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Decoding Identities in 'Francophone' African Postcolonial Decoding identities in ‘Francophone’ African postcolonial spaces: local novels, global narratives by Sophie Nicole Isabelle Tanniou A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Modern Languages School of Languages, Cultures, Art History and Music College of Arts and Law Graduate School University of Birmingham March 2015 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract My research bridges the gap between Anglophone postcolonial studies and Francophone literary studies by looking at Francophone literature from West and Equatorial Africa, which remains under-studied in France. This work answers key questions: how can this literature be interpreted beyond its current confines? How does it rethink local and global identities? What theoretical configurations can be applied to these writers to bring them into greater academic and public prominence? I propose a comprehensive analysis of this literature’s significance in the world through a comparative reading of five contemporary regional novels in their political, social and historical context. This multidirectional reading allows me to evoke what Dominic Thomas calls an ‘intercultural dynamics’ in which colonialism ‘finds itself relocated as a mechanism that proceeds from globalization’, and integrates various spatial zones in which thinking is produced. It brings forward key writers situated ‘outside of the parameters of Frenchness’ inscribed in cosmopolitan decolonizing and cultural reconstruction trends, such as Léonora Miano, a young Cameroonian author and winner of six French literary prizes; Fatou Diome, a Senegalese best-selling writer; Sénouvo Agbota Zinsou from Togo, 63 and in political exile; one contemporary writer, Kangni Alem (Togo), and one more established intellectual, Boubacar Boris Diop (Senegal). I For my children, Yaëlle Sibi May and Anoucka Anoko Mia II Acknowledgements I am most grateful to Jennifer Birket, Martyn Cornick, Karima Laachir and Berny Sèbe for their support and guidance during the writing of this thesis. I would like to express a special debt of gratitude to Berny Sèbe for inspiring me all the way, and to Claire Peters for her editing skills and encouragement. My thanks go also to my family members and friends who have contributed in their various ways to the writing of this thesis. Finally, special thanks go to my husband Ludwig Teyi, my mother Nicole Passelande, and my sister Sylvie Félix for supporting my decision to begin doctoral research, and for patiently continuing to support and encourage me throughout the period of study. III Abbreviations BBD = Boubacar Boris Diop CJV = Contours du Jour qui Vient LGSP = La Gazelle s’Agenouille Pour Pleurer LM = Le Médicament LTT = Le Temps de Tamango LVA = Le Ventre de l’Atlantique IV Contents Abstract I Acknowledgements III Abbreviations IV Introduction 1 Chapter 1 The relationship between France and Sub-Saharan Africa and post- colonial quests for identity: the examples from Francophone Cameroon, Senegal and Togo Introduction: France's 'special relationship'? Franco-African relations in the cultural and political realms: looking back 27 ‘Dis’-ruption: the impact of French colonisation on Sub-Saharan cultures (1870-1958) 29 Dominant colonial narrative Assimilation False dis-junction? Decolonisation or the way to neo-colonisation (1958-1995) 38 Decolonising? An impossible divorce Unmuting the past, de-silencing culture move to general introduction? Dis-enchantment? Re-thinking the postcolonial: new realities in the Franco-African relation (post-1995) 48 Denial Acceptance? Conclusion 56 Chapter 2 The making of the national state in a post-colonial Francophone country in Boubacar Boris Diop’s Le Temps de Tamango (1981), or the defeat of national- identity building Introduction 57 National politics 60 Léopold Sédhar Senghor and democracy Local divisions Fake independence or the salvatory illusion: a neocolonialist tale 65 Roots to neo-colonisation V Marginalisation strategies of postcolonial authorities: the race to class shift Repression Rebellion 75 Resistance Failed revolution Conclusion 82 Chapter 3 Contested identities in a post-colonial and globalised world: towards a re-conceptualisation of ‘Francophone African literature’ as ‘World literature’ in Léonora Miano’s Contours du Jour qui Vient (2006) Introduction 85 Culture: tradition and modernity 88 Postcolonial hope Clash within Identity: individual and collective 95 Nomadic identities Language and identity Space: the local