarity and international cooperation, social, political and economic justice for all regardless of gender, race, class and religion”. Together with Emily Greene Balch, the secretary-treasurer of the League, Addams tried to infl uence the League of Nations to introduce democratic changes through acknowledging the rights of minorities. Both women Jane Addams (in 1931) and Emily Greene Balch (in 1946), received the Nobel Peace Price for their peace efforts. The XX century was defi nitely a turning point in advancing women’s political rights, especially during World War I. Women in Europe and America were granted the right to vote and they became very active in expressing their political views through a variety of means. Although women’s peace movement failed to produce signifi cant changes, stop WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 15 the war and contribute to the conclusion of peace treaty, their tireless and unrelenting struggle for peace should be appreciated. International organizations that have succeeded International Committee of Women continue their efforts to achieve peace all over the world.

1.2. KEY INTERNATIONAL DOCUMENTS AND LEGAL MECHANISMS OF INVOLVING WOMEN IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Today there are a number of international and regional resolutions, conventions, agreements and recommendations that make reference to ensuring equal participation of men and women in decision-making and speciﬁ cally obligate its member states to involve women in conﬂ ict resolution at all levels.

Key international and regional legal documents and instruments dealing with women’s involvement in conﬂ ict resolution and peace-building are cited below.

The Resolution of The UN Security Council №1325 on women and peace and security (S/RES/1325) Adopted on December 31, 2000.

The resolution №1325 adopted unanimously by the UN Security Council is a landmark document that has cleared the way for incorporating gender issues in all activities related to restoring, keeping and building peace and it envisages a wide scope of measures to be taken. The resolution stresses “the importance of [women’s] equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in decision-making with regard to conﬂ ict prevention and resolution” (Preamble). It urges states and international organizations to increase the participation of women in all peace and security efforts, to ensure increased representation of women at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions, to appoint more women as special representatives and envoys 16 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

of UN. Women in this document are viewed not only as “victims” of conﬂ ict but also as drivers of change.

“Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women” (CEDAW) UN General Assembly A/34/46 Adopted on December 18, 1979

The objective of CEDAW is to eliminate discrimination against women defi ned as “any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other fi eld” (part 1). The convention obligates the states to adopt legislation and take all appropriate measures aiming at eliminating discrimination against women and adopting mechanisms for legal protection of equal rights for women. On October 6, 1999 the Optional Protocol to the Convention was adopted and it entered into force on December 22, 2000. It establishes individual complaint mechanisms for violations of the Convention. Convention oversight is the task of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, which is made up of 23 experts. As of April 2010, 99 states were parties to the Protocol and other 17 had signed but not ratifi ed it yet.

“Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action” Fourth World Conference on Women, A/CONF.177/20 (1995) and A/CONF.177/20/ Add.1 (1995) Adopted on 15 December 1995

Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action were adopted unanimously by the Fourth World Conference on Women. The document focuses on 12 areas of concern and hundreds of measures that are to be taken for the purpose of improving women’s conditions and advancement of women’s rights and opportunities including numerous responsibilities connected with their involvement in conﬂ ict resolution. The Declaration states: WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 17

“Women are increasingly establishing themselves as central actors in a variety of capacities in the movement of humanity for peace. Their full participation in decision-making, confl ict prevention and resolution and all other peace initiatives is essential to the realization of lasting peace”. The Platform lists the following strategic objectives that governments are recommended to take into consideration with regard to women and confl icts: Strategic objective E.1. Increase the participation of women in confl ict resolution at decision-making levels and protect women living in situations of armed and other confl ict or under foreign occupation. Strategic objective E.2. Reduce excessive military expenditures and control the availability of armaments. Strategic objective E.3. Promote non-violent forms of confl ict resolution and reduce the incidence of human rights abuse in confl ict situations. Strategic objective E.4. Promote women’s contribution to fostering a culture of peace. Strategic objective E.5. Provide protection, assistance and training to refugee women, other displaced women in need of international protection and internally displaced women. Strategic objective E.6. Provide assistance to the women of the colonies and non-selfgoverning territories.

Beijing + 5 “Women 2000: gender equality, development and peace for the twenty-ﬁ rst century”

In June 2000 Special Session of UN General Assembly was held which came to be known as “Beijing + 5”. The Special Session reviewed and assessed the progress achieved in the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action adopted at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. It also considered future actions and initiatives for the following 5 years.

The states committed themselves to z ensure and support the full participation of women at all levels of decision-making concerning conﬂ ict prevention and resolution, peacemaking, peace-building and post-conﬂ ict reconstruction; 18 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

z provide gender-sensitive training to all actors, as appropriate, in peacekeeping missions; z support national efforts to promote formal and non-formal education for women in order to enable them to acquire skills in leadership, advocacy and confl ict resolution; z develop gender-sensitive strategies for the delivery of assistance and responses to humanitarian crises resulting from confl icts; z involve women refugees and displaced women in the design and management of humanitarian activities so that they benefi t from these activities on an equal basis with men; z seek to ensure the full and equal participation of women in the promotion of peace, in particular through the full implementation of the UNESCO program on the Culture of Peace; z explore new ways of generating new public and private fi nancial resources through the appropriate reduction of excessive military expenditures and the arms trade and investment for arms production and acquisition.

The Windhoek Declaration and the Namibia Plan of Action on Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in Multidimensional Peace Support Operations (S/2000/693)4 Adopted on May 31, 2000

The Windhoek Declaration and the Namibia Plan of Action were adopted at the seminar organized by the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Ofﬁ ce of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women, and hosted by the Namibian Government in Windhoek. These documents are referred to in the Resolution 1325 (2000) adopted by of the UN Security Council Resolution № 1325 on Women, Peace and Security. The Declaration and Plan of Action state that “the principles of gender equity and equality must permeate the entire mission, at all levels, thus ensuring the participation of women and men as equal partners and beneﬁ ciaries in all aspects of the peace process, from peacekeeping,

4 Windhoek Declaration and Namibia Plan of Action on “Mainstreaming a Gender Per- spective in Multidimensional Peace Support Operations”, (S/2000/693), May 31, 2000, available at http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/windhoek_declaration.pdf WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 19 reconciliation and peace-building, towards a situation of political stability in which women and men play an equal part in the political, economic and social development of their country.” (Preamble) “In accordance with the Secretary-General’s target of 50 per cent women in managerial and decision-making positions” (para.3) The United Nations must set an example by rapidly increasing the number of senior female civilian personnel in peace support organizations... (para.5)

European Parliament Resolution on Participation of Women in Peaceful Conﬂ ict Resolution (2000/2025(INI)) Adopted on November 30, 2000

The resolution “calls on the Commission and the Member States to gender sensitize peace and security related initiatives” (para. 8) It also calls on the Member States to promote equal participation of women in diplomatic conﬂ ict resolution and reconstruction initiatives at all levels, and to that end recruit more women to the diplomatic services, increase the percentage of women in delegations to national, regional and international meetings concerned with peace and security, as well as in formal peace negotiations (para.13).

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe “2004 OSCE Action Plan for the Promotion of Gender Equality” Adopted on December 7, 2004

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is one of the key instruments of early warning, confl ict prevention, crisis management and post-confl ict rehabilitation in the region. Principal tools used for addressing a wide range of concerns including security-related ones are the following: arms control, diplomatic efforts aiming at confl ict prevention, confi dence- and security-building measures, human rights, development of democratic institutions, election monitoring, economic and environmental activities. According to OSCE Action Plan “equal rights of women and men and the protection of their human rights are essential to peace, sustainable democracy, economic development and therefore to security and stability in the OSCE region” (Preamble). 20 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

Encouraging women’s participation in conﬂ ict prevention, crisis management and post-conﬂ ict reconstruction is one of the priorities of OSCE activities (para. 44, e).

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Decision No. 14/05 “Women in Conﬂ ict Prevention, Crisis Management and Post-Conﬂ ict Rehabilitation” Adopted on December 6, 2005

The decision encourages “participating States to develop national rosters of potential women Candidates... and take active steps to ensure that women are fully informed of and encouraged to apply for positions in the area of conﬂ ict prevention and post-conﬂ ict rehabilitation processes, in particular for senior management positions” (para.3). The Decision calls on participating States and OSCE structures “to support and encourage training and educational programmes focusing on women and girls, as well as projects aimed at women’s participation in building sustainable peace; to empower women’s organizations; to support women’s peace initiatives through the media and workshops on human rights and gender equality; and to raise awareness among women concerning the importance of their involvement in political processes” (para. 6).

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the guidelines of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC)

OECD is an international economic organisation of the developed countries committed to principles of representative democracy and the free market economy. At present it has 34 member countries including majority of EU members. Development Assistance Committee (DAC) OECD, a forum for major donor countries, published the “Policy Statement on Conﬂ ict, Peace and Development Co-operation” in 1997. It openly recognizes the important role played by women in peace-building and reconciliation. It states: “Women can play special roles as bridging partners in dialogue, peace negotiations, reconstruction and rehabilitation strategies and contribute their special experience and perceptions to peace-building and reconciliation efforts”. These principles were further reinforced in “The DAC Guidelines on WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 21

Helping Prevent Violent Conﬂ ict” published by Development Assistance Committee in 2001. It calls on OECD member-states to “actively engage women, men and youth in peace-building and policy-making processes”.5 DAC guidelines published in 2005 emphasize that women are key actors of the civil society in the process of peace-building, reconciliation and reconstruction. Although the guidelines are not legally binding, they represent a coordinated position of donor states in relation to conﬂ icts and the role of women.

Conclusions of the meeting of the G8 Foreign Ministers “Strengthening the Role of Women in Conﬂ ict Prevention” Adopted on July 18-19, 2001

The Group of Eight (G8) is an international forum for the governments of the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Canada, Russia, the United States, France and Japan, which provides a framework for coordinating approaches on major international issues. In the Conclusions the Group of Eight emphasizes the importance of the systematic involvement of women in the prevention of conﬂ icts, encourages the participation of all actors of civil society, including women’s organizations, in peace-building as well as the appointment of more women to national and international posts, including SRSGs, Special Envoys, Resident Coordinators, etc.

Other Regional Organizations

In order to demonstrate their commitment to international law and principles many regional multilateral institutions including the Organization of American States, the African Union, The Southern African Development Community and The New Partnership for Africa’s Development have adopted a number of declarations and resolutions calling for women’s involvement in peace processes.

5 “The DAC Guidelines Helping Prevent Violent Conﬂ ict” the Development As- sistance Committee (DAC), OECD, 2001, p.18, available at http://www.oecd.org/ dataoecd/15/54/1886146.pdf 22 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

PART II , INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE OF WOMEN S PARTICIPATION IN PEACE BUILDING AND CONCLUDING PEACE AGREEMENTS

Absence of women in offi cial peace negotiations is evident and is considered as an alarming issue nowadays. However, the role of women’s movement in achieving peace agreements in armed confl icts in different countries of the world should not be underestimated. This part portrays the infl uence of women’s peace movement on the society in different confl ict-affected countries of the world as well as the role of women in peace processes and post-confl ict reconstruction in the countries like Rwanda, Somalia, Sri-Lanka, Guatemala, and Northern Ireland.

2.1 RWANDA

As a result of ﬁ erce confrontation among the Tutsi and Hutu people in Rwanda the estimates of the death toll of the genocide have ranged between 500,000 to 1,030,000.6 Millions of people were forced to be internally displaced and many ﬂ ed abroad escaping death. Estimates are that between 250,000 and 500,000 women and girls were direct victims of physical and sexual violence.7 Recognizing the fact that gender equality and political empowerment of women are prerequisites for ensuring long-term peace and development, Rwandan government established Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion which initiated the program for establishing the National

6 Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, “Genocide in Rwanda», available at http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki 7 John Mutamba and Jeanne Izabiliza, “The role of the women in reconciliation and peace building in Rwanda: ten Year After Genocide 1994-2004, Contributions, Challenges and Way Forward”, The national Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC), May 2005, page 33, available at http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/ handle/2152/4786/3871.pdf?sequence=1 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 23

Women’s Council. The Council granted opportunities to Rwandese women to express their opinions and interests on the issues of reconstruction, and, thus directly involved them in the process of policy-making in the country. Women were represented in executive, legislature and judiciary bodies. Women politicians and wives of politicians established Unity Club which disseminated the ideas of unity and reconciliation of the society. Women politicians lobbied persistently for passing laws that promoted equal rights and opportunities for women. They took necessary measures to provide support for orphans, the starving and needy. By involving women from the grassroots level women parliamentarians contributed greatly to promoting gender equality and developing a new constitution. Constitution of Rwanda grants women 30 percent quota of posts at decision-making levels. Women also introduced the practice of monitoring the budget to ensure provision for gender components in the process of its planning. It is worth noting that according to 2010 data 56% of the members of the Parliament of Rwanda are women.8 The President of the Supreme Court of Rwanda is a woman and the Minister of Justice is also a woman. Of the 12 judges in the Supreme Court, 5 are women or a representation of 41.7%.9 Furthermore, women are executive secretaries of traditional community Gacaca courts.10 Overall, women occupy 26% of the posts of judges in these courts.

In the aftermath of genocide the major issues on the agenda of Rwandan government were reconstruction and maintaining security.

8 WikiGender, “Gender Equality in Rwanda”, available at http://www.wikigender.org/index.php/Gender_Equality_in_Rwanda 9 John Mutamba and Jeanne Izabiliza, “The role of the women in reconciliation and peace building in Rwanda: ten Year After Genocide 1994-2004, Contributions, Chal- lenges and Way Forward”, The national Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC), May 2005, page 14, available at http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4786/3871.pdf?sequence=1 10 The Gacaca court is part of a system of community justice inspired by tradition and established in 2001 in Rwanda, in the wake of the Rwandan Genocide. Originally, the Gacaca settled village or familial disputes. The courts were informal means of solving disputes around issues like theft, marital issues, land rights, and property damage. The trials were meant to promote reconciliation and justice of the perpetrator. Well-respected elders were elected based on their honesty by the people of the community. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gacaca_court 24 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

Massive repatriation of refugees was followed by disorders caused by Hutu ex-militia and former military of Rwanda (Hutu). Women at their own risk, at times even endangering their own lives, personally entered into dialogue with insurgents and persuaded them to abandon the idea of rebellion. They assisted in negotiations between the government forces and insurgents which resulted in an agreement that in the case of peaceful capitulation they would be granted freedom.

2.2. SOMALIA

Protracted armed civil confl ict continuing from 1988 to present has had terrible consequences for the people of Somalia. Many have lost relatives and family members, their livelihoods and state support. Thousands of people were forced to leave their homes and seek refuge in other countries. Women and girls became victims of physical and sexual violence. It is worth noting that traditionally in Somali community participating in confl ict resolution was men’s prerogative, especially that of the elders. Women, as a rule, are excluded from decision-making. However, belonging to a number of various clans, those of the father, husband, sons and sons- in-law, gives them access and opportunity to mediate between confl icting clans. Women have managed to reach agreements on the issue of members of one clan travelling safely across the territory of another clan or facilitating reconciliation between the confl icting sides, etc. Exercising infl uence on the men of their own clans, women succeeded in including 10 non-voting women observers in peace talks in Borame in 1993 and 11 – in Hargeisa in 1996. Women’s active and successful work paved their way to Somali National Peace Conference in Arta. For the fi rst time 2000 delegates representing their clans included 100 women. In 2002, a group of 92 women delegates gathered outside a large military tent in Arta and agreed to break out of their clan-based allegiances to vote as a single bloc. When the conference opened, the women lobbied successfully to be recognized as the “Sixth Clan” transcending clan identity. The Sixth Clan Coalition campaigned for 10 percent representation for women i.e. 25 seats (with each of the fi ve WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 25 main clans allotted fi ve seats within the women’s delegation). During the conference, 70 percent of the women in the coalition voted as a bloc and were able to bring about the creation of a national charter that reserved for women 25 of the seats in the 245-member parliament.11 The charter that the women helped to negotiate also guarantees the human rights of children, women, and minorities. In 2004 the Nairobi talks concluded with an agreement that reserves 12 percent of the seats in Somali National Parliament for women delegates. The Sixth Clan Coalition passed another milestone at the Nairobi conference, as for the fi rst time in Somali history a woman signed a peace agreement.

2.3. SRI LANKA

Armed confrontation between the central government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) continued from 1983 to 2009 and resulted in the loss of more than 80,000 lives. Approximately 1 million people had to abandon their homes.12 The confl ict had a devastating effect on women’s lives. Having lost their relatives and family members many of them were forced to leave homes and shoulder the burden of being sole breadwinners and protectors of their families. Women became victims of different types of sexual violence. A separate category of victims of violence are Tamil women who were recruited by “Tamil Tigers”. 13 Offi cial peace process started in Sri Lanka only in 2002 with the main goal of ceasefi re agreement. In spite of the wealth of experience women had accumulated during the decades of peace activities at the community

11 Debra M. Timmons, “The Sixth Clan — Women Organize for Peace in Somalia: A Review of Published Literature”, University For Peace, 2004, available at http://www. upeace.org/library/documents/somalia_the_sixth_clan.pdf 12 Maria Villellas Arino “Women’s Participation in Peace Processes, and The Other Tables”, International Catalan Institute for Peace, Working Paper No. 2010/5 Barce- lona, may, 2010, page 40 13 Maria Villellas Arino “Women’s Participation in Peace Processes, and The Other Tables”, International Catalan Institute for Peace, Working Paper No. 2010/5 Barce- lona, may, 2010, page 40 26 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

level, their role in the peace talks was minimal. However, women had no intention to give up. Women’s movement in Sri Lanka, which united several ethnic groups, organized an international mission and together with feminists and activists from different countries of the world outlined recommendations that refl ected the demand to support women’s participation in offi cial peace processes and integrate female perspective in all the peace agreements signed during the talks. The Government of Norway, mediator of peace negotiations, supported this demand of women’s groups and in 2003 the establishment of the Subcommittee on Gender Issues was agreed upon. Astrid Heiberg was appointed as an advisor to this committee and her responsibilities included facilitating the activities of the unit, promoting mutual understanding among women members of the Subcommittee on Gender Issues, namely Tamil women – former LTTE fi ghters and Sinhalese women - representatives of the government. Establishing the Subcommittee was an improvement, even if partial, in the cause of involving women in peace-building. In the period before the peace talks broke down, after two meetings women participants of the Subcommittee on Gender Issues were able to agree on the common agenda consisting of seven items considered to be pivotal to the talks: promoting peace process, resettlement, personal security, issues of infrastructure and services, livelihood and reconciliation. Unfortunately, discontinuation of the peace process made work of the Subcommittee impossible although its members still continue to communicate unoffi cially.

2.4. GUATEMALA

Civil war in Guatemala does not have clear-cut time boundaries. It can be broken down into several periods spanning approximately 36 years (1960-1996). According to the estimates of Truth Commission over 200,000 people were killed and disappeared as a result of the war.14 It is worth noting that women played a considerable role in this conﬂ ict. They were involved as combatants as well as peace activists. Women

14 Human Rights Watch, Guatemala, 2008, available at http://www.hrw.org/en/node/79213 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 27 represented 15% of the military during the war and 25% of political personnel during peace.15 Civil society involvement in the Guatemalan peace process was owed in large part to grassroots efforts by the Catholic Church. It played an important role in forming favourable public opinion of national dialogue, and “humanization of war” through searching for solutions to structural problems. Formed by the government, partly at the insistence of the Church offi cials, National Reconciliation Commission initiated negotiations in 1989 that have come to be known as “Great National Dialogue”. This was the fi rst time that civil society was permitted the possibility to express their varied views on the war and defi ne the most burning issues that were later included into the agenda of the talks. Notably, in 1997, in accordance with the Guatemalan Peace Accords signed in 1996, the National Women’s Forum was established with the aim of monitoring implementation of the state’s obligations to women. Establishing the Forum was a breakthrough in promoting women’s rights and gender-sensitive policies. The Forum played a crucial role in mobilizing women to defend the provisions of the peace accord envisaging the end of the protracted civil war. It is thanks to women’s active participation that many of the topical issues are refl ected in the accords. For instance, the Accord on Resettlement of the Populations Uprooted by the Armed Confl ict includes provisions on measures for safety of women, widows and orphans who were victims of the civil war. The Forum facilitated establishing Presidential Secretariat of Women Affairs that was involved in developing the National Policy on the Promotion and Development of Women and the Equal Opportunity Plan for 2001- 2006. The Forum also conducted political leadership trainings for women that aimed to encourage their involvement in government structures of Guatemala. In spite of women’s active participation and important role in peace processes, they failed to fi nd a signifi cant place in the country’s political

15 Ilja A. Luciak, “National Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) in Latin America: Key Areas of Concern and Model Plan for Action, Needs Assessment Report“ Ofﬁ ce of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI) Department of Economic and Social Affairs, UN, p.12 available at http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/cdrom/documents/Needs_Assessment_LAC.pdf 28 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

life. On completion of peace processes women’s political activism declined considerably. Although Women’s Forum of Political Parties has introduced a bill on 44% quota for women at both national and municipal levels, the law has not been passed yet. According to 2010 data women occupy only 12% (19 out of 158) of the seats in Guatemalan parliament.

