SECTION ONE: 대한독립 선언서 the March 1, 1919 Declaration of Independence and Other Key Documents

Home , Irkutsk, Jo Eom, March 1st Movement, Seodaemun Prison, The Unjust, Wonsan Station

SECTION ONE: 대한독립 선언서 The March 1, 1919 Declaration of Independence and Other Key Documents

This section contains the Declaration of Independence that was released in Seoul on March 1, 1919 as well as earlier manifestos drafted by groups in Tokyo and in Vladivostok. Those which were already translated into English and published in the United States in 1919 are directly reprinted here to avoid creating more versions given an already confusing number of different translations and different organizations which released similar statements. The only Provisional Government referred to by Kim Young Wo is the one that was based in Shanghai.

For more information on the different provisional governments that appeared at this time, see About the Organizations Devoted to Korean Independence, pages 6 to 8.

Numbers in boldface indicates original page numbers for Kim Young Wo’s book. The ones in brackets are specific to this translation.

Declaration of Independence and 1 [22] Three Items of Agreement

Cabinet Members of Shanghai Provisional Government 4 [28] of the Republic of Korea

The Provisional Constitution 4 [30]

Oath of Declaration 5 (a pledge recited to support all independence efforts for Korea)

Six Principles of Government 5 [32]

Proclamation of the Korean Young Men’s League 6 [33] for National Independence, Japan (includes four resolutions)

Manifesto of the Korean National Assembly, East Asia 10 [39]

Korean Independence Anthem 13 [52]

Prayer 14 [53]

Korean Militia 14 [54]

While the March 1st Declaration of Independence may not have been the first written or promulgated by Korea Independence activists, it was the version that was carried by many foreign newspapers and thus became famous around the world. There are several different translations, some in publications with additional information or editorial opinion included.1 We have chosen to reproduce the version that appeared in the Los Angeles Times because it reflects Western biases about Korea that modern readers may find interesting.

Signatories at the end of this transcription have been inserted per Kim Young Wo’s book. We have added religious affiliations based on an archival document uncovered at Columbia University; this information was apparently collected and disseminated to refute Japanese claims that this was a “Christian-led” uprising.2 For a larger discussion of missionaries and the “role” of Christians in the events of 1919, see “Tragic Korea: Missionary in Pyongyang to Make Known to the World Unreported Events in Korea,” pages 214 to 221, in Section Eight.

For an artistic rendering of the group’s meeting and photos of all thirty-three signatories, we recommend the KBS website 3.1 운동 얼마나 아세요?; biographies from this online source note that these individuals were sentenced to two or three years in prison. All were released from incarceration and would continue their independence activities with the exception of Yang Han Mook (梁漢默; 양한믁), who died at Seodaemun Prison in Seoul just a few months after his arrest.

For more information on how this document spurred subsequent activities in Seoul, see Section Three and the documents associated with the Korean National Council.

Note that in the transcription below, headings that are in the English version are not featured in the original Korean text in Kim’s book.

1 Other versions of the March 1st Declaration include the Red Cross Pamphlet on the March 1st Movement (n.p., 1919), 1-7; and, Carlton Waldo Kendall’s translation in The Truth About Korea (San Francisco: Korea National Association, July 1919), 31-33. Kendall includes headers and footnotes that are not used in the original. For a comprehensive compilation of different declarations by the various independence groups of this time, readers are directed to Moses S. Ahn’s collection, The Nature and Spirit of Korea: The March First Movement Against Japanese Colonization (Seoul: Korean Publishing Co., 2001). 2 Korean Independence Outbreak: Beginning, March 1st., 1919 (n.p., 1920), 10, Columbia Universities Digital Collections, accessed February 21, 2021, http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_7703837_000/.

© Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 22 The Los Angeles Times KOREA LIBERTY PROCLAMATION3 Full Text of Printed Announcement of Independence as Circulated in Seoul is Brought to America by Sacramento Publisher. _____ [BY A. P. NIGHT WIRE.] SAN FRANCISCO, April 2.—The full text of the Korean proclamation of independence, which resulted in rioting in Seoul, the capital of Korea, when it first was publicly distributed, March 1, was brought here today by V. S. McClatchy, director of the Associated Press, returning from the Orient on the steamer Shinyo Maru. The translation was forwarded by messenger to the Associated Press bureau at Tokio [Tokyo] and by it given to Mr. McClatchy to bring to the United States. The Japanese, according to information accompanying the proclamation, searched persons on the streets the night the proclamation first was distributed, including some Americans, in an effort to find and seize all copies of it. THIRTY-THREE LEADERS ARE ARRESTED. The proclamation is signed by thirty-three men, all of whom later were placed under arrest. The signers of the proclamation are all men of influence in Korea. They include Buddhist leaders, literary men of note and leaders in the three Christian denominations—Presbyterian, Methodist Episcopal, and Roman Catholic. Song Tyung Hi [Son Byung Hi], whose name heads the list, is the head of a new Korean sect knows as the “Chun-Do-Kyo,” or “nature cult.”4 His followers are reputed to number hundreds of thousands. His income is said to have been great, and until recently he appeared to flourish under Japanese protection and encouragement.

TEXT OF THE PROCLAMATION.

The text of the proclamation follows:

3 “Korea Liberty Proclamation,” The Los Angeles Times, April 3, 1919, 1. 4 “Nature cult” is a mischaracterization of the religion. Cheondogyo is actually considered an indigenous belief largely based on Confucianism; the movement grew out of the Donghak Movement, which protested the social decay and corruption rampant in the late Joseon era. For more information on this religion, see Kirsten Bell’s “Cheondogyo and the Donghak Revolution: the unmaking of a religion,” Korea Journal, 44(2): 233-148, https://open.library.ubc.ca/cIRcle/collections/facultyresearchandpublications/52383/items/1.0221484.

© Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 23 “We herewith proclaim the independence of Korea and the liberty of the Korean people. We tell it to the world in witness of the equality of all nations and we pass it on to our posterity as inherent right. “We make this proclamation, having [in] back of us 5,000 years of history and 20,000,000 of a united, loyal people. We take this step to insure to our children for all time to come, personal liberty in accord with the awakening consciousness of this new era. This is the clear leading of God, the moving principle of the present age, the whole human race’s just claim. It is something that cannot be stamped out, or stifled, or gagged, or suppressed by any means. “Victims of an older age, when brute force and the spirit of plunder ruled, we have come after these long thousands of years to experience the agony of ten years of foreign oppression, with every loss to the right to live, every restriction of the freedom of thought, every damage done to the dignity of life, every opportunity lost for a share in the intelligent advance of the age in which we live. RIGHT TO BE FREE. “Assuredly, if the defects of the past are to be rectified, if the agony of the present is to be unloosed, if the future oppression is to be avoided, if thought is to be set free, if right of action is to be given a place, if we are to attain to any way of progress, if we are to deliver our children from the painful, shameful heritage, if we are to leave blessing and happiness intact for those who succeed us, the first of all necessary things is the clear cut independence of our people. What cannot our 20,000,000 do, every man with sword in heart, in this day when human nature and conscience are making a stand for truth and right? What barrier can we not break, what purpose can we not accomplish? “We have no desire to accuse Japan of falsehood when she charged China with breaking her treatise of 1636, as an excuse to absorb, nor to single out specially the teachers in the schools or government officials who treat the heritage of our ancestors as a colony of their own and our people and their civilization as a nation of savages, finding delight only in beating us down and bringing us under their heel. NOT FINDING FAULT. “We have no wish to find special fault with Japan’s lack of fairness or her contempt of our civilization and the principles on which her state rests; we, who have greater cause to reprimand ourselves need not spend precious time in finding fault with others, neither need we, who require so urgently to build up for the future, spend useless hours over what is past and gone. Our urgent need today is the setting up of this house of ours, and not a discussion of what [who] has broken it down, or what has caused its ruin. Our work is to clear the future of defects in accord with the earnest dictates of conscience. Let us not be filled with bitterness or resentment over past agonies or past occasions for anger.

© Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 24 “Our part is to influence the Japanese Government, dominated as it is by the old idea of brute force, which thinks to run counter to reason and universal law, so that it will change, act honestly and in accord with the principles of right and truth. “The result of annexation brought about without any conference with the Korean people, is that the Japanese, indifferent to us, use every kind of partiality for their own, and by a false set of figures show a profit and loss account between us two peoples most untrue, digging a trench of everlasting resentment deeper and deeper the farther they go. TO CORRECT EVILS. “Ought not the way of enlightened courage to be to correct the evils of the past by ways that are sincere and by true sympathy and friendly feeling make a new world in which the two peoples will be equally blessed? “To bind by force 20,000,000 of resentful Koreans will mean not only loss of peace forever for this part of the Far East, but also will mean for the center of danger as well as safety, the 4000,000,000 of China, a suspicion of China, and an ever-growing deepening the hatred.5 From this all the rest of the East will suffer. Today Korean independence would mean not only life and happiness for us, but also it would also mean Japan’s departure from an evil way and exaltation to the place of true protector of the East, so that China too, even in her dreams, would put all fear of Japan aside. This thought comes from no minor resentment, but from large hope for the future. “A new era wakes before our eyes, the old world of force is gone, and the new world of righteousness and truth is here. Out of the experiences and travail of the old world issues this light on life’s affairs. The insects stifled by the ice and snow of winter awake at this same time with the breezes of spring and the soft light of the sun upon them. RESTORATION. “It is the day of the restoration of all things on the full tide of which we step forth, without delay or fear. We desire a full measure of satisfaction in the way of liberty and pursuit of happiness, and an opportunity to give what is in us for the glory of our people. “We awake now from the old world with its darkened conditions in full determination and one heart and one mind, with right on our side, along with the forces of nature, to a new life. May all the ancestors to the thousandth and ten thousandth generation aid us from within and all the force of the world aid us from without and let the day we take hold be the day of our attainment. In this hope we go forward.”

5 In the Red Cross pamphlet, this sentence instead reads: “To bind by force twenty millions of resentful Koreans will mean not only loss of peace forever for this part of the Far East, but also will increase the ever-growing suspicion of four hundred millions of Chinese—upon whom depends the danger or safety of the Far East—besides strengthening the hatred of Japan.” Red Cross Pamphlet on the March 1st Movement (n.p.,1919), 5, Korean American Digital Archive, USC Digital Library, accessed March 1, 2021, http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/ref/collection/p15799coll126/id/5245.

“(1.) This work of ours is in [sic] behalf of truth, religion and life, undertaken at the request of our people, in order to make known their desire for liberty. Let no violence be done to anyone. “(2.) Let those who follow us, every man, all the time, every hour, show forth with gladness this same mind. “(3.) Let all things be done decently and in order, so that our behavior to the very end may be honorable and upright.” “The 4[2]52nd Year of the Kingdom of Korea, 3rd Moon [March].

[조선민족대표; The Representatives of Korea] 6

[From Page 3 of the original book, Row 1 (top), right to left] Son Byung Hi (孫秉熙; 손병회)—Head of Cheondogyo (天道教; 천도교) Kim Won Kyu (金完圭; 김완규)—Member of Cheondogyo Kwon Byung Duk (權秉悳; 권병덕)—Member of Cheondogyo Yang Han Mook (梁漢默; 양한믁)—Teacher of Cheondogyo Yi Seung Hoon (李昇薰; 리승훈)—Gentleman of Sariwon [North Hwanghae Province] Pak Choon Seung (朴準承; 박쥰승)—Teacher of Cheondogyo Sin Suk Ku (申錫九; 신셕구)—Pastor of the Southern Methodist Supyokyo Church, Seoul

[Row 2, right to left] Kil Sun Chu (吉善宙; 길션쥬)—Pastor of the Pyongyang Jang Dae Hyun Church7 Kim Pyung Cho (金秉祚; 김병죠)—Pastor of a Presbyterian Church near Pyongyang8 Na Long Whan (羅龍煥; 라룡환)—Member of Cheondogyo

6 For some of the Representatives, we have added corrections to the Romanized spelling of names based on both the Red Cross Pamphlet and the Hangul renderings in Kim’s book. Hanja is from 민족대표 33 인(website), 사단법인 민족대표 33 인기념사업회, 2007, accessed February 26, 2021, http://33in.co.kr/bbs/content.php?co_id=person33. Religious affiliations and other identifying information per Korean Independence Outbreak: Beginning, March 1st., 1919 (n.p., 1920), 10, Columbia Universities Digital Collections, accessed February 21, 2021, http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_7703837_000/. 7 Kil Sun Chu’s religious affiliation is not listed in the Columbia University document; information is from the “길선주 [吉善宙, 1869~1935.11])” (webpage), 사단법인 민족대표 33 인기념사업회, accessed February 20, 2021, http://33in.co.kr/bbs/content.php?co_id=person33_2. 8 Kim Pyung Cho’s religious affiliation is also not listed in the Columbia University document. Information is from “김병조 [金秉祚, 1877.1.10~1948.2.25]” (webpage), 사단법인 민족대표 33 인기념사업회, accessed February 20, 2021, http://33in.co.kr/bbs/content.php?co_id=person33_6.

© Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 26 Lew Yer Dai (劉如大; 류여대)—Pastor in Uiju [North Pyongan Province]9 Yi Chong Hoon (李昇薰; 리종훈)—Leader of Cheondogyo Pak Hi Do (朴熙道; 박희도)— Official of the Seoul Y.M.C.A. Oh Sei Chang (吳世昌; 오셰장)—Teacher of Cheondogyo

[Row 3, right to left] Yi Pil Chu (李弼柱; 리필주)—Official of the Seoul Y.M.C.A. Kim Chang Choon (金昌俊; 김창준)—Pastor at Central Tabernacle Na Ip Hup (羅仁協; 라인협)—Member of Cheondogyo Yi Kap Sung (李甲成; 리갑셩)—Official at Severance Hospital, Seoul Yi Chong Il (李鍾一; 리종일)—Leader of Cheondogyo Pak Tong Wan (朴東完; 박동완)—Official of the Seoul Y.M.C.A. Oh Wha Young (吳華英; 오화영)—Official of the Seoul Y.M.C.A.

[Row 4, left to right] Paik Long Sung (白龍城; 백룡셩)—Buddhist priest Kwon Dong Chin (權東鎭; 권룡셩)—Teacher of Cheondogyo Yang Chun Paik (梁甸白; 량젼백)—Pastor of the N. Presbyterian Mission, Sunchon [South Pyongan Province] Yi Mung Yong (李明龍; 리명룡)—Pastor of the N. Presbyterian Church, Chongju [North Pyongan Province] Lim Yei Whan (林禮煥; 림례환)—Teacher of Cheondogyo Sin Hong Sik (申洪植; 신홍식)—Pastor of the S. Methodist Mission, Pyongyang Chung Choon Su (鄭春洙; 졍츈슈)—Methodist pastor in Wonsan [Kangwon Province]10 [Page 4, Row 1 (top), right to left] Choi Sung Mo (崔聖模; 최셩모)—Christian preacher in Hwangju [North Hwanghae Province] Hong Ki Ch[o] (洪基兆; 홍긔죠)—Buddhist priest

[Row 2] Choi In (崔麟; 최린)—Teacher at Boseong School, Seoul

[Row 3] Han Yong Woon (韓龍雲; 한룡운)—Buddhist priest

[Row 4] Hong Byung Ki (洪秉箕; 홍병긔)—Leader of Cheondogyo

9 Lew Yer Dai’s religious affiliation is not listed in the Columbia University document. Information is from “유여대 [劉如大, 1878.11.26~1937.1.13]” (webpage), 사단법인 민족대표 33 인기념사업회, accessed February 20, 2021, http://33in.co.kr/bbs/content.php?co_id=person33_14. 10 Chung Shoon Su’s religious affiliation is not listed in the Columbia University Document. Information is from “정춘수 [鄭春洙, 1875~1951]” (webpage), 사단법인 민족대표 33 인기념사업회, accessed February 20, 2021, http://33in.co.kr/bbs/content.php?co_id=person33_28.

Left, photograph of key members of the Shanghai Provisional Government, dated October 11, 1919. Front row, from left to right: Sin Ik Hui (申翼熙; 신익히), Ahn Chang Ho (安昌浩; 안창호), and Hyun Soon (玄楯; 현순). Back row, from left to right: Kim Cheol (金澈;김철), Yoon Hyeon Jin (尹顯振; 윤현진), Choi Chang Sik (崔昌植; 최창식), and Lee Choon Sook (李春塾; 이춘숙). Photo is considered public domain per Wikimedia Commons.

This section lists the individuals who were appointed to key positions of this body which was based in Shanghai. Readers should note that there were several organizations calling themselves the “Provisional Government” that sprang up throughout 1919. Moses S. Ahn notes that there were numerous organizations based in Korea, including Pyongyang and Hanseong (Seoul), in Primorsky Krai (Russian Maritime Province of Siberia), and in China—Shanghai and Jilin to name a few.1 Please refer to “About the Organizations Devoted to Korean Independence,” pages 6 to 8, for more information on the various groups fighting for this cause. To help readers better understand the range of Korean activities across the region, we have noted the places where these leaders were active. We have also provided links to articles featuring their photographs.

1 Mosen S. Ahn (An Sang Gyo), The Nature and Spirit of Korea: The March First Movement Against Japanese Colonization (Seoul: Korean Publishing Co., 2001).

• 국무 총리 Premier Syngman Rhee (李承晩; 리승만)—based in Washington, D.C. and Hawaiʻi

• 내무 총장 Minister of the Interior Ahn Chang Ho (安昌浩; 안창호)—based in San Francisco and Shanghai

• 외무 총장 Minister of Foreign Affairs J. Kiusic S. Kimm (金奎植; 김규식)—based in Washington, D.C., Shanghai, and Beijing

• 법무 총장 Minister of the Judiciary Yi Si Young (李始榮; 리시영)—based in Manchuria, Beijing, and Shanghai

• 재무 총장 Minister of Finance Choe Jae Hyeong also known as Pyotr Semyonovich Tsoi (崔在亨; 최재형; Пётр Семёнович Цой)—based in Primorsky Krai (Siberia)

• 군무 총장 Minister of the Armed Forces Yi Tong Hwi (李東煇; 리동휘)—based in Shanghai, Manchuria, and Vladivostok (Primorsky Krai, Siberia)

• 교통 총장 Minister of Transportation Moon Chang Bum (文昌範; 문창범)—based in Shanghai, Manchuria, and Primorsky Krai (Siberia)

대한 민국 임시헌장

THE PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION

From The Truth About Korea

PROVISONAL CONSTITUTION1 By the will of God, the people of Korea, both within and without the country, have united in a peaceful declaration of their independence, and for over one month have carried on their demonstrations in over 300 districts, and because of their faith in the movement they have by their representatives chosen a Provisional Government to carry on to completion this independence and so to preserve blessings for our children and grandchildren. The Provisional Government, in its Council of State, has decided on a Provisional Constitution, which it now proclaims. 1. The Korean Republic shall follow republican principles. 2. All powers of State shall rest with the Provisional Council of State of the Provisional Government. 3. There shall be no class distinction among the citizens of the Korean Republic, but men and women, noble and common, rich and poor, shall have equality. 4. The citizens of the Korean Republic shall have religious liberty, freedom of speech, freedom of writing and publication, the right to hold public meetings and form social organizations and the full right to choose their dwellings or change their abode. 5. The citizens of the Korean Republic shall have the right to vote for all public officials or to be elected to public office. 6. Citizens will be subject to compulsory education and military service and payment of taxes. 7. Since by the will of God the Korean Republic has arisen in the world and has come forward as a tribute to the world peace and civilization, for this reason we wish to become a member of the League of Nations. 8. The Korean Republic will extend benevolent treatment to the former Imperial Family. 9. The death penalty, corporal punishment and public prostitution will be abolished. 10. Within one year of the recovery of our land the National Congress will be convened.

1 Carlton Waldo Kendall, The Truth About Korea (San Francisco: The Korean National Association, July 1919), 55- 56. This book is considered public domain.

© Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 30 Signed by: The Provisional Secretary of State, And the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs, Justice, Finance, War, Communications. In the 1st Year of the Korean Republic, 4th Month. [Signatories per Kim Young Wo’s Book]

• 임시의장원 의장 Temporary Chairman Lee Dong Hyeong (리동형)

• 임시정부 국무총리 Prime Minister Syngman Rhee (李承晩; 리승만)

• 내무 총장 Minister of the Interior: Ahn Changho (安昌浩; 안창호)

• 법무 총장 Minister of the Judiciary Yi Si Yeong (李始榮; 이시영)

• 재무 총장 Minister of Finance Choi Jae Hyeong also known as Pyotr Semyonovich Tsoi (崔在亨; 최재형)

• 군무 총장 Minister of the Armed Forces Yi Tong Hwi (李東煇; 이동휘)

• 해신 총장 Minister of Communications Moon Chang Bum (文昌範; 문창범)

In Carlton Waldo Kendall’s The Truth About Korea, which was published by the U.S.-based Korean National Association, “Six Principles of Government” follows the Declaration of Independence without a proper heading. However, in Kim Young Wo’s book, it is inserted between “The Provisional Constitution” and the “Proclamation of the Korean Young Men’s League for National Independence.”

From The Truth About Korea

In the 1st Year of the Korean Republic [1919], 4th Month [April]. The following are six principles of government: 1. We proclaim the equality of the people and the State. 2. The lives and property of foreigners shall be respected. 3. All political offenders shall be specially pardoned. 4. We will observe all treatises that shall be made with foreign powers. 5. We swear to stand by the independence of Korea. 6. Those who disregard the orders of the Provisional Government will be regarded as enemies of the State.

1 Carlton Waldo Kendall, The Truth About Korea (San Francisco: The Korean National Association, July 1919), 56. This book is considered public domain.

조선청년독립단선언서 PROCLAMATION OF THE KOREAN YOUNG MEN’S LEAGUE FOR NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE

Right, photograph of the leaders of the Korean Young Men’s League upon their release from jail. Date of photo is unknown. Photo and information courtesy of 독립기념관, Independence Hall, Republic of South Korea.

Please note that the document here does not fully match Kim Young Wo’s transcription of the original which was written using a mix of Hangul and Hanja. This Proclamation was the work of a group based in Tokyo, Japan under the leadership of Choi Pal Yong (崔八鎔; 최팔용), Baek Gwan Su (白寬洙; 백관수), and Seo Chun (徐椿; 서춘).1 This Proclamation was read publicly on February 8, 1919, and the organizers were arrested soon after. Korean sources note that Choi Pal-Yong was sentenced to nine months in prison. Upon his release, he returned to his hometown, Hongwon in North Hamgyeong Province, where he died a year later. Baek Gwan-Su lived to see the end of Japanese Occupation but was kidnapped during the outbreak of the Korean War and was presumed to have died in 1961. Seo

1 Joo Jung Wan, “Japanese lawyer made Koreans’ cause his own,” Korea Joong Ang Daily, October 1, 2013, accessed February 20, 2021, https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2978199.

Chun was also sentenced to nine months in prison; however, his view of the economic conditions of the time would eventually lead to his turning pro-Japanese by the 1930s.2

From True Facts of the Korean Uprising and The Text of Independence, Etc.

PROCLAMATION OF THE Korean Young Men’s League for National Independence3

The “Korean Young Men’s League for National Independence” representing their twenty million fellow countrymen hereby declare before all nations which enjoy the glorious victory of justice and freedom that we desire to restore the sovereign independence of Korea by applying the principle of self- determination also to the Korean people.

The Korean nation is one of the most ancient nations that have established and maintained an organized state and a higher civilization, leading an unbroken history through the course of more than forty centuries. Although it is true that at some periods Korea was placed under the suzerainty of the Emperor of China, that was no more than a nominal relation between two ruling families without affecting the sovereign power of self rule on the part of Korea. It is right to say that Korea has always been the Koreans’ own Korea so far as the power of self rule is concerned; she has never been ruled over essentially by any foreign nation. Herein we have the first reason of independence, viz., that of historical right.

Japan Obtains Control.

Japan was the first power to recognize and to guarantee the absolute independence of Korea at the Japan-China treaty of peace (1893)4 as the result of the Japano-Chinese [sic] war, declaring that she and the independent Korea were bound to stand and fall together; this was followed by the western powers in recognizing and guaranteeing the same thing. Korea thence forward made the utmost effort in reorganization and completion hoping to meet the friendly desire of her neighbors. In 1903, Japan

2 One other signatory of this manifesto, Yi Kwang Su (李光洙; 이광수), also turned pro-Japanese. Like Seo, Yi was a journalist; Yi is best known for what is called the first modern Korean novel called Mujeong which was released in serial form from 1917 to 1918. According to Andrei Lankov, he was imprisoned in the 1930s for his nationalist views, but by 1940 adopted a Japanese name and started producing “pro-Japanese propaganda,” including “odes to kamikaze pilots (some of them were Koreans, incidentally).” For more information see Lankov’s “Life of Writer Yi Kwang-su; From Nationalist to Collaborator,” The Korea Times, April 2010, http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/04/113_64837.html. 3 True Facts of the Korea Uprising (Honolulu: Korean National Independence Movement, April 25, 1919), 34-37. Please note that sections headings are not included in the Korean version used by Kim Young Wo. 4 True Facts of the Korea Uprising cites 1893. The correct date of the Treaty of Shimonoseki is 1895, as noted in the original Korean text by Kim Young Wo.

persuaded Korea to form an offensive and defensive alliance with her for two common purposes, the maintenance of the peace of the East and the assurance of the absolute independence of Korea.5 These were then threatened by the aggressive eastward policy of Russia. During the Russo-Japanese war Korea did everything possible in fulfilling her duty toward an ally so much so that she did not care even to shrink from offering the services of her sovereign power in order to acquire the assurance of her absolute independence and the eternal peace of the East. With all this she, however, was not permitted to be represented at the peace conference, at which Japan’s suzerainty over Korea was decided. This fact was witnessed by the late Roosevelt, being then President of the United States of America and the mediator between Japan and Russia.6 Then in spite of the previous promise to guarantee the absolute independence of Korea, Japan upon the strength of her superior militant [sic] force, forced the Emperor of Korea and his ministers to hand over to Japan “until Korea would become capable of resuming her absolute independence,” the real purpose of Japan being to isolate Korea from the world, and to be able to do whatsoever she pleases with Korea.7

Then Japan deprived Korea of judicial power and police authority “for a certain period,” then dissolved the Korean national army “until a system of national conscription would be erected;” and then she detailed Japanese garrison guards, gendarmes and police stations all over Korea. Even the Imperial palace was guarded by Japanese policemen. Thus Japan succeeded in making Korea perfectly powerless for any resistance.