and the global 102 New trajectories Across borders Conclusion 112 Chapter 4 Postcolonial renegotiations of identity and gender in Fatou Diome’s Le Ventre de l’Atlantique (2003) Introduction 114 The egg: society, tradition, gender stereotypes 115 The impact of Islam in a transforming society Outcast Fausse route The caterpillar and the chrysalis: the search for the other, the quest for oneself 127 An ongoing birth An aventure ambiguë The exotic trap The nymphosis and the butterfly: identity in the plural 138 Kaleidoscope of identities : altérité and autretés Third space VI Conclusion 143 Chapter 5 Enunciating identities: tormented souls and ghost life in the European eldorado, or the desperate quest for atiké, the antidote, in Sénouvo Agbota Zinsou’s Le Médicament (2003) Introduction 146 Tormented souls in transhumance; in search of a remedy 149 Reasons for immigration explored The figure of the clandestine: leurre and placebo effect Ghost life in the Eldorado 160 Double-je and identity questioning Urban transactions Atiké: the antidote 169 Emergence of a third space Beyond the tiers-état Conclusion 178 Chapter 6 Diasporic identities in unison in Kangni Alem’s La gazelle s’agenouille pour pleurer (2003), an alternative to cacophonic postcolonial discourses Introduction 180 Postcolonial instrumentation, a cacophony 181 Objectification of black subjects Violence and absurdity: the tragi-comic Impossible symphony 188 Cultural authenticity challenged Exile, migration and dislocated spaces Polyphony and diasporic arrangements 195 Jazz music, new media and mourning: re-composition Diasporic networks, a new understanding of Africa Conclusion 202 Conclusion 204 VII VIII Introduction ‘We should think […] of identity as a ‘production’, which is never complete, always in process, and always constituted within, not outside, representation’.1 Stuart Hall France’s banning of the text, on which Swedish director Goran Hugo Olsson based his film - only a week after publication - revealed clearly the symptomatic relationship that France holds with its colonial past. Olsson’s new documentary, entitled Concerning Violence (2014), sheds light on the consequences of colonisation twenty years after the wave of independence movements that swept West Africa in the 1960’s.2 Its title refers to the first chapter of French Caribbean postcolonial theorist Frantz Fanon’s 1961 text, Wretched of the Earth. By creating a connection between Fanon’s revolutionary ideal and Sankara’s revolution on the ground,3 Olson gives a voice to a silenced part of the common history between France and West Africa to emphasise the postcolonial nature of the relationship. For this purpose it uses archival footage of Thomas Sankara, the Burkinabe president assassinated in a coup d’etat led by one of his previous allies, Blaise Compaoré, with possibly tacit support from the French government.4 Also eager to offer a fresh perspective on historical events of postcolonial nature, film director Matthieu Kassowitz produced L’Ordre et la Morale (2011) based 1 Stuart Hall, 'Cultural Identity and Diaspora', in Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, ed. by Jonathan Rutherford (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1990), p. 222. 2 Elizabeth Pears, ‘Colonialism Is Still In Full Swing Today’, 27 November 2014, <http://www.voice-online.co.uk/article/colonialism-still-full-swing-today> [accessed 30 November 2014]. 3 Ernest Harsch, Thomas Sankara, An African Revolutionary (Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2014), p. 52. 4 Marco Rampazzo Bazzan, ‘Le Devenir Afrique de Lumumba, Nkrumah et Sankara. Ou de l’Importance de Ressasser le Passé Contre le Discours de Dakar’, Filozofija i Drustvo, 23.4 (2012), pp. 218-37 (p. 223). 1 on the Ouvéa island hostage crisis in New Caledony5 to highlight the acts of violence of the French military during the 1988 ‘Victor’ operation. Better known for his production of La Haine in 1995, which was a critical review of French society as seen from the point of view of three young men from the banlieues, Kassowitz attempts to explain the source of the 1995 cultural and social conflicts in France, with a particular emphasis on the diaspora of African heritage. The ability of postcolonial criticism to give a point of view from within, rather than an external narrative dominated by a Western Universalist vision, is reflected in these films. They emphasise the importance of local accounts by postcolonial subjects who ‘talk back to the centre’- to echo Rushdie - by means
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