2.5. NORTHERN IRELAND

As a result of confrontation between central British government and local radical right-wing catholic and nationalist organizations in Northern Ireland 3524 people including 1857 civilians were killed from both sides. The impact of the war on women was dramatic. Having lost husbands, family members and relatives they had to shoulder the full responsibility for their families. At present the confl ict remains unresolved, although formally this 30-year military confrontation is considered to have ended with the Belfast Agreement of April 10, 1998.16 When reviewing women’s contribution to the peace process the role of Northern Ireland Women’s Coalition (NIWC) needs to be singled out. From the time when it was fi rst established in 1996 this organization was women’s most infl uential mouthpiece on the political arena. As the peace process began, being elected to a representative body was one of the prerequisites to taking part in negotiations. This motivated women to establish a political party in order to gain access to offi cial peace talks. NIWC united women of different national and religious backgrounds. This intercommunal party with strong representation of women from social movement was an alternative force in political debates and played a major role in lobbying women’s inclusion in political life, putting gender issues on the country’s political agenda. In spite of some skepticism and criticism caused by the appearance of women’s political party, NIWC succeeded in winning suffi cient number of votes in the elections to be represented in the negotiations by two women delegates. Two years after the elections NIWC took part in multilateral talks as well as in the Northern Ireland Forum for Political Dialogue. Women’s party actively advocated issues of health, domestic violence and need for

16 Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Confl ict in Northern Ireland, available at http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 29 women’s active involvement in the government and leadership roles at all levels. Although they were in the minority during the negotiations, their comments and recommendations concerning the rights of the victims, police services, release of political prisoners, establishing the Citizen’s Forum, as well as on relationship between Britain, Ireland and Northern Ireland were refl ected in the drafted peace agreement. On the day of Belfast “Good Friday”, on April 10, 1998, when the participants from different political parties were offi cially asked to vote on the agreement they had been working on for the previous two years, each of the parties expressed approval.17 Women’s participation in peace talks clearly led to expansion of the range of issues discussed and subsequently included in the fi nal agreement. Even though the women’s party failed to maintain their position on the political arena for long, inclusion of the gender component in the agenda of the negotiations was their important achievement. One of the best-organized civil movements is the alliance of non- governmental organizations called Equality Coalition which owes much of its success to women leaders as well as representatives of women’s organizations. The alliance was involved in the process known as “twin- track peace process”. Having substantial expertise in community work and exhaustive information on the most topical issues women were the driving force of the “twin-track” process. The coalition advocated the government’s obligation to promote gender approaches while developing future policies. This was refl ected in section 6.3 of the agreement entitled “Rights, Safeguards and Equality of Opportunity”. Thus, women’s contribution was considerable whether at the stage of preparation of the peace agreement or at the stage its adoption. The key factor determining the success of this enterprise was collaboration of women from political parties and civil society.

17 Erin Currier “Women and Conﬂ ict Resolution: Feminism, Peace-Building, and Poli- tics in the European Union” Eighth International Women’s Policy Research Conference, June, 2005, available at http://www.iwpr.org/PDF/05_Proceedings/Currier_Erin.pdf 30 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

PART III

SUMMARY OF RESEARCH ANALYSIS , ,,WOMEN S PERSPECTIVE: PEACE-BUILDING PROCESS ,, AND PROSPECTS OF SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIAN-ABKHAZ CONFLICT

3.1. RESEARCH AIM AND METHODOLOGY

Women from different backgrounds, activists of civil society, scholars, teachers, housewives, leaders of NGOs, representatives of government and international organizations, journalists from different parts of Georgia, in particular from Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Batumi,Tskaltubo, Senaki, Poti, Zugdidi, Khurcha (a village bordering Abkhazia, in Zugdidi region), Nabakevi (a village in Abkhazia, Gali region) have been interviewed in order to study the opinions of women from different regions of Georgia regarding effectiveness of peace initiatives, whether already implemented or still in progress, in the context of Georgian-Abkhaz conﬂ ict and to elaborate women’s approaches and visions for successful management of peace process both on ofﬁ cial and informal levels. The data was collected using focus group discussion method (53 respondents) and personal interviews (15 respondents). The research was mainly focused on collecting qualitative information and not on quantitative data. The total number of respondents was 68.

The main objectives of the research were to: z determine the signifi cance of people to people diplomacy in the peace process and outline its major challenges; z explore the respondents’ opinions regarding involvement of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in the process of peaceful settlement of the confl ict; z elicit the attitude of the respondents towards the State Strategy “Engagement through Cooperation” and estimate the potential of this document in the confl ict resolution process; z study the women’s opinion on existing resources in peacemaking activities and the most effective efforts for confl ict resolution; WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 31

z elaborate women’s approach to conﬂ ict resolution with concrete proposals for the agenda of the negotiations.

3.2 RESEARCH FINDINGS

3.2.1. People to people diplomacy and its challenges

Majority of participants of the research emphasized that the August War has entirely transformed the situation and polarized the positions of the groups split by this confl ict. It has seriously undermined the results of the tireless efforts of public organizations directed towards confi dence building and peaceful resolution of the confl ict and has clearly protracted the confl ict even more. Although absolute majority of the interviewees believe that people to people diplomacy is one of the most effective mechanisms of rebuilding trust, many of them stressed that people to people diplomacy alone will not be suffi cient without international support and the political will of the state.

In the process of discussions the following factors emerged as impeding the effectiveness of the infl uence of people to people diplomacy on state policy: ¾ insuffi ciently serious attitude of the state and general public toward people to people diplomacy; ¾ insuffi cient cooperation between the government and non- governmental sector; involvement of only a limited group of people in this process; ¾ insuffi cient publicity of bilateral meetings and the work done; ¾ public passivity and lack of interest in getting involved in the process of people to peole diplomacy; ¾ lack of peacekeeping and independent media; ¾ dependence on the third party.

3.2.2. IDPs in peace-building and conflict resolution processes

According to the ofﬁ cial data of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Georgia has over 247,000 internally displace 32 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

people from Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Majority of them have been torn from their roots, their land and homes for over 18 years and still continue to live in the hope of return and peaceful future. It was emphasized during the discussions that IDP’s participation in the process of confl ict resolution is not only desirable but absolutely necessary. Several arguments were put forward in support of their active involvement in peace processes: Firstly, IDPs are the people who are directly concerned and emotionally involved in confl ict resolution. Their whole future depends on the decisions made during offi cial negotiations. Having very specifi c experience and needs they must take part in dialogue and decision-making at every level. Secondly, IDPs are the people carrying not only painful and tragic, but also warm and happy memories of coexistence with Abkhazians and Ossetians. Some still maintain links with relatives, colleagues and friends in Abkhazia. According to the respondents this is an invaluable resource that needs to be considered and utilized in the process of reconciliation. On the other hand, the interviewees stressed that spontaneous inclusion of IDPs has to be avoided. They expressed the belief that only peacefully disposed people who are well-respected in both communities, are prepared to listen to and appreciate an opponent’s view and have some skills in confl ict management should be involved in peace processes.

