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1 the Political Economy of U.S. Foreign Policy Toward the Ottoman Empire and the Armenian Question 1

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1 the Political Economy of U.S. Foreign Policy Toward the Ottoman Empire and the Armenian Question 1 Notes 1 The Political Economy of U.S. Foreign Policy toward the Ottoman Empire and the Armenian Question 1. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, gen. eds. R.H. Campbel and A.S. Skinner, textual ed. W.B. Todd, 2 vols. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1981), vol. 2, pp. 578, 598–99. 2. Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People, 2nd edn. (New York: F.S. Crofts, 1944), pp. 1–90 passim; Nicholas J. Spykman, America’s Strategy in World Politics (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1942); William Appleman Williams, “The Age of Mercantilism: An Interpretation of the American Political Economy, 1763–1828,” William and Mary Quarterly 15 (October 1958): 419–37. 3. See Circular Letter, Congressman Abram Trigg of Virginia to James Preston, Philadelphia, February 25, 1799, Preston Papers, Virginia Historical Society; Congressman Robert Goodloe Harper of South Carolina to Jonathan Dayton, Philadelphia, March 20, 1799, Harper Papers, Maryland Historical Society, in Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents, 1789–1829, vol. 1: First Congress-Ninth Congress, 1789–1807, ed. Noble E. Cunningham, Jr. (Chapel Hill: University of Carolina Press, 1978), pp. 156, 172. 4. Leland James Gordon, American Relations with Turkey, 1830–1930: An Economic Interpretation (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1932), pp. 43, 83–98; Howard A. Reed, “Yankees at the Sultan’s Port: The First Americans in Turkey and Early Trade with Smyrna and Mocha,” in Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont and Paul Dumont, eds., Contributions à l’histoire économique et sociale de l’Empire ottoman (Leuven: Édition Peeters, 1983), pp. 353–83. 5. Circular Letter, Congressman John Fowler of Kentucky to Alexander Hamilton, Washington, March 6, 1801, Alexander Hamilton Papers, Library of Congress, in Circular Letters, vol. 1, p. 269. 6. Charles O. Paullin, Diplomatic Negotiations of American Naval Officers, 1778–1883 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1912), pp. 137–38. 7. Ibid., pp. 145–50; Gordon, American Relations, pp. 10–11. 190 Notes 8. James A. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 1776–1882 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. 175. 9. Despatch No. 1, Morris to Seward, Aug. 25, 1861, U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1862 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1863), p. 786. 10. Despatch No. 4, Morris to Seward, Oct. 25, 1861; Despatch No. 5624, Aali Pacha to Morris, Feb. 28, 1862; Despatch No. 17, Morris to Seward, May 6, 1862, FRUS, 1862, pp. 786–89; Gordon, American Relations, p. 12. 11. Field, America, p. 388; Oral Sander and Kurthan Fitek, Türk-ABD Silah Ticaretinin wlk Yüzyılı, 1829–1929 [The First Century of Turkish–U.S. Arms Trade, 1829–1929] (Istanbul: Çavdat Yayınları, 1977), pp. 6–7; 24–26. 12. Field, America, p. 394. 13. Tevfik Güran, “Tanzimat Döneminde Tarım Politikası (1839–76)” [Agricultural Policy during the Tanzimat Period (1839–76)], in Osman Okyar and Halil wnalcık, eds., Türkiye’nin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Tarihi (1071–1920) [Social and Economic History of Turkey, 1071–1920] (Ankara: Mateksan Limited Tirketi, 1980), pp. 271–77; Suraiya Faroqhi, Bruce McGowan, Donald Quataert, and Tevket Pamuk, An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, vol. 2: 1600–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 871–72. 14. Gordon, American Relations, pp. 13, 48, 50, 60, 65. 15. Alexander DeConde, A History of American Foreign Policy (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1963), pp. 351, 360–92; Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion (Ithaca and London: Corneil University Press, 1963). On the opposi- tion of women’s movement leaders to imperialism, see, e.g., Judith Papachristou, “American Women and Foreign Policy, 1898–1905: Exploring Gender in Diplomatic History,” Diplomatic History 14 (Fall 1990): 493–509. 16. U.S. Department of Treasury, Bureau of Statistics, The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1900), p. 24. 17. Mary Locke Eysenbach, American Manufactured Exports, 1879–1914: A Study of Growth and Comparative Advantage (New York: Arno Press, 1976), pp. 38–52; W. Arthur Lewis, “International Economics: International Competition in Manufactures,” American Economic Review 47 (May 1957): 579; William H. Becker, “America Adjusts to World Power: 1899–1920,” in William H. Becker and Samuels F. Wells, Jr., eds., Economics and World Power: An Assessment of American Diplomacy since 1789 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), pp. 175–76. 