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Faculty of Applied Economics Faculty of Applied Economics EXTENDED CINEMA IN KENYA AND TANZANIA. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND RELATED TRENDS IN LOCAL AUDIOVISUAL STORYTELLING. Ann Overbergh, Antwerpen, November 2014 Proefschrift voorgedragen tot het behalen van de graad van doctor in de Toegepaste Economische Wetenschappen aan de Universiteit Antwerpen te verdedigen door Ann Overbergh Promotoren: Prof. Dr. Arjen van Witteloostuijn Prof. Dr. Annick Schramme DOCTORAL JURY Prof. Dr. Arjen van Witteloostuijn (supervisor) University of Antwerp, Tilburg University – Tilburg School of Economics and Management Prof. Dr. Annick Schramme (supervisor) University of Antwerp, Antwerp Management School Prof. Dr. Luuk Van Waes (chair) University of Antwerp Prof. Dr. Philippe Meers University of Antwerp Dr. Lizelle Bisschoff University of Glasgow Dr. Alessandro Jedlowski University of Liège ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ASANTENI! I would not have been able to start or finish this project without the help of a large number of people. First and foremost, infinite gratitude to three of the most generous people I know: Dirk De Wit, Sam Eggermont, and Pieter Leenknegt. For hospitality, encouragement, friendship and laughs. Many thanks to my supervisors, Prof. Arjen van Witteloostuijn and Prof. Annick Schramme, for four years of moral support, reading, and discussion, on a topic which I know was not part of your day-to- day interests. Annick was the first to think of me as a PhD candidate, and to give me the call that kick- started everything. Arjen followed up by arranging a meeting and convincing me to take the leap. The four years that followed seemed like an unlikely endeavor, but together we made it work. Many thanks also to my doctoral committee and jury members, for attentive reading and constructive feedback: Prof. Dr. Philippe Meers, Dr. Lizelle Bisschoff, Dr. Alessandro Jedlowski, and Prof. Dr. Luuk Van Waes. Together, my supervisors and reading committee provided me with a varied wealth of knowledge, experience, and theoretical insights. None of this would have been possible without the much appreciated financial support of the Flemish Scientific Organization, and specifically the Odysseus program. Neither could I have started without the backing of the University of Antwerp, and in particular ACED, the Antwerp Centre for Evolutionary Demography, which provided financial and logistical support and academic guidance. ACED is financed by a five year start-up grant from the Odysseus program of FWO, the Flemish Scientific Organization. I am grateful also to VLIR-UOS for stepping in financially for my first data trip. You’ve put me on my way in the absolute beginning. ACED and the Competence Centre Management, Culture & Policy gave me backing for subsequent trips. A very special thank you to Christophe Boone and Anne Van der Planken, for four years of patience with my academic stubbornness, and for giving me leeway. I appreciate how you gave me the confidence and freedom to do this project as I saw fit. I salute all my colleagues and friends at the University of Antwerp. There are many, and they are dispersed over several departments. A high five to all the people at ACED, at the Competence Centre Management, Culture & Policy, and at the Visual Studies and Media Culture Research Group (ViSMeC). We may not have had much contact, but we’ve walked similar roads and you’ve made me feel less alone. Ellen Loots and Sofie Jacobs: I’ve enjoyed discussing work, interests, life and love, and I cherish the good times we’ve spent. Afra Dekie, thanks for sharing info and insights, for friendship and for being around. To all my ACED colleagues, and especially Sofie Rogiest, who so persistently dropped in inviting me for lunch or coffee whenever I was around; but also to all the other people who came and went: Vasiliki, Gilmar, Teddy, Olivier, Ad, César, Tine, Dendi, Kim, Thu Trang, Anil, Diemo, Gábor, Wesley, Sandy, Matthijs, and everyone else: thanks, be well, and keep in touch. To Victor Gilsing at ACED and Matthias De Groof at ViSMeC: thanks for valuable feedback on my writing. Gratitude also to my colleagues at the Competence Centre: Sigrid, Joke, and especially Laila, always ready to help whenever I had lost my way, once again, in daunting administration. Many thanks to my interviewees and respondents, all of whose names I cannot mention, but who are duly listed in the annex of this dissertation. A special thank you to Russell Southwood and Sylvain Bélètre at Balancing Act Africa, for a fruitful collaboration and inspiring conversations. By extension I feel grateful for so many passionate artists active in Kenya and Tanzania today. You have opened a new world to me, fascinating enough to have kept me going another four years at least. I am lucky to have met so many great people at film festivals, conferences, workshops, and related events. I have very fond memories of the Yèelba Africalia trip and the Point Sud Workshop, both in Ouagadougou, of several editions of the Zanzibar International Film Festival, the Durban International Film Festival, the African Film Festival in Córdoba, and many more events. I could not possibly mention everyone, but Justine Atkinson, Karin Barber, Lizelle Bisschoff, Claudia Böhme, Enrico Chiesa, Mane Cisneros Manrique, Carlos Dominguez, Henrike Grohs, Katarina Hedrén, Alessandro Jedlowski, Matthias Krings, Sabrina Marquez, Martin Mhando, Federico Olivieri, Cole Paulson, Katrien Pype, Ute Röschentaler, Dorine Rurashitse, Olivia Rutazibwa, Vinciane Samain, Marc-André Schmachtel, Nuria Suarez, and countless others: I feel so privileged to have met you, you are all wonderful people. I especially salute Guido Convents and Guido Huysmans, founders of the Afrika Film Festival in Leuven. Guido Huysmans has recently passed away, and will be missed by many. Asante gari ya muhishimiwa! Dear Anthony Khazalwa, endless gratitude to you for driving me around Nairobi countless times, from interview to meeting to hang-out. Gratitude also to my Kenyan pals in Belgium, David Kadorimwanyumba and Simon Kimani Ndungu, who watched videos in Swahili and Gikuyu with me. Thanks to Dr.des Claudia Böhme, not only for her inspirational work and advice, but also for putting me in touch with my guest family in Dar Es Salaam. To Salum and Raya Khamis, and the entire family in Magomeni Mapipa: asanteni sana! Friendship forever to the people who came and went at BAM Art while I was combining my work there with this project. You have meant so much more than you know (and definitely more than the desktop computer, the printer, the coffee, the Xerox, the good company… although all of that helped). I trust that this is not a goodbye as many of us start new chapters in Brussels. A special mention for my friend Sophie De Vinck, Doctor in Communications, for sharing thoughts and providing moral support. Another special mention for my friend Dr Carl Lachat, Professor in Nutritional Epidemiology, for that one night out discussing topics four years ago – all this is, in a way, your doing. Thanks to all my closest friends, you all know who you are. A warm hug to Claudio, a love lost but a friend gained. Most warmly and most dearly, I thank Ilse Den Hond, for the shoves in the back in times of self-doubt, and simply for being there all these many years. Finally, as for being there, how do you thank the people who have cared for you since day one? You try, and hope they know how much you mean it. Love and gratitude to my parents and my sister, for all the many things impossible to express in words. SUMMARY - ENGLISH Since the beginning of the 21st century a range of evolutions have begun to alter the image, dominant in the West, of Africa as a poor, economically hopeless, war-torn and disease-ridden place. A yearly collective GDP growth revolving around 5%, an abundance of natural resources, a growing and youthful population, increasing political stability, ongoing urbanization, and steadily growing private investments, are a few of the indicators leading observers today to turn to another extreme, now referring to Africa as “the next frontier” for business opportunity. Technology plays a central role in this new and optimistic perception of Africa. Similarly, technology is at the base of remarkable evolutions in media production and distribution in Africa. The South-Nigerian video film industry commonly known as Nollywood emerged when celluloid was overtaken by cheaper and more user-friendly home cameras and video players, later to be replaced by digital equipment and optical disc technology. It has demonstrated how the high- volume production of low-budget, African-targeted films can be turned into a self-sustaining business with global reach. However, Nollywood – and by extension local circuits of popular cinema across the continent – is not the only genre or format of African cinema affected by technological progress. This study concentrates on two countries in East Africa, the audiovisual industries of which have traditionally not received the scholarly interest they merit: Kenya and Tanzania. This PhD project sits on the crossroads between current technological trends in Africa, with a focus on Kenya and Tanzania, and related evolutions in local audiovisual production and distribution. It revolves around the question if and how the production and distribution of film and video are affected by technological innovation, and how this plays out socially and economically in different local contexts. This question is broken down into three hypotheses to be critically interrogated: (1) the statement that technological progress has had democratizing effects on production and on distribution in Kenya and Tanzania; (2) the statement that it is associated with a diversification of local production and distribution; and (3) the statement that it results in more locally-relevant stories and distribution processes. These questions are dealt with in six stand-alone articles departing from different research questions.
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