3.2.3. Importance and potential of the strategy ,, ,,Engagement through Cooperation for conflict resolution

In January 2010 the government of Georgia adopted “State Strategy on Occupied Territories: Engagement through Cooperation” which, in a sense, is the fi rst offi cial document refl ecting the government’s new vision of the issue of confl ict resolution in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The document focuses on economic cooperation, support of trade, rehabilitation of roads and establishing regular bus connections between Georgia and Abkhazia (South Ossetia). Special emphasis in the Strategy is placed on the implementation of various social programs, development of health care and education facilities, promoting student exchange programs, measures aiming to develop Abkhaz language and strengthen contacts between individuals. The Strategy opposes the policy of isolation WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 33 as leverage in the relationship with breakaway regions and rejects the pursuit of a military solution to the issue of status. According to the majority of the respondents, adoption of this document was a welcome albeit belated fact in the political life of Georgia as it is the fi rst document in which the government “proclaims peace”, rejects the pursuit of a military solution and is oriented towards peaceful means and diplomatic efforts in confl ict resolution. Although the document uses terms “occupied territories” and “reintegration” that could cause disapproval of the Abkhazian side, overall, in the participants’ opinion, the Strategy is oriented to and works to the advantage of the Abkhaz side. The cases when Abkhazs bring their relatives to Georgia for free medical treatment and demand access to health care “free of charge and without producing Georgian documents” on the basis of the State Strategy are not infrequent. The number of such cases has increased considerably. It was remarked that regretfully the Strategy does not make any special reference to the role of women in the process of peace- building. Neither does it take into account women’s specifi c needs which could have served as common ground for joint activities of women’s organizations. As viewed by the respondents, the main obstacles to the implementation of the Strategy are absence of political will from the Abkhaz side as well as the lack of international support and the factor of Russia whose efforts are clearly directed to hindering development of closer relations between the communities.

3.2.4. Resources for Conflict Resolution

All the participants shared the view that the resources for conﬂ ict resolution have not been exhausted; there still are certain tools which if effectively exploited will produce positive outcomes. However, these outcomes can only be attained in the case of developing a comprehensive approach to conﬂ ict resolution i.e. if the resources available at non- governmental as well as state and international levels are utilized. The interviewees believe that special responsibility for the process of reconciliation lies with the government of Georgia. They emphasized that decisive steps need to be made to establish closer links with Abkhaz people and consequently, with Abkhazia. In the respondents’ opinion, the fact that the involvement of civil society 34 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

in confl ict prevention and peace-building was not fully effective is due to limited resources – insuffi cient support from international organizations, whether fi nancial or moral, absence of any leverage to infl uence political decisions, limited experience and at times, lack of expertise. Several directions were identifi ed as essential for establishing closer relationships and bringing about reconciliation:

Economy – Majority of the participants agreed that joint business ventures bring people together as partners, help turn them into friends and even relatives. It was noted that in spite of the conﬂ ict the sides still continue trade relations, but this remains unofﬁ cial and unpublicized. The more intensive this business cooperation between Georgians and Abkhazians is and the fewer obstacles are created on its way, the greater the chance of reconciliation.

Education and youth – In the respondents’ opinion, Georgian- Abkhazian conﬂ ict resolution being a long-term process, young people are the primary resource whose responsibility it will be to build and develop relationships between the two sides. Many participants stressed the importance of bringing up and educating the young in the spirit of peaceful coexistence, familiarizing Georgian young people with Abkhaz culture and traditions, establishing partnership between Georgian and Abkhaz schools. Particular attention was given to the issue of western education for Georgian and Abkhaz young people. It was argued that Georgian government must assist Abkhazs in submitting applications for academic grants for Western universities to donors directly without the need to coordinate ﬁ nancial issues with the Georgian government. The young women participants of the study emphasized the importance of meeting in a wider South Caucasian format. They expressed their preference for starting the dialogue from nonpolitical issues such as art, culture, sports, publishing an apolitical magazine and communicating in person as well as via internet.

Health care – It was a majority opinion that the war has left its negative mark on mental and physical condition of a great number of people causing a variety of diseases. Thus, cooperation in the sphere of WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 35 health care would have to become a priority direction in peace-building. It was noted that lack of social programs and high price of medical services in Abkhazia drives a lot people to seek help in Georgia where they are offered free medical examination and consultation as well as necessary surgical treatment. Several participants argued that even though no such services are available for every citizen of Georgia, it is crucial that Abkhazs have access to them thus paving the way for reconciliation between the two peoples.

Women-peacebuilders – Interestingly, participants of the study unanimously claimed that women are an important resource in building peace, trust and reconciliation between the confl icting sides. They shared the view that women tend to fi nd it easier to establish contact with opponents and build longer-term partnerships and friendships, they are more daring as collaborators and they were the fi rst to fi nd courage to cross the bridge dividing Georgian and Abkhaz communities. Majority of the respondents agreed that involving women in Georgian-Abkhaz meetings and dialogue at different levels of decision-making will allow women to realize their potential in peace-building and will contribute to the cause of confl ict resolution.

Mixed families – Family ties are the most important links connecting Georgians and Abkhazs, the participants of the study claimed. Even though the confl ict has broken up families and divided the people once very close to one another other into two hostile camps, they were the ones who fi rst renewed contact, exchanged fi rst visits and thus proved to be an invaluable resource in confl ict resolution. The participants also focused on the young generation brought up in mixed families. They frequently have to prove that they are true Georgians or Abkhazs and thus, in order to avoid the stigma of being “enemy’s children” they adopt radical nationalist attitudes. Opposite examples were also cited when by visiting and communicating with relatives children from mixed families added their contribution to building trust between the confl icting sides. Work with these young people is extremely important. Majority of the participants agreed that peculiarities of the condition of mixed families 36 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

should be considered and their involvement in peace processes needs to be directed with special sensitivity to avoid complications.

Women in Black – During the survey it became evident that women who have lost relatives can become an important resource in peace- building and active ﬁ ghters against military actions. The respondents believed that a mother who has lost a son is better able to understand another woman who has experienced a similar tragedy. However, trust building with this group of people largely depends not only on a dialogue between them but also on helping them with their problems, for instance assisting them in searching for and visiting graves of their relatives and family members. It was stressed that resources available to NGOs are not enough for dealing with these issues and state support and political will from both sides is crucial.