18. Bailey, Diplomatic History, pp. 494–609 passim; Becker, “America Adjusts,” pp. 174–75. Notes 191 19. On the “promotional state,” see Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890–1945 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982), pp. 38–39. 20. Die Grosse Politik, IX, no. 2183, as quoted in William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890–1902, 2nd edn. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951), p. 153. See also Parliamentary Papers, 1881, C (Turkey no. 6), pp. 748–49, in Akaby Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question, 1915–1923 (London: Croom Helm, 1984), p. 17. 21. Louise Nalbandian, The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1963), pp. 90–178. 22. Richard G. Hovannisian, “The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914,” in Richard G. Hovannisian, ed., The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), pp. 219–20; Christopher J. Walker, Armenia: The Survival of a Nation (London: Croom Helm, 1980), pp. 136–42; idem, “From Sassun to the Ottoman Bank: Turkish Armenians in the 1890s,” Armenian Review 30 (March 1979): 227–64. 23. Despatch No. 53, Terrell to Said Pasha, March 12, 1895; Despatch No. 460, Terrell to Gresham, March 13, 1895; Despatch No. 462, Terrell to Gresham, March 15, 1895, encl., Said Pasha to Terrell, March 14, 1895, U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1895, pt. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1896), pp. 1238, 1239, 1240–41. 24. Despatch No. 409, Uhl to Terrell, April 4, 1895; Despatch No. 414, Uhl to Terrell, April 8, 1895; Admiral Ramsay to Gresham, April 5, 1895, ibid., pt. 2, pp. 1242–43. See also Thomas A. Bryson, Tars, Turks, and Tankers: The Role of the United States Navy in the Middle East, 1800–1979 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press 1980), p. 35; Barbara J. Merguerian, “The American Response to the 1895 Massacres,” in Genocide and Human Rights: Lessons from the Armenian Experience, special issue, Journal of Armenian Studies 4:1–2 (1992): 53–83. 25. Mavroyeni Bey to Gresham, April 5, 6, 7, 1895, FRUS, 1895, pt. 2, pp. 1248–50. 26. Despatch No. 512, Terrell to Gresham, April 21, 1895, ibid., p. 1244. 27. Despatch No. 476, Uhl to Terrell, May 18, 1895, encl., Herbert to Gresham, May 15, 1895, subencl. 1, Rear-Admiral Kirkland to Herbert, April 17, 1895, ibid., pt. 2, pp. 1245–46. 28. Armen Karo (Garo), “Aprvats orer” [Days Lived], Hairenik Amsagir 1:9 (July 1923): 94; Johannes Lepsius, Armenia and Europe: An Indictment, trans. and ed. J. Rendel Harris (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1897); Richard G. Hovannisian, “The Historical Dimensions of the Armenian Question, 1878–1923,” in Richard G. Hovannisian, ed., The Armenian Genocide in Perspective (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1986), pp. 19–26. 192 Notes 29. Sen. Doc. No. 33, Congressional Record, 54th Cong. 1st sess., Dec. 4, 1895; See also Senate Debate, Congressional Record, 54th Cong. 1st sess., Jan. 24, 1896, pp. 959–64; House Debate, ibid., Jan. 27, 1896, pp. 1000–16. 30. Merle Curti, American Philanthropy Abroad: A History (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1963). 31. Richard Olney, Report of the Secretary of State, Dec. 19, 1895, FRUS, 1895, pt. 2, pp. 1256–57; Bryson, Tars, Turks, and Tankers, p. 35; Merguerian, “American Response,” pp. 53–83. 32. Alfred L.P. Dennis, Adventures in American Diplomacy, 1896–1906 (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1928), pp. 451–52; Field, America, p. 446. 33. Field, America, p. 448. 34. Despatch No. 295, Griscom to Hay, Dec. 11, 1900, U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1901 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), pp. 514–15; Lloyd C. Griscom, Diplomatically Speaking (Boston: Little, Brown, 1940), pp. 162, 169–74. See also Despatch No. 156, Griscom to Hay, Jan. 27, 1900, Despatch Nos. 162, 215, 322, Griscom to Hay, Feb. 6, May 29, Feb. 13, 1901, encl., Minister of Foreign Affairs to Griscom, Jan. 2, 1901; Despatch No. 363, Hay to Griscom, March 16, 1901, U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1900 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), pp. 907, 909–12. 35. Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1890; repr. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1987), pp. 1, 13, 32–34. See also William N. Still, Jr., American Sea Power in the Old World: The United States Navy in European and Near Eastern Waters, 1865–1917 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980). 36. Theodore Roosevelt, Addresses and Presidential Messages of Theodore Roosevelt, 1902–1904 (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904), pp. 323, 326. See also Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (London: Ashfield Press, 1983). 37. Bryson, Tars, Turks, and Tankers, pp. 40, 42; Lewis L. Gould, The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1991), pp. 261, 265–67. 38. Ernest R. May, Imperial Democracy (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1961), pp. 27–29. 39.
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