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2016 ILARI Economic Warfare. the Western Way of Warfighting

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2016 ILARI Economic Warfare. the Western Way of Warfighting 1 «Economic Warfare» The Western Way of Warfighting by Virgilio IIari Gasoline ration stamps being inspected at the United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing in Washington, D.C., 31 January 1974 It is part of a collection donated to the Library of Congress. Per the deed of gift, U.S. News & World Report dedicated to the public all rights it held for the photographs in this collection upon its donation to the Library. 2 «Economic Warfare» The Western Way of Warfighting by Virgilio IIari A detailed chronological and bibliographical fact-finding of the most relevant treaties, agreements, political decisions, legislation, definitions, theories, public documents and scientific studies in the field of the economic and financial warfare and their tools and tactics [market penetration, trade agreements, international aid (foreign economic as- sistance), preclusive purchasing (buying), dollar diplomacy, monetary policy, world investment banking, shipping assurance, economic and financial intelligence, business intelligence, economy as statecraft, foreign economic policy, geoeconomics, national emergencies, export/import controls, foreign asset control (freeze), proclaimed listing, sanctions and countersanctions, embargos, boycott, lawfare, extraterritorial jurisdic- tion, shipping insurance, predatory pricing, dumping and antidumping, bankrupting, counterfeiting, smuggling, color revolution, human rights, responsibility to protect, blockade, bombing, sabotage, espionage, covert operations] since 1900 ongoing. Contents I Offensive Economic Warfare (1900-1945) p. 3 Phase I – Imperialism (1900-1914) p. 5 Phase II – Great War (1914-1921) p. 11 Phase III – Interwar (1919-1939) p. 19 Phase IV – Second World War (1939-1945) p. 37 II The Economic Weapons of the Cold War (1945-1991) p. 56 Phase I – Containment (1945-1962) p. 59 Phase II – Détente (1963-1979) p. 83 Phase III – The Western Triumph (1979-1991) p. 100 III Global Economic and Financial War (1990-ongoing) p. 116 Phase I – Brave New World (Order) (1990-2001) p. 116 Phase II – The New American Century (2001 ongoing) p. 140-206. ------- This Paper (in progress) is an Introductory Guide for the preparation of Quaderno Sism 2017 Economic Warfare 3 Suggestions, corrections and collaboration proposals are welcomed I Offensive Economic Warfare (1900-1945) Durante quella che è stata definita come «prima globalizzazione», la stabilità dei prezzi garantita dal sistema monetario internazionale del Gold Standard (1880-1914) sembrò realizzare la teoria economica della «pace liberale» 1. Ma la collisione fra gli imperi marittimi e continentali per l’egemonia globale innescò quella che nel 1948 Churchill avrebbe chiamato la «seconda guerra dei trent’anni». Questo conflitto fu caratte- rizzato da una duplice “guerra economica” 2. Una tra l’Occidente anglo- franco-americano e gli sfidanti (gli Imperi Centrali, poi l’Asse) per il controllo delle risorse economiche e finanziarie 3; e una americana per la successione nell’egemonia globale britannica e la creazione di quello che verrà chiamato nel 1989 il «Washington consensus» 4. La prima – combattuta prevalentemente con mezzi militari, pianificata dalla Royal Navy già nel 1914 e definita già nel 1940 «offensive EW» – rappresen- tava una titanica estensione e intensificazione, giunta fino al bombar- damento nucleare, delle precedenti forme di guerra economica diretta (guerra al commercio, blocco e assedio terrestre e navale). 1 Tarak Barkawi and Mark Laffey (Eds.), Democracy, Liberalism and War, Rethinking the Democratic Peace Debate , Boulder – London, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001. 2 Per una storia del concetto di guerra economica v. Tor Egil Førland, «the History of Economic Warfare: International Law, Effectiveness, Strategies», Journal of Peace Research , vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 151-162. Murat Önsoy, The World War Two Allied Economic Warfare: The Case of Turkish Chrome Sales , Inaugural-Dissertation in der Philosophischen Fakultät und Fachbereich Theologie der Friedrich-Alexander- Universität Erlangen Nürnberg, 15 April 2009, pp. 5-32. 3 Gerald D. Feldman, «The Economics of War and Economic Warfare, 1914-1945», in Valentin Groebner, Sebastien Guex et Jakob Tanner (Hsg.), Kriegswirtschaft und Wirtschaftskriege. Économie de la guerre et guerres économiques , Schweizerisches Jahrbuch für Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte Annuaire suisse d’histