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Untitled, Reveals a Characteristic Ritual Language That Would Accompany the Religious Rite of Burning Certain Plants in Order to Produce “The Smoke of Life” (L 1 2 3 4 Contents Acknowledgments............................................................................................ 7 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 9 PART I: BACK TO THE ROOTS ............................................................. 13 Oral Art and Literature .............................................................................. 13 Orality and Literacy .................................................................................. 16 Medial and Conceptional Orality ....................................................... 16 Medial and Conceptional Literacy ..................................................... 18 Primary Orality and Oral Poetry................................................................ 22 Native American Oral Poems........................................................... 23 Secondary Orality and New Oral Poems................................................... 28 “Words from the Edge”..................................................................... 31 PART II: LISTEN UP!................................................................................ 39 The Performing Voices of Poetry.............................................................. 39 Narrative Poetry ................................................................................. 40 Dramatic Poetry ................................................................................. 43 Lyric Poetry ........................................................................................ 47 The Performing Sounds of Poetry ............................................................. 51 Phonetic Intensifiers and Onomatopoeia............................................ 53 Cacophony and Euphony.................................................................... 56 Rhyme and Repetition ......................................................................... 57 Rhythm and Meter............................................................................... 61 Tone and Pitch.................................................................................... 66 Volume and Pause .............................................................................. 69 PART III: THE PAGE VERSUS THE STAGE........................................ 73 “The Pagers” : The Writing Poet............................................................... 73 “The Page-Stager” : The Writing and Reading Poet ................................. 77 “The Stagers” : The Performing Poet........................................................ 79 “The On-Stager” : The Performance Poet ................................................. 83 Dada and Surrealism.......................................................................... 86 African American Performance Poets ................................................ 89 Beat Performance Poets ..................................................................... 92 Performance Art ................................................................................. 95 Feminist Performance Poets............................................................... 97 Poetry Slams ..................................................................................... 100 Performance Chart................................................................................... 105 5 PART IV: OFF THE PAGE IN THE USA.............................................. 107 James Whitcomb Riley............................................................................ 107 Jerome Rothenberg.................................................................................. 112 Gil Scott-Heron ....................................................................................... 120 Allen Ginsberg ........................................................................................ 124 Laurie Anderson...................................................................................... 135 Ntozake Shange....................................................................................... 140 Patricia Smith .......................................................................................... 145 CONCLUSION............................................................................................. 151 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................... 155 Encyclopedias, Glossaries, Anthologies ...................................................... 160 Soundography .............................................................................................. 161 Videography................................................................................................. 161 Internet and Infotrac...................................................................................... 161 Soundfiles on the Internet ............................................................................. 163 Hypertext...................................................................................................... 164 INDEX OF POETS ............................................................................................ 165 INDEX OF POEMS ........................................................................................... 167 6 Acknowledgments This book is based on my M.A. thesis of the same title, which was handed in at the Karl-Franzens-University of Graz, Austria, in May 2001. Parts of the book were revised in 2002 at the University of Dortmund, Germany, where I taught a proseminar on contemporary American performance poe- try. Thanks are due to my students, who not only engaged in stimulating discussions on many parts of this book, but also took part in a poetry jam at the ‘Subrosa’ in Dortmund, where students and local poets from Dortmund and guest students from the USA experienced poetry as a social and cul- tural event. At the University of Graz I am especially grateful to Univ. Prof. Dr. Walter Hölbling for tuning and fine-tuning me in poetry and for his friendly encouragement to publish this book. I would also like to thank Univ. Prof. Dr. Arno Heller for his letter of recommendation for financial support from the University of Graz toward the publication of this book. I also wish to express my thanks to Dr. Martina Elicker for having been a very inspiring scholar and teacher throughout my studies in Graz. At SUNY New Paltz I would like to thank Assistant Professor, free- lance writer and poet Pauline Uchmanowicz for inviting me to do research at the Sojourner Truth Library, for which I had been given a grant from the University of Graz. During my stay in the USA, I had the chance to attend several readings and performances in Woodstock, NY, by the poets Hetti Jones, Ed Sanders, Ishmael Rodriguez, Phillip Levine and Carl Welden, among others. Without these experiences, I would not have been able to gain insight into a genre of poetry that is based on live performance. I also owe many thanks to Tom McLean from the University of Iowa, and to Josh Kavaloski and Richard Gallant from the University of Virginia for proof-reading the book and making valuable suggestions. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents for their emotional and financial support. 7 8 Introduction Performance poetry has three decisive characteristics: it exists in perform- ance; it has its major roots in orality; and it is perceived aurally by those who attend the performance event. Thus, Part I, “Back to the Roots”, traces the origins of poetry from a time when it belonged to oral cultures until it made its alphabetic appearance on the page. Its main focus lies on comparing what Walter Ong calls “primary orality” and “secondary oral- ity” (Ong 1991, 11) and George Economou labels “oral poetry” and “new oral poetry” (Economou 1975, 645). By discussing various characteristics and stages in the development of purely oral poetry and poetry that is written to be performed off the page, I will argue that both concepts bear similarities in terms of form and expression. This serves a later analysis of contemporary performance poetry, which is almost exclusively a product of secondary orality. Through live performance, poetry becomes a cultural reality with social significance beyond the margins of the printed book. In that respect, the subject of this book is discussed in the line of Taft-Kaufman’s argument that “studies which associate performance with cultural context normally understand ‘performance’ to be verbal art, as opposed to traditional written literature” (Corey 1989). The shift in focus becomes clear: instead of working with poems on the level of silent reader reception, or as an oral articulation by the reader, I analyze poetry as verbal art performed by the poet, whose main artistic tools are real sounds of spoken language. Therefore, Part II, “Listen Up!”, is dedicated to the voices and equally to the sounds of poetry. Since this book is an introduction to aural perception of poetry, I discuss different audiotexts that reveal the three basic poetic voices, the narrative, the dramatic and the lyric. I then analyze aural poems in terms of general constituents of poetry that fuel the soundscape of many performance poems: phonetic intensifiers and onomatopoeia, cacophony and euphony, rhyme and repetition, rhythm and meter, tone and pitch, and volume and pause. Among the poems discussed in this part are Etheridge Knight’s “Hard Rock Returns to Prison from the Hospital for the Criminal Insane”, Quincy Troupe’s “Poem For Magic”,
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