Mass media – All the participants agreed that mass media is a powerful tool for infl uencing people’s psychological and social wellbeing, shaping public opinion and it is essential that this resource is utilized for promoting the idea of peace. It was noted that unfortunately nowadays there is no understanding of the concept of peace journalism in mass media. Journalists are mainly focused on creating sensations which can often harm peace and the process of confl ict resolution, cause strife and resentment. The fact that several of Georgian universities teach a course in peace journalism was assessed as positive. It was stressed that training not only young but also practicing journalists in the issues connected with reporting on confl icts is an important step towards forming peace-oriented public opinion in both communities. Several of the participants expressed the opinion that it is essential to work with public so that the demand for positive media reports in a peaceful vein comes from them. Elders – It was an opinion of a part of the respondents that respected people of advanced age could play a positive role in restoring trust and reconciliation, especially considering ages-old traditions and positive experience of solving confl icts on elders’ advice in the Caucasus.

Georgian and Abkhazian diasporas - Some of the participants brought up the factor of Georgians and Abkhazs who have emigrated to WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 37 foreign countries because they could not accept the war and deep split between the two communities. They continue to communicate with each other and stay friends. This group of people could become a valuable resource in the process of reconciliation and breaking down stereotypes formed in the minds of both Georgians and Abkhazians who have lost contact and are affected by propaganda enforced on them by politicians.

Ecology – A number of participants identifi ed environmental issues as the point of intersection for the confl icting sides and a mechanism for narrowing their differences. Burning issues such as Black Sea pollution, infestation of “American Butterfl y” (fall webworm) that are major concerns for both sides were discussed.

Art and culture – Some participant of research suggested publishing books of Georgian and Abkhazian writers, theatrical performances of plays by Abkhazian playwrights, organizing joint exhibitions as means of bringing the two people closer together.

Security and human rights – The discussions centered on the problem of crossing the so called “border” on the Enguri bridge, discrimination against the Georgian population of Gali region, diffi culty of providing school education in children’s native language, “tripled” taxes for Gali population, etc. These issues should concern both sides involved in the confl ict as injustice always leads to disagreement and disagreement results in instability. Consequently, joint efforts in protecting human rights in Abkhazia and ensuring security of the population must become a priority direction in the cooperation of the confl icting sides.

3.2.5. Conclusions

Participation of a small number of women in the research does not allow us to generalize the ﬁ ndings on the whole population of Georgia. However, it does provide a clear picture of the attitudes of women to the issues raised in the study. It is safe to claim that despite their differing professional and social 38 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

backgrounds the women participating in the research were informed about the issues discussed and vocal in expressing their opinions. It was evident during the discussions that the respondents tried to take into consideration the interests of not only their own community, but also the Abkhaz side. Majority demonstrated tolerance and empathy in their judgments. Throughout the process of discussion the women participants showed critical approach to the issues discussed and the desire to contribute to the processes by identifying certain ﬂ aws and weaknesses in the activities of the civil society and the state, and openly stating their views.

Majority of the participants of the study perceive people to people diplomacy as one of the most effective and realistic mechanisms for confi dence-building and reconciliation of Georgian and Abkhaz peoples. However, they see confl ict resolution as attainable only in the case of parallel coordinated implementation of formal and informal diplomacy. Vast majority of the respondents evaluate adoption of the State Strategy as a progressive step from the side of the Georgian government, a step which could potentially have a benefi cial effect on confl ict transformation. It was noted however, that its appearance was long overdue. The interviewees with only a few exceptions agreed that use of certain terms unacceptable for the Abkhaz side could complicate practical implementation of the Strategy. Even so, they expressed hope that both parties will manage to avoid focus on political formulae and wording concentrating in turn on fi nding points of intersection to start cooperation based on purely human needs. Absence in the document of any references to the importance of women’s role in confl ict resolution and failure to include directions dealing with women’s problems were subjected to criticism. The participants are able to assess realistically the complexity of the situation created in the aftermath of the military actions in 2008. However, majority is confi dent that in the existing state of affairs even greater efforts should be directed from both sides to achieving peace through cooperation. Not a single respondent expressed skepticism with regard to resources available for confl ict resolution. A variety of directions was suggested where cooperation would be to the mutual benefi t. WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 39

PART IV

OUTCOMES OF THE CREATIVE TRAINING , ,, ,,PEACEFUL FUTURE THROUGH WOMEN S EYES

Fantasy, abandoned by reason, produces impossible monsters; united with it, she is the mother of the arts and the origin of marvels.

Francisco de Goya

Breaking deep-set stereotypes in public mentality, abstracting from existing limitations and conventional visions of the settlement of the protracted Georgian-Abkhazian confl ict, developing new and original ideas and approaches to the problems that concern both sides, these were the main objectives of a four-day creative training “Peaceful Future through Women’s Eyes” involving 16 young women leaders from the community of IDPs as well as local population from different regions of Georgia. Creative games and universal exercises aimed at revolutionizing the women’s patterns of thinking and their attitudes to the future of Georgian- Abkhaz relationships. For several days the participants did a variety of exercises such as designing individual and group models of “peaceful future”, or coining new terms for peace process presenting them eventually in the form of sculptures. In the process of work they found themselves in a “magic fairytale” and being limited by a fi xed lifespan they had to prioritize the activities they wished to complete within the given timeframe. The participants reviewed positive international experience of women’s participation in confl ict resolution in Northern Ireland, Rwanda, Somalia and Cyprus focusing on the most interesting and salient examples. Practically every participant expressed her interest in the exercises and willingness to revise her vision of the ways of resolving the confl ict, 40 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

to free their minds from prejudice and look at the scenarios of Abkhazia’s future from a new creative perspective. Nevertheless, the participants did not always succeed in breaking the habit of relying on the consciousness and overcoming mental barriers related to conventionally accepted public opinion. However, what came through throughout the training was the participants’ desire to go beyond the boundaries of outdated approaches that have outlived their usefulness and attempt to release the creative energy and potential for self-actualization. It has to be noted that while working on the exercise “Future of Abkhazia” the majority of the participants identifi ed 3 timeframes: - the past, the present and the future. Many of them extracted from subconscious the best and the brightest memories about the peaceful life in Abkhazia and together with that they painted in dark colours the whole range of emotional experiences connected with the devastating war and bitter experiences of rebuilding their lives. In the descriptions of present the attention was focused on internal political situation in the state, disagreements and dissociation of the state from certain political structures and civil society, presence of numerous barriers to free communication between Georgians and Abkhazs, lack of the will for compromise from the governments of the confl icting sides and reluctance to fi nd new approaches to the resolution of this protracted confl ict. The participants of the training saw the solution to these problems in the willingness and determination of the state to become more open to new approaches. They stressed the importance of signing an agreement on non-renewal of war and ensuring demilitarization of confl ict zones as well as creating conditions for free and unrestricted travel. Creating mixed Georgian-Abkhaz families was also seen as a guarantee of peaceful future. In their works “the future of Abkhazia” was depicted as a baby emphasizing that sustainable peace can only be built if the communities manage to cast off the burden of the past and become as pure and truthful in their thoughts as babies. Alternatively, they painted the future on another planet where Georgians and Abkhazs had moved having left the past behind and striving for the new unknown world very unlike the old one, the world where people are willing to live side by side building a common future which is acceptable for both sides. When compiling a new peace dictionary the participants suggested WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 41 many interesting terms, for example “newpolingui”- meaning new political linguistics which would exclude certain terms that cause negative reactions of confl icting sides. In the participants’ opinion peace process could benefi t from “public traffi c lights - Mastma”, when civil society is an active participant in working out an agenda for negotiations and also monitors proposals discussed at bilateral meetings. Another suggestion that would be of value for peace processes in the whole world is Haldoc – a document designed by representatives of civil society and having public support (for instance, signed by 200,000 people) that has an offi cial status and is obligatory for government structures. Young women proposed to create a compendium “Newdiatsiscover (New discoveries of women)”, containing discoveries, innovative approaches and ideas of women in various fi elds of public, political, economic and cultural life. In the process of work on “magic fairytale” the participants noted that when life is almost over one experiences an overwhelming desire to leave something valuable in this world, and what could be more valuable than peace! Each group directed their efforts to restoring peace focusing on specifi c mechanisms of reconciling the confl icting sides. Refl ecting on their work the participants expressed their fi rm belief that if you really desire something and make an effort, even the most unrealistic wish can become a reality. They also remarked that if everyone involved in the peace process had felt that they had only a few days’ life left to accomplish something important, the confl ict would have been resolved long ago. While analyzing the cases of women’s involvement in Rwanda, Somalia, Cyprus and Northern Ireland the trainees admitted that they had only had very general and incomplete information on women’s international experience in reconciliation and confl ict resolution, so they were interested in receiving new information. Generalization of the results of work conducted by groups allows us to claim that the majority considered Rwanda as the most successful example of women’s involvement in a country’s political life. It could serve as a model for other countries that women comprise 56% of the representative body of the government, there is a ministry responsible for women’s and family affairs, women have over 40% representation in the Supreme Court. Another important aspect is the practice of monitoring the budget to ensure provision for gender 42 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

components in it. It is clearly a great achievement for Rwandese women to be involved in determining the policy of rehabilitation and development of their country as well as infl uence other political processes. The case of Rwanda is revealing and it demonstrates that if political will and support of the state replace false rhetoric, it is absolutely possible to increase the number of women in the positions of authority and decision-making. The case of Somalia received the trainees’ particular attention where it focused on women’s role in clans and the fact that through their relationship with a number of clans, including the hostile ones, women managed to establish connections and settle various disputes and disagreements. In this context the trainees drew parallels with women from mixed families stating that in our confl ict these women could make a valuable contribution not only to reconciliation and confi dence-building but also to reaching agreements on specifi c issues concerning both communities. Although the participants did not see formation of the Sixth Clan as relevant to our environment, they considered that Somali women set an example for Georgian and Abkhaz women by demonstrating selfl essness and high level of organization that allowed them to fi nd their niche in the process of negotiations. In the trainees’ opinion the case of Northern Ireland is a good proof that women’s activism encouraged by the support of civil society can become the basis of forming a political structure. This case demonstrates that women who have set the goal to solve women’s problems and protect human rights are likely to be elected to government bodies and infl uence political processes in the country. These women not only gained access to the process of negotiations but also managed to draw the attention of all other participants to the issues that required immediate action. Also, the trainees focused on the activities of the alliance of women’s organizations, one of the driving forces of the peace process. The experience of Cyprus, as the trainees found, has already been successfully applied in the context of Georgian-Abkhazian confl ict. It implies, for instance, establishment of a joint Georgian-Abkhaz organization presenting a good example of cooperation, ability to compromise and implementation of joint actions for shared goals; creation of buffer zone i.e. “green line” where representatives of both sides can move and meet freely. WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 43

Findings and Conclusions

Young women’s four-day training was notable for high level of involvement and dynamism of the participants, abundance of original ideas and attempts to express oneself in unconventional and distinctive forms of thinking. The participants had an opportunity to articulate their own opinions as well as to elaborate through team interaction group visions of peaceful future and the prospects of Georgian-Abkhaz conﬂ ict resolution. It has to be noted that in spite of the direction - to overstep the frames of mental stereotypes, to free their minds from certain patterns rooted in the consciousness, and to be guided only by their subconscious - the participants did not ﬁ nd it easy to move beyond existing interpretations and prejudices and enter the world of new ideas. In the process of work certain limitation of imagination was evident which, on the one hand, was related to the fears of being misunderstood by others and, on another hand, to conceptions about discussed issues deeply rooted in the consciousness. Attachment to the past or frequent evaluations of the present while discussing the issues of peaceful future can serve as the most illustrative examples of this. Nevertheless, it can be said that peculiar, unconventional methodology of the training helped the participants to open up and generate quite original ideas.

By the end or the training, while assessing their work, the participants made the following conclusions: The training helped them to take a new look at the concept and methods of building peaceful future.

Creative games gave them an opportunity to o abstract from existing stereotypes; o generate ideas through creative thinking that will help to bring new approaches to the peace building process; o realize that achieving peace requires changes and the changes of the existing reality should start from changes in people’s consciousness.

In order to achieve the desired future it is necessary to 44 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

o cast off the burden of the bitter memories of the past events both in Abkhazia and in Georgia as a whole and ﬁ nd the strength for forgiveness; o realize that there is no return to the past, thus future activities and positive changes should be based on existing realities of the present day; o utilize the enormous potential of young people in peace-building activities; o potential of women for building trust and cooperation between the conﬂ icting sides is invaluable.

As a result of the four-day training the participants developed the following recommendations:

z Organize women’s political movement whose priority directions will be gender equality and peaceful confl ict resolution; z Organize “parallel peace negotiation process” involving representatives of public organizations with strictly observed gender balance “50/50”. These negotiations will focus on the issues that concern both communities and require political solution. If an agreement is reached, work with relevant governmental structures lobbying for their support in these areas. The question of the status of Abkhazia will not be discussed during the negotiations! z Establish “Security and Human Rights Homes” on both sides of the River Enguri so that both Georgians and Abkhazs can visit them without restrictions and organize meetings, discussions and cultural events there. The territory between the homes must be declared a neutral zone; z Open an offi ce of the “Ombudsman for Women’s Rights - Human Rights” in “Security Homes”. This offi ce will be responsible for accepting complaints from Georgians and Abkhazians on violations of their rights. Having studied the case the offi ce will submit recommendations to the government and advocate solution of identifi ed problems. Encourage close cooperation of Ombudsmen from both sides; z Establish a joint organization of Georgian and Abkhazian young women with the objective of achieving gender balance in organizations at decision-making levels and active work on the issues of peace-building; WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 45

z Organize bilateral Georgian-Abkhaz meeting for women from mixed families to discuss the resources available in mixed families and to design a concrete plan of action aiming at restoration of trust and closer communication between the confl icting sides; z Ensure demilitarization of confl ict zones; z Create conditions for free and unrestricted travel; z Include “culture of peace” and “peacekeeping” as compulsory subjects in school and university curricula in order to promote understanding of the value of peace among young people; z Establish a government body responsible for cooperation with Abkhazian youth; z Create a virtual forum (House of The Future) which will allow the young people from confl icting sides to communicate, negotiate with other “tenants” in order to agree on the conditions for harmonious coexistence inside the House; z Organize exploratory peace tour throughout Georgia and Abkhazia and fi ll “the box of life” with people’s answers to the questions: What kind of world do they dream about? What would they do to achieve peace for their children? z Organize “Institute of Peace” and give the best education to 100 children from Georgia and Abkhazia (from 5 to 20 years old, i.e. the overall term of education is 15 years) not burdened with stereotypes and prejudices with a focus on peace-building and development of culture of peace; z Create and develop the institution of mediators; z Increase the percentage of women involved in decision-making; z Establish an alliance of women’s organizations from Georgia and Abkhazia which could become a driving force of the peace process; z Establish a youth club on the dividing line where meetings to discuss the idea of peaceful future will be organized. 46 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

PART V

MAIN PERSPECTIVES, LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As a result of conducted research and training the following lessons can be learned and the perspectives of the women of Georgia can be outlined:

z People to people diplomacy possesses the most realistic mechanism for confi dence building and reconciliation of confl icting sides. However, it could turn into the most effective and productive tool only in the case of international support, willingness of the whole society and existence of political goodwill in the country; z The confl icting sides have not utilized existing resources of women’s organizations, women – as peace-builders, youth and other key economic, educational and cultural factors for confl ict resolution yet; z The civil society and the government bodies are not prepared yet to carry out consistent and well-coordinated policy for peaceful settlement of the confl ict; z System of communication among women’s organizations and decision-making authorities is underdeveloped; z Women’s organizations and peaceful initiatives for confl ict settlement do not have adequate support from international organizations; z The media does not pay due attention to the role and importance of women’s participation in confl ict resolution and does not possess the skills necessary for gender-oriented peace journalism; z Societies from both sides are still under the infl uence of stereotypes and “bitter” memories of the past and do not always plan future activities for confl ict resolution based on present day reality;

Based on women’s vision and approaches expressed while working on this analysis, we could identify certain short-term and long-term activities which could lead to positive changes in the process of reconciliation and conﬂ ict resolution. WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 47

Short-term activities:

z Carrying out reforms in education and including the subjects “culture of peace” and “Abkhaz culture, traditions and languages” in the curricula; z Promoting joint programs and activities of Georgian and Abkhaz schools functioning on the territory of Abkhazia; z Encouraging educational exchange programs abroad for the youth from Abkhazia, opening up the grant opportunities for young people living in Abkhazia; z Organizing and conducting joint youth meetings, camps in the format of Georgian-Abkhaz dialogue as well as in South Caucasian and international formats, with special emphasis on the inclusion of young people from mixed families and NGOs in this process; z Establishing “Alliance of Georgian-Abkhazian Women’s Organizations” as the driving force in the peace-building process; z Supporting creation of specialized “Institution of Mediators and Negotiators” with maximal involvement of women in the training process; z Organizing and conducting joint exploratory peace tour in order to conduct a grassroots survey on the topic – “What kind of world do they dream about for themselves and for the future generations and how to achieve it?” z Introducing the practice of conducting periodic trainings for representatives of printed and electronic media on the issues of gender- oriented and peace journalism.

Long-term Activities:

z Stimulating economic cooperation between the sides through facilitating travel on both sides of the River Enguri and through creating a free economic zone that straddles the administrative border of Georgia and Abkhazia; z Organizing parallel peace negotiation process involving representatives of public organizations with strictly observed gender balance “50/50” and granting the decisions reached during these negotiations certain legitimacy; z Facilitating establishment of “Security and Human Rights Homes” on both sides of the River Enguri so that both Georgians and Abkhazians can 48 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

visit them without restrictions; Opening ofﬁ ces of “Women’s Rights - Human Rights” at the Homes which will be responsible for studying the cases of violations of women’s rights and developing certain recommendations for both communities; lobbying for the territory between the homes to be declared a neutral zone; z Establishing a special government body to facilitate search for missing persons across the dividing line and advocating that the governments of Georgia and Abkhazia provide guarantees for “women in black” to safely visit graves of their sons, husbands and close relatives.

The analysis and evaluation of the work done have resulted in key recommendations to relevant international organizations, government authorities, national NGOs and media.

To the government of Georgia

z Find ways to initiate dialogue and cooperation with Abkhazian side in the areas specifi ed in the State Strategy; z Implement a more consistent and better-coordinated policy focused on the peaceful settlement of the confl ict; z Offer maximum support to the initiatives directed at expanding the dialogue and cooperation between the representatives of government structures and civil society; z Utilize the existing resource of women’s organizations and networks working in the fi eld of confl ict resolution and their experience in cooperating with confl icting sides; z Organize offi cial consultations on issues of gender with the representatives of women’s organizations working in the fi eld of peace- building and outline a list of priority issues to be discussed in peace negotiations as recommended and approved by women’s organizations; z Develop a strategy to ensure women’s participation in the process of negotiations.

To international organizations

Support initiatives of Georgian and Abkhazian women’s NGOs directed to implementation of the actions speciﬁ ed in the State Strategy; WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace 49

z While supporting or organizing joint Georgian-Abkhaz meetings promote involvement of new people and expansion of the circle of dialogue participants and those directly concerned with conﬂ ict resolution; z Provide more attention and support for women’s peace initiatives; z Lobby for women’s involvement in peace negotiations with the UN, European institutions and the government of Georgia.

To Georgian and Abkhazian non-governmental sector

z Continue to work with communities to defuse tension, dissolve enemy image and replace stereotypes in order to create the grounds for wider involvement of the public in the process of people to people diplomacy; z Implement jointly projects of monitoring and collecting information on human rights violations in Gali region in order to ensure timely involvement of governmental and international institutions in solving urgent problems; z Also promote and advocate full protection of their own rights for the population of Gali region regardless of their origin and nationality; z Distance themselves from the mentality focused on purely political categories and concentrate more on human rights issues; z Disseminate the information on joint work in the framework of people to people diplomacy more actively;

To mass media

z Raise public awareness of the activities of public organizations in the sphere of people to people diplomacy, organize special television and radio programs, talk shows with the representatives of government, civil society ensuring wider involvement of women’s organizations actively working on peace-building; z Persons in charge of print media should support and encourage dissemination of information on the issues of peace as well as raise the level of qualiﬁ cation of information producers – publishers, editors and journalists. 50 WWomenomen iinn SSearchearch ooff PPeaceeace

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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8. Timmons Debra M., “The Sixth Clan — Women Organize for Peace in Somalia: A Review of Published Literature”, University For Peace, 2004, available at http://www.upeace.org/library/documents/somalia_the_sixth_clan.pdf

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Edited by:

ALLA GAMAKHARIA (Project Director) MERI GELASHVILI (Project Coordinator) LALI SHENGELIA (Editor) NINO NIJARADZE (Translator) LIA KOSTAVA (Designer)

Printed in Georgian, Russian and English

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