Emperor Is Dethroned.

Lastly Japan dethroned the Emperor of Korea because he, being an able man, resisted Japan in [sic] behalf of the independence of his empire, and because the Crown Prince was not of a full mental capacity (non compos mentis).8 Thus Japan organized the well-known [“]annexation cabinet” members of which were all bribed puppet-players of Japan.9 After such preparations were completed, the annexation was made in dark secret and under heavy pressure of machine guns.

5 In Kim Young Wo’s Korean version, the discussion of diplomatic agreements appears to refer to the February 1904 Japan- Korea Treaty, which stated Japan’s guarantee of Korea’s independence and territorial integrity. 1903 may be a typographical error in the published English version. 6 U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt moderated the meeting of Russian and Japanese diplomats which led to The Treaty of Portsmouth in September of 1905 as a formal end to Russo-Japanese War. 7 The Eulsa Treaty in November of 1905 formalized Japan’s protectorate over Korea as a means of rebuffing Russian aggression; however, the treaty was considered illegal since Emperor Gojong and the majority of his ministers refused to sign. In 1907, Gojong is said to have secretly sent three emissaries to the Second Peace Conference at The Hague to seek Western intervention but to no avail. For more information on what is known as the “Hague Secret Emissary Affair,” see Andrei Lankov’s “1907 and Dashing Korean Hopes,” The Korea Times, October 2020, accessed February 20, 2021, http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2020/10/165_35178.html. 8 “Non compos mentis” is a legal phrase meaning “of unsound mind.” 9 Section 5 features an article summary dated April 2nd from Beijing which refers to an attack on the home of Yi Wanyong, who was one of the five pro-Japanese ministers who supported the Treaty of Annexation in 1910. No English language newspaper article on this incident has been found; however, for a transcription of the treaty which bears his signature as prime minister, see Appendix 1 of the Memorandum to the Paris Peace Conference, pages 184 to 186, in Section Six.

This is the process through which the ancient Kingdom of Korea became a victim of the cruel imperialistic ambition of a friendly neighbor who had confessed so many times to be the protector of her absolute independence. In short, this has been done by cunningly employed delusion and force. It must be accounted to be a great blot upon the history of the human race that such a wonderful end has been achieved by such means; and that this was recognized by the whole world.

When the protectorate treaty was forced by Japan, the Emperor of Korea and his ministers, except two or three bribed traitors, took all measures possible to resist this aggression by the neighbor; and when it was announced, the whole nation did all that a perfectly defence-[less nation could do to express its dissent. This was the case] when the judicial power and the police authority were transferred and when the national army was dissolved. 10 When at last the annexation treaty was announced, thousands of patriotic souls became victims of the picked troops of Japan. Since nine years from that time many attempts at independence were made in vain under the saber autocracy of the governor general of Chosen. This will suffice to show that the annexation of Korea to Japan was never made with the free consent of the Koreans. Here we have the second reason for asking the international peace conference to rectify the mistake committed by Japan, and recognized by Great Britain, the United States of America and other powers.

Progress is Hindered.

Now let us examine the policy which Japan applies in ruling Korea. In spite of her declaration Japan disregards the well-being, interest, and free progress of the Koreans. Political rights, freedom of meeting and association, freedom of speech and press are all perfectly denied to us; even the freedom of faith and of enterprise is to a great extent interfered with; private or personal rights are not infrequently infringed upon by the administrative, judicial or police authorities. Japan makes a rigid distinction between Japanese and Koreans. She provides an education much inferior to that of the Japanese themselves in order to keep the Koreans eternally useful slaves for the Japanese, thus reconstructing history so as to destroy and wound the national tradition and dignity of the Koreans. Except in some lower offices, in almost all official and public services only Japanese officers are employed, allowing Koreans little or no opportunity to acquire any knowledge and experience of a self-ruling national life. She could never enjoy any free life and progress under such a military, autocratic and essentially unjust government. Moreover, the unrestricted immigration policy of Japan has compelled tens of thousands of the Koreans to wander into Manchuria and Siberia for Korea is already an over-populated country without the unwelcome immigrants from Japan. Employing and forcing to employ Japanese in almost all governmental and private organ[ization]s or institutions has two serious results: on the one hand it of all [sic] superior services and professions; on the other it makes a great amount of Korean wealth flow into Japan, the so-called motherland. Along the lines of commerce and industry the Japanese are given much more support and greater advantage than the Koreans.

10 The order of lines appears to have been misarranged in this paragraph in the original English version, possibly due to an error in the linotype.

Viewed from any points the interests of Japan and Korea are not identical, and whenever that is the case the one that is destined to suffer the loss is always and naturally the conquered party. He[re] is the third reason for the right of Korea to insist upon its independence.

Threaten Eternal War.

Lastly, the eternal peace of the East as one of the two vital reasons for annexation has not only been fully annulled by the fact that Russia and China have abandoned or abjured any aggressive ambition and that the coming international union will allow no one to resort to imperialistic measures, but such annexation may be a source of dreadful peril as far as regards the peace of the East, for the Korean[s] may be incited to rise to unending revolution. If we fail in regaining the long cherished freedom by means of open expression of opinion, we may feel prepared to take every measure for victory, and thus we should fight to the last drop of blood. We have no army, but we can declare an eternal war on Japan in case she denies our just demands.

As we have had superior civilization and a long experience of national life, we are fully convinced of success in establishing a new state upon the foundation of the principle of democracy. We hold to a firm belief that we will be able to contribute something to the peace and civilization of the world, if we are allowed to make free and unhindered progress along our own lines.

We hereby appeal to Japan and to other countries requesting the application of the principle of self- determination also to the Korean nation. If this be not permitted we are quite prepared to take any means possible to gain this final and exceedingly proper aid.

The Representatives of the Korean Young Men’s League for Independence,

PALYONG CHOI (崔八鏞; 최팔용),11 TOYEN KIM (金度演; 김도연), KWANG SHOO LEE [Yi Kwang Su] (李光洙; 이광수), CHEOLSHOO KIM (金喆壽; 김쳘수), KWANSHOO BAIK [Baek Gwan Su] (白寬洙; 백관수), CHOEN SUR [Seo Chun] (徐椿; 서춘), CHANGSEOK YOON (尹昌錫; 윤창석), JONGKUEN LEE (李琮根; 이종근), GEBAK SONG (宋繼白; 송계백), KUENWOO CHOI (崔謹愚; 최근우), SHANGTOOK KIM (金尙徳; 김상덕).

11 English names are per the original translation in True Facts of the Korea Uprising (Honolulu: Korean National Independence League, 1919), 37. The Hanja (Chinese characters) is per the original proclamation. Links to Korean websites featuring photographs of these individuals have been embedded. Note that these websites are only in Korean.

RESOLUTIONS12 The Korean Young Men’s League for Independence has resolved: 1. To declare themselves for an absolute independence of Korea on the ground that the annexation of Korea to Japan was not only done without the free consent of the Koreans, but this, on the one hand, threatens the free national existence and progress of Korea, and on the other, it is likely to be a source of peril toward the eternal peace of the East; 2. To lodge a petition in the House of Representatives for the application of the principle of self- determination to Korea; 3. To appeal to the international peace conference for the same thing as mentioned in the foregoing article; for this purpose the League shall make a request to the heads of foreign nations for the transmission of the intention of the League to the governments they respectively represent, and it shall send two delegates to the international peace conference who shall act in accordance with the delegates already sent by the Koreans to France. 4. To declare war in Japan in case when our just demands be denied, we should not be responsible for whatever damage it would produce.

Above, photograph of the original proclamation written in Japanese. Courtesy of the Korean American Digital Archive, USC Digital Library.

12 True Facts of the Korea Uprising (Honolulu: Korean National Independence Movement, 1919), 38. This section is called “결의문” in Kim Young Wo’s book.

대한국의회 선언서 (원동) MANIFESTO OF THE KOREAN NATIONAL ASSEMBLY— EAST ASIA1

The document in this section is said to have been produced by the Korean National Assembly in Wondong (遠東; 원동), a term used to refer to parts of Manchuria and the Eastern Provinces in Russia. According to Byung Yool Ban, the Declaration came as a result of a convention in Nikolskoe starting on February 25, 1919 that called together some eighty delegates from areas throughout Siberia, Manchuria, and Korea proper.2 Following a struggle with the Russian government over permission to publicly demonstrate, the group issued its “Declaration of Independence” in several different languages (including Russian, English, Chinese, and Korean) on March 17, 1919 and proceeded to hold a mass demonstration involving some 20,000 Koreans in the heart of Vladivostok.3

The older history of Wondong is politically complicated. Scholars point to Korean migration to the area beginning around 1864, with around 800,000 having settled here and in neighboring Gando (間島; 간도) of Northeast Manchuria by the 1920s4; however, Koreans see this region as originally belonging to older Korean empires, notably the Goguryo (B.C. 37-A.D. 668) and the Balhae (A.D. 698-926). Andre Schmid observes that “During the Chosŏn dynasty, some Koreans had felt nostalgic about the North. But now with a new national subject, the ‘minjok’ [the idea of a Korean race], linked to its mythical progenitor, Tan’gun, a novel way of claiming Manchuria as central to the nation arose.”5 The two regions comprising a large part of Wondong were known to Koreans as Hook Ryong Ju (흑룡주; Amur Oblast) and Yeon Hae Ju (연해주; Primorsky Krai). These areas were held under Manchu and later Chinese Qing Dynasty rule until they were surrendered to Russia starting in the 1850s. The map on the next page shows Hook Ryong Ju (green) and Yeon Hae Ju (pink).6

Changing national borders has meant that conceptualizing history for Koreans is layered with geopolitical intricacies. The ideological conflict between pro-Western nationalist thinkers like

1 The Korean National Assembly’s main headquarters was Shin Han Village (新韓村; 신한촌), Vladivostok, Russia. 2 Byung Yool Ban, “Yi Tong Hwi and the Korean Nationalist Activities During the March First Movement Period,” Korean Social Science Journal 24:2 (1998), 189. 3 Ibid., 191. 4 Robert A. Scalpino and Chong-Sik Lee, “The Origins of the Korean Communist Movement,” Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 20, no. 1 (November 1960), 10; Alyssa M. Park, Sovereignty Experiments: Korean Migrants and the Building of the Borders in Northeast Asia, 1860-1945 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2019), 1. 5 Andre Schmid, Korea Between Empires, 1895-1919 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 19. 6 United States Central Intelligence Agency, Manchuria-U.S.S.R. Boundary (Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1960), accessed February 20, 2021, https://www.loc.gov/item/2007627809/.

Right, 1950s map from the U.S. State Department.

Syngman Rhee and Kim Ku (金九; 김구) and those of socialist and militaristic persuasions such as Park Yong Man (朴容萬; 박용만), Yi Tong Hwi (李東輝; 이동휘), and Moon Chang Bum (文昌範; 문창범) began to solidify by 1919 and may be one reason for the fracturing of the larger independence movement.7 This and Cold War politics—which include the partition of the peninsula into Communist North and Republican South—perhaps explains the lack of information in English about the vital role Koreans in Wondong and Gando played during independence. We thus offer this extended introduction; however, given the scarcity of resources in English, please note that some links are only in Russian or Korean. Our thanks to Professor Andrey A. Simonov (Симонов Андрей) of UH Hilo for his assistance with Russian materials in this introduction. Many of the individuals associated with the Russian Far East naturally held close ties to Russia. Yi Tong Hwi, Moon Chang Bum, and Hwang Byeong Gil (黃柄吉; 황병길) trained as officers in the Russian Army and later became pro-Bolshevik, Communist, and/or Anarchist ideologues. Some even took Russian names, including Choi Jae Hyeong (崔在亨; 최재형), who is referred to in Russia as Pyotr Semyonovich Tsoi (Пётр Семёнович Цой). This experience was put to good use

7 For more information on the differences between nationalists and socialist independence thinkers, see Dae-Sook Suh, The Korean Communist Movement, 1918-1948 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967). In Section Five, we include a letter from David Lee of the Korean National Association to the press that tried to disavow ties between Korean independence fighters and Bolsheviks; see the subsection “Not Bolshevist Move,” page 110, in “Four American Missionaries Arrested,” pages 108-110.

© Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 40 when these men founded key military training centers for Korean resistance fighters. Training camps and field offices were set up along the Manchukuo and Trans-Siberian railroad networks:

• Hunchun (琿春) operations were led by Hwang Byeong Gil, who became known as the “Hunchun Tiger”; • Chita (Чита) came under the direction of Lee Kang (李剛; 이강); • Nikolskoe (Никольское) was the site of recruitment and training by Ahn Myeong Gu (안명구) and Moon Chang Bum, the latter also operating in Chita and Khabarovosk (Хаба́ровск); • Vladivostok (Владивосток) operatives included Eom In Seop (嚴仁燮; 엄인섭), Han Sang Ho (韓相浩; 한상호), Yoon Joon Hui (尹俊熙; 윤준희), and Lim Kook Jeong (林國楨;임국 정); • Alexeyevsk (Алексе́евск) was the home base for Hong Beom Do (洪範圖; 홍범도); • Suchan (蘇城) was one of many sites under the leadership of Yi Tong Hwi;8 • Shinmin (在滿韓族總聯合會; 재만한족총연합회) was a larger anarchist military community in Mudanjiang, Manchuria established by General Kim Jwa Jin (金佐鎭; 김좌진).9

Left, early 20th century Russian postcard featuring Korean workers from Khabarovsk, date unknown. Other images from the late 19th century and early 20th century have been preserved by the Academy of Korean Studies in Seoul through the Central Research Institute of Korean Studies, which maintains open access.

8 Robert A. Scalpino and Chong-Sik Lee, “The Origins of the Korean Communist Movement,” Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 20, no. 1 (November 1960), 13; Chong-Sik Lee, The Politics of Korean Nationalism (Berkeley: University of Berkeley, 1963), 139. Russian sites of Korean independence also included Kazan, Chulman, Semipalatinsk, Omsk, Novo Nikolaesk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Verkneudinsk, Blagoveshchensk, and Khabarovsk with larger operations in Chita and Irkutsk. Scalpino and Lee, 11-13. 9 The following place names have been changed in recent times. Suchan (蘇城) was renamed Partizansk; Nikolskoe is now Ussuriysk; Alexeyevsk became Svobodny just after the Russian Revolution; Chientao was changed to Yangji following the end of the Chinese civil war—it is now part of an area called the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture (延邊朝鮮族自治州; 연변조선족자치주) which also includes Jilin (吉林) and Hunchun.

© Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 41 Russian and Manchurian sub-groups served at the forefront of armed resistance in the border regions, where the famous Battle of Cheongsan-ri (青山里; 청산리) took place. As a result, many were casualties of war or were executed by the Japanese. Pyotr Semyonovich Tsoi was killed in action in 1920; Hwang Byung Gil died of illness and exhaustion while on the run from Japanese police in 1920; Han Sang Ho, Yoon Joon Hui, and Lim Kook Jeong were captured in Vladivostok and hung at Sodaemun Prison in Seoul in 1921; Moon Chang Bum was assassinated by a Japanese operative in 1938. Others, like Eom In Seop, turned pro-Japanese. Koreans were also the victims of Russian politics. The “Alexeyevsk Incident” witnessed the slaughter of 600 separatist Koreans by pro-Bolshevik forces in 1921.10 Some were later subject to relocation by Stalin to Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. It is said that over 100,000 were forcibly removed, including independence fighters Nikolay Ivanovich Kim (Николай Иванович Ким), Choi Bong Seol (崔鳳卨; 최봉설), and Hong Beom Do. An English translation of the original version in Chinese that is housed by the National Institute of Korean History is given below; this appears to be the closest to the Korean translation that was included by Kim. This translation was undertaken by Professor Jiren Feng of the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo.

What follows this translation are an American newspaper article citing the Wondong manifesto and a different version, called the “Muo Declaration,” which appears to have been issued in February in Jilin, Manchuria.11

宣言書 MANIFESTO12

The National Assembly of the Republic of Korea represents twenty-million (20,000,000) countrymen by proclaiming independence to all nations in the world. Alas, how can it be that there are great powers in the world which are blind to generally acknowledged truth [of self- determination]? In the past, Europe endured four years of warfare, which in fact showed this as a

10 The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture cites this incident (自由市事變) as the result of a confrontation between Irkutsk groups, and those based in Shanghai. Further exacerbating the conflict was a deal struck between Japan and the Russian Communist party, the latter of whom was willing to disarm Korean troops in order to avoid open conflict with Japan as well as have Japanese troops withdraw from Siberia. The incident also appears to have been prompted by fears of Koreans declaring a separatist state in this region. “자유시사변 (自由市事變),” Encyclopedia of Korean Culture,” accessed March 1, 2021, http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0072193. 11 For more information on the Muo Declaration and the debate over the timing and “legitimacy” of these different documents, see Frank Hoffmann, “The Muo Declaration: History in the Making (Translation and Commentary),” Korean Studies, 13 (1989), 22-41. 12 宣言書 (Declaration by the Korean National Council in [the] Russian Territory), National Institute of Korean History, accessed December 24, 2020, http://contents.history.go.kr/data/img/mp/imsi/origin/mp_001_0010_0030_0050.jpg. Translation to modern English by Dr. Jiren Feng, University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo, March 2021.

major problem that lingers. The present Paris Peace Conference is being held exactly for the purpose of solving this. Germany’s and Austria’s brutality were eventually defeated and they surrendered under the flag of justice, one after another. The remnants of Poland and Czechoslovakia have recovered their countries and have made strides to ascend to the stage of independence [nationhood]. The so-called imperialism and invading policies of aggressors has consequently ended and will be eliminated forever. Righteous and humane liberalism has become particularly evident according to this special situation. In other words, today’s world is the era of national self-determination as advocated by President Wilson. Therefore, be it the east or west of the Ocean, regardless of the differences of races, those who were swallowed up by violent foreign nations now justly possess the right of autonomy and qualification of independence. Eliminating the fetters of violent foreign occupation and recognizing self- determination are the generally acknowledged truths of the world. Those powerful nations who swallowed up other countries should concede the feelings of the people, return independence [to those colonies], and accept freedom and happiness together, which also is the generally acknowledged truth of the world. If nations act against this principle, with each chasing selfish gains and refusing to desist, they would be enemies to the world order; they are a plague to justice and humanity and an evil barrier to world peace.

Our Republic of Korea is not a tributary state of Japan nor a conquered territory. As an imposing independent nation, it has been recognized by all the countries of the world. This was once verified by Japan. In the year 1864, the Sino-Japan Treaty of Shimonoseki recognized that Korea was a completely independent country. In 1866, all the countries of the world recognized us as an independent empire.13 Japan and Russia entered into treaties three different times and always recognized the Republic of Korea’s sovereignty and complete independence. In 1902, Britain and Japan’s Treaty of Alliance cited provisions maintaining the Republic of Korea’s independence and security of her territories. In 1903, when Russia and Japan declared war, the Japanese emperor decreed that the Republic of Korea was independent and an important, complete country. The Korea-Japan Protocols also stated that the Republic of Korea’s independence and intact territories must be ensured. Likewise in the Russia-Japan Peace Treaty signed in Portsmouth, it stated that the Republic of Korea’s independence must be safeguarded. These previous and subsequent statements have been restated as such. However, the blood for making the oath having not yet dried, the Japanese “ate their words” and became enriched illegally. By means of showcasing their prestige for defeating Russia, they used various means and have gradually snatched our authority and out own decision-making on diplomacy, judicature, police, finance, and other key areas. They dismissed our military and maltreated our imperial household. They first abolished our independence with the excuse of protecting us, and then they changed the excuse of protection into that of outright annexation. Alas, such a

13 The year 1866 marks the beginning of French and American incursions into Korea on Gangwha Island—both nations were repelled and Korea would not face another threat until 1876, when Japan’s threat of force led to the signing of the Treaty of Gangwha.—Ed.

heartache! How can it be said that Japan acknowledges truth. They merely deploy violent powers and deceptive means.

During the past ten years since we were merged, the so-called governance policies have been so dreadful and heartbreaking that it is impossible to describe all of them in words. Participation in politics is a right of people, yet they [the Korean people] are deprived of it. Public gatherings, forming an association, open speech, and [uncensored] publication are part of the people’s freedom, yet these are prohibited. The education they put in force includes teaching only the Japanese language, which merely cultivates intellectual slavery. The laws the Japanese have made are to particularly implement corporal punishment and the authorities make no distinction between sharp-bladed kitchen knives and swords [which are all prohibited]. The tyrannical government is like hairs absorbing as much our human fat and blood, the fruits of hard toil, as draining seawater.14 Imperial guards are posted everywhere, casting a wide net for ensnaring our local elite. The so-called colonizing [civilizing] society is a financial institution and acts as a loan-shark to the locals. Seizing our lands and taking possession of our houses are its business. The so-called patrol military police are all frivolous hoodlums. Abusing our people and raping our women are their achievements. Despite Koreans having many talents, the positions of higher officials—be it administration, judicature, military, or police—are all given to the Japanese. Only for a few subordinate positions are a few Koreans hired. This means Koreans are excluded from any opportunity to learn and experience national affairs. For equivalent official positions, the salary of a Japanese person is ten times more than that of a Korean, which allows the Japanese to spend lavishly and enjoy a surplus while Koreans are not even self-supporting. This requires Koreans to toil for a lifetime in order to make a living and deprives them of the luxury to think about other things. The Japanese fetter and shackle us. In this dark world, however, the only ray of cultural light that pulses is imported, which is Christianity. But the Japanese look upon it as their enemy. Although restrained by the public eyes of the world, they cannot show a clear determination to denounce it, so they instead fabricate incidents, forcibly drum up accusations, arrest Christians, throw them into prison, inflict cruel torture, and cause these victims to fall ill or die. Such cases are not just one or two. Alas! Does the freedom of religion really exist? In a word, controlling Koreans is nothing but a policy of exterminating Koreans. At a time of world peace and national self-determination, such an inhumane savage policy still is not afraid of the public law of the world, and do they [the Japanese] not feel one shred of shame or remorse in front of the heavens—do they have no conscience?

Sigh! We Koreans are swallowed up and maltreated like this! It is not that we are unqualified for independence or have no competence in self-governance. It is simply a difference between the strong and the weak. If the generally acknowledged truth is made clear to the world, how could

14 The classical idiom related to “tyrannical governance” is actually 苛政猛於虎, “tyrannical governance is crueler than a tiger,” which is a popular quote from Confucius. However, the writers of this manifesto employ a slight variation—苛政如毛我膏血, “tyrannical governance is like hairs that absorb our fat and blood,” the latter a metaphor for the people’s profit from their hard work. This analogy thus refers to the way that every ounce of the people’s “blood, sweat, and tears” (to use a comparable Western idiom) are being “sucked dry” by the Japanese.—Trans.

there not be a day to receive justice! Our present country has as many as twenty million people and an area as large as 82,000 square miles. Our land is fertile, rich in resources, and can be self- sufficient. We have a heritage spanning more than 4,300 years. Our literature, religious practices, and fine arts guided and supported China and enlightened Japan. We substantially contributed to the culture of the Orient. Therefore, we are decorous, compassionate, self-restrained, and trustworthy. We diligently worked the land and we venerated propriety and righteousness. There are also more than several million Korean nationals residing abroad who are imbued with newer European and American ideals. In spirit, we already possess autonomy and the aptitude for sovereignty. We need say no more. These truths are self-evident. While the superpowers are currently restraining themselves, the universally acknowledged truth shows its might. Now is the time of national self-determination. As a nation possessing such mastery and proficiency, we cannot ignore such an opportunity—it is now or never! Moreover, Korea is located in the northeast of the Asian continent, surrounded by seas on three sides, and is the gateway [crossroads] for the Orient. Korea is important in terms of strategic geography. Therefore, a change in trajectory for Korea is crucial to the peace of the Orient. If Japan does not soon grant us our freedom, then our twenty million countrymen who crave liberty and liberation would rather die for independence than live as slaves. We are ready to fight these occupiers until we bleed our last drop of blood and our hearts cease to beat. If we fail, then “without one wave having subsided, tens of thousands will rise [to take our place].” The Orient would then turn into “Shuraba” and world peace will elude us.15 If so, who should be blamed? Once having annexed Korea, Japan is further driven by wild ambition. Their militarism or so- called Pan-Asianism is carried out aggressively. Taking advantage of World War I, they threatened China and deprived it of its rights and authority. The Japanese also dispatched troops to Siberia and expanded their power. The Orient is being utterly decimated. Judging from this, stability is contingent on the independence of Korea. In the past, Heaven loathed the chaos of war. The world war has ended. All nations are ceasing hostilities and all are inclined to peace. All nations cooperate and encourage self-determination. Only Japan still nurtures nefarious ambition and dares to oppose the trend of the times. They will not change their hostile imperialism and return to us the right of independence. Are they not the public enemy of the world’s generally acknowledged truth and a pest [plague] harmful to justice and humanity? Aren’t they the evil spirit undermining world peace? Hence, in order to safeguard our national existence and civilized development, in order to sustain justice and humanity, and in order to ensure world peace, this Assembly breaks with Japan, forever, from this day forward by declaring independence. We advance the following resolutions:

15 The term the writers use is 修羅場, a reference to the Buddhist mythology (taken from the Hindu Mahabharata) of the ultimate clash between demons and gods. On the one hand, it can refer to the ultimate battle between good and evil; however, it can also denote the wasteland of carnage and destruction that comes as a result of this war.—Trans.

1. The Korean National Assembly pledges to reclaim our forefathers’ patrimony and to achieve the independence of our country and of the Korean people based on the principle of national self-determination, which is the right of all nations and their peoples. 2. The Korea-Japan Treaty [Eulsa Treaty of 1905] was coercively established by Japan without the permission of the Emperor [Sunjong] and against the expressed will of the people. This Assembly thus refutes and revokes this agreement and insists on the abolition of Japanese rule.16 3. The Assembly will dispatch representatives to the Paris Peace Conference, where we will testify to Japan’s use of deception and coercion to destroy our country and to exterminate the Korean People. We will demand recognition of our independence and the restoration of our government. We intend to join the League of Nations to strengthen our cause and standing. 4. We hereby proclaim to all governments around the world our sovereignty and the legitimacy of the Korean independence movement. We entrust the consulates in all countries around the world to convey and make known our mandate. 5. If the Assembly cannot achieve these objectives through peaceful negotiations, then it will be said that Koreans are to be denied equality and humanity. Therefore, we shall declare outright insurgency against Japan and will take no responsibility should calamities and casualties ensue.

Signed:

March 1919 (기원 4252, 3rd Month) National Assembly of the Republic of Korea17

Left, original newspaper article citing the release of the Manifesto. American newspapers often referred to the “National Assembly” as the “Korean Council.” Transcription of the article follows on the next page.

16 The Eulsa Treaty is reproduced in Appendix 1, pages 184 to 186, in the “Paris Peace Conference: Memorandum,” in Section Six. 17 The version included by Kim Young Wo ends with the signatory “Moon Chang Bum, Chairman.” The reason for this difference is not known.—Ed.

The Evening Star (Washington, D.C)

KOREAN COUNCIL [ASSEMBLY] SPREADS STATEMENT OF FREEDOM18

Advices to the State Department today from Vladivostok state that the Korean national council [assembly] at Nikolskoe on the Ussuri river, Siberia, has transmitted to all consulates the declaration of independence of Korea. Koreans paraded through the city under Korean banners distributing translations of the declaration in Russian. No disturbance was created.

From True Facts of the Korea Uprising19

Declaration of Independence BY THE National Assembly OF THE Korean National Independence League20

Text of the declaration of Korean independence adopted by the Korean national assembly, has been translated by Young M. Park, one of the signatories, for the [Honolulu] Advertiser.21 This declaration differs decidedly from the declaration of independence of the Korean National Association [Korean National Council] which was first published in the United States by The Advertiser a week before the mainland had it.

The text of the document adopted by the assembly follows:

“Brothers and sisters, our fellow-countrymen, and all the brethren of friendly nations of the world:

18 “Korean Council Spreads Statement of Freedom,” The Evening Star [Washington, D.C.], March 19, 1919, 9. Please note that some newspapers in 1919 used the term “council” in referring to this group. Modern scholars use the term “assembly” to differentiate this group from the Korean National Council, which was the body in Seoul that eventually became the Hanseong Provisional Government. 19 True Facts of the Korea Uprising (Honolulu: Korean National Independence Movement, April 25, 1919), 31-33. Note that section headings do not appear in Kim Young Wo’s book. 20 Based on the signatories, this version appears to be the one released in February 1919 in Jilin, Manchuria. A photo of the original in Chinese can be found embedded in Kim Yong-dal’s “Historical Meaning of the Korean Provisional Government,” Cultural Heritage Administration, 2019, accessed February 20, 2021, http://www.koreanheritage.kr/inside/view.jsp?articleNo=94.

“We Koreans today, holding the truths that Korea must be, and of right ought to be, a free, independent state for the sake of universal peace of the world, of future happiness for our children, and for complete freedom of our country, do hereby solemnly declare that Korea is now free from all obligations to the Japanese Mikado and Japanese government and is an independent state having full power, politically, diplomatically and commercially.

Korea for Koreans.

“From the beginning of the world Korea is for the Koreans and not for other races. The picturesque mountains and beautiful streams (the name of Korea means ‘high mountains and beautiful streams’) are the hereditary estate of the Korean men and Korean women and the interior administrators and foreign intercourse are the inherent right of the Korean rulers and Korean government.

“Furthermore the people of Korea are no doubt a superior race among the Asiatic families and they were able, during the past 4000 years, to govern themselves, protect themselves and always maintain peace with neighboring nations. They are a chosen people; they must be to exist in this world with other peoples. Not even a particle of their rights shall be conceded to other races; not even an inch of their territory shall be occupied by another race, and not even a single one of their nationality shall suffer from another race. We are proud, therefore, that Korea is the promised land of Koreans and not of others.

Japanese are Menace.

“Alas! Behold the military menace of Japan. Her accumulated sins to the Peninsular [sic] have been uncovered since 1592 (the year of Japanese invasion into Korea) and her sinful actions on the continent since the time of the Chino-Japan war shall never be pardoned. So aggressive is she that she, under the pr[e]text of ‘self-protection,’ ‘self-guarding,’ etc., has dared to annex one country against the will of heaven and man; and so treacherous is she that, with the sweetened words of ‘territorial integrity,’ ‘guarantee of independence,’ etc., she dictated a coercive treaty to a[ ]weaker nation.

End is At Hand.

“Now the Japanese menace is about to be at end! Heaven hates the mischievous action of evil- doers and affords us an unusual opportunity. Our declaration of independence is therefore, to respond to the heavenly call of the Almighty and is in accord with the sacred will of the masses. But the principal causes of our declaration is chiefly, if not entirely, based on the following:

“1. Japan is a common enemy to the Orientals at large, because her so called Pro-Japanism is equally dangerous to all Asiatics and the annexation of Korea was created by the same motive.

© Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 48 “2. Japan is an offensive despiser of the international laws, as shown by her treacherous and seductive actions taken in annexation of Korea was entirely—from the beginning to the end— lawless, illegal, coercive, forcible and contrary to the principles of law.

Adversary of Humanity.

“3. Japan is the fiendish adversary of the humanity [sic], as shown in her administration of Korea, persecuting Christians, slaughtering learned men, limiting education[,] prohibiting publication and oppressing the people with military force and with economical [sic] devices to prevent the advancement of civilization and to annihilate the Koreans in their home land.

“With these principal facts recorded before the divine will of Heaven and the witness of all nations—We declare further that the forced treaty of annexation of Korea is totally null and void and, at the same time, we ask the world to chastise the Japanese rulers for their unpardonable crimes committed during the last decade.

Repentance Urged.

“O, ye Japanese militarists and ye Japanese ruler, fortunate will ye be if ye may be great in repentance with small punishment. Let us restore everything in status quo. Let the island be [an] island; let the peninsula be [a] peninsula, and let the continent be [a] continent. This will be a real blessing for all Asiatics and for your people. If you yet attempt to escape from the light of repentance it is another offense adding to your old crimes.

Absolutism Dying.

“Behold the present phenomena of the world! Absolutism is and despotism, once the mightiest of the world, are now dying away as cold ashes and freedom and peace for humanity spreads [sic] out their rays as the bright sun shining in the sky. This is the proof practical of the appearance of the Providential Will and that the Almighty is desirous to show humanity the judgment of righteousness, to reform the world with new freedom and to deliver the small nations and weaker races from the hands of tyrants and autocrats.

“So great is this time! This is the time to reorganize the world and is the time to establish the universal peace.

“Thus time calls us and heaven commands us to throw away the bondage of tyrants and to restore our glorious independence. Grasping this heaven-given opportunity and responding to the Providential Call, we, the undersigned, representing the twenty million Koreans, present this case to the King of all Kings and to the people of all nations declaring that the moving will for the independence of Korea is solid based on the principle to employ our righteous power for our self-protection and self-determination and is by no means any sort of retribution or retaliation.

The unchangeable sincerity of our people is, therefore, merely to advise our enemies to desist from their crimes and to save our country from their Hunnish rule, hoping that justice and humanity may reappear on earth.

Policies Declared.

‘With these principles firmly fixed in our hearts, we do solemnly swear to the world, and, furthermore pledge ourselves for the following causes as our present and future policy”

“1. To crush down military despotism and to promote equality of all races is the first principle of our independence.22

“2. To denounce forcible annexation and to protect justice and humanity, is the main object of our independence.

“3. To prevent secret pacts of any kind, defensive or offensive, and to advocate the principle of universal peace, is the general obligation of our future government.

For Full Equality.

“4. To grant equal right and equal opportunity to the Koreans, men and women alike, and to treat all the different peoples, wise and foolish on the same terms, is the fundamental policy of the Koreans.

“5. To protest the unjust actions to all nations and to restore to the world the natural condition of truth and fairness, is the final hope of Koreans.

Directed by Spirit.

“O! Ye brothers and sisters of twenty million unified Koreans, behold that the spirit of our grand ancestor, Dankun, who is in heaven, directs us to the path of success and that the world affords us time and opportunity for our interests and blessings!23 Justice is the matchless weapon: with this weapon smash the cave and the devils; with this weapon slaughter the treasonable betrayers; with this weapon display the old glory of 4000 years’ history; with this weapon determine the destiny of twenty million souls!

22 The numbering of items does not appear in the original Chinese version released in Jilin, China in February of 1919. 23 According to Seo Daeseok, Dangun refers to the myth of the founding of the first Korean kingdom, Gojoseon around 2333 B.C. Seo Daeseok, “Myth of Dangun (檀君神話),” Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture (website), accessed March 1, 2021, https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/en/topic/detail/5336.

“O! Ye braves of our Independence Army, show yourself to be true Koreans! ‘Cowards die many times before their death, but the valiant taste death but once.’ If you die for the sake of righteousness, twenty million souls of your compatriots will rise from that death; if you sacrifice your property for the sake of your country the fertile soil of the Eastern Peninsula will be your own state.

For Peace of the Orient.

“In conclusion, we must remember this declaration of independence is the self-determination of the Koreans and that this determination is aimed at the equality of mankind and the permanent peace of the Orient. Be obedient to the sacred decree of the Supreme Judge of the world and trust that the new Republic of Korea will soon be established on the glorious Land of the Morning Sun.”

The forgoing declaration was, by order of the National Assembly, engrossed [endorsed], and signed by the representatives of the Korean National Independence League.

The 4252nd year of Korea, 2nd Moon (Feb. 1919).

(Signed in alphabetical order of the Korean letters.)24

Kim Kyo Hun [김교헌], Kimm Keusie [김규식; J. Kiusic S. Kimm], Kim Dong Sam [김동삼], Kim Yak Yun [김약연], Kim Jwa Jin [김좌진], Kim Hak Man [기학만; Ki Hak Man], Jung Jai Kwan [정재관], Jo Yong Euen [조용은], Ry[o] Joon [여준], You Dong Yul [유동열], Lee Kwang [이광], Lee David [이대위], Lee Tong Young [이동녕; Lee Tong Nyeong], Lee Tong Whi [이동휘; Yi Tong Hwi], Lee Bum Yoon [이범윤], Lee Bong Woo [이봉우], Lee Sang Young [이상룡; Lee Sang Ryong], Lee Sai Yung [이세영], Rhee Syngman [이승만], Lee See Yung [이시영; Yi Si Young], Lee Jong Tak [이종탁], Lee Suk [이탁; Lee Tak], Moon Chang Bum [문창범], Park Sung Tai [박성태], Park Young Man [박용만; Park Yong Man], Park Euen Sick [박은식], Park Chan Ik [박찬익], Soon Ill Min [손일민; Son Il Min], Shin [J]ung [신규식; 신정; Shin Kyu Sik], Shin Chai Ho [신채호], Ahn Jung Keun [안정근], Ahn Chang Ho [안창호], Im Bang [임방], Yoon Sai Pok [윤세복], Cho Wook [조욱; 조성환; Jo Seong Hwan], Choi Pyung Hak [최병학], Han Heung [한흥], Han Heunk [허혁; Heo Hyeok], Whang Sang Keu [황상규; Hwang Sang Kyu].25

24 English spellings are per the original publication. Hangul for names have been inserted per the transcription by Jeong Yu Cheol, 최초의 독립선언으로 3·1 독립만세운동과 대한민국임시정부 수립 기폭제, K 스피릿, February 1, 2020. Some English spellings do not match the Hangul and alternative versions are included in the brackets. 25 Several signatories in this document became key official in the “unified” provisional government. See “Cabinet of the United Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea,” pages 228 to 229 in Section Nine for the offices assigned to Syngman Rhee, Yi Tong Hwi, Park Yong Man, Lee Tong Nyeong, Yi Si Young, J. Kiusic S. Kimm, Moon Chang Bum, Jo Seong Hwan, Shin Kyu Sik, and Ahn Chang Ho.

대한독립가 KOREAN INDEPENDENCE ANTHEM1

A number of patriotic songs were written in the late Joseon Period and during Occupation.2 The one included by Kim Young Wo was not the version that eventually became the official “Augukga,” which is said to have been sung to the Scottish tune of “Auld Lang Syne.” For those interested in the official anthem, readers are urged to visit the website of the South Korean Ministry of the Interior; the website contains both the lyrics and the musical score. At present, we are not able to determine the origin of this piece.

터졌구나 터졌구나 조선 독립성 Call out, Shout out, Independence has been declared! (후렴) 만세 — 만세 — 만세 — 만세 Manse (Long Live), Manse, Manse, Manse! 10 년을 참고 참아, 이제 터졌네 We silently endured ten years of suffering, but now we rise, 3 천리의 금수강산 2 천만 민족 Twenty million people across our land, 3,000 ri of beautiful mountains and rivers—3 살았구나 살았구나 이 한 소리에 We come alive, we are alive by the voice of Independence!

Right, “In the Fertile Valley of Chosen (Korea).” Keystone View Company, 1919. Courtesy of the Library of Congress,

1 Translation to Modern Korean and English by Dr. Soojung Kim, Changwon National University, January 2020. 2 Lee Hyo-won, “A peculiar love song: Maestro Ahn Eak-tai’s Aeguksa,” The Korea Times, August 19, 2010, http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2010/08/135_71680.html. 3 “Ri” (里/리) is a unit of land measure equivalent to approximately a third of a mile.—Ed. © Ka Noio ʻAʻe ʻAle Press, 2021 Page | 52 기도문 PRAYER1

서재필 박사의 부인이 이 기도문을 만들어 각 교회에 분전한 것:

The following prayer, written by Dr. Philip Jaisohn’s wife, was distributed to various member missionaries affiliated with the Episcopal Church:

오.. 하나님… 당신의 백성을 위협과 ----- 가운데서 건져 주시던 하나님…. 우리는 당신에게 간절히 비옵나니 대한 그리스도교인들을 구원하여 주옵소서. 만일 이것이 당신의 뜻이면 저는 이 압박과 학정을 면하고 자유롭게 하옵소서. 저들을 고초로운 시대 가운데서 붙들어 주시며 당신의 구원으로 저들을 찾으시며 저들에게 안락을 베푸소서. 우리 구주 예수 그리스도를 위하여 구합나이다. 아멘.

Dear Lord in Heaven, hallowed be Thy Name, that Name by which your poor people were saved from wrongs and oppression. We now pray desperately for Christians in Korea. Thy will be done, the will that relieves from injustice and oppression. Please give them courage to tolerate in this excruciating time and guide them to the honor and glory of Thy Holy Name and for the ultimate freedom. We pray in the Name of Jesus. Amen.

1 Translation to Modern Korean and English by Dr. Soojung Kim, Changwon National University, January 2020.

대한독랍의용군분통계 KOREAN MILITIA1

Estimate of Korean civilian militia for Independence as of March 3, 1919:

기독교도 삼십만 이상 Christians Over 300,000

천도교도 삼백만 이상 Cheondogyo Over 3,000,000 (Religion of the Heavenly Way)

학생 십만 이상 Students Over 100,000

불교도 일만 오천인 이상 Buddhists Over 15,000

유교도 오만인 이상 Confucians Over 50,000

교육가 일만오천인 이상 Educators Over 15,000

부녀 오만인 이상 Women Over 50,000

소아 삼만오천인 이상 Children Over 35,000

1 Translation to Modern Korean and English by Dr. Soojung Kim, Changwon National University, January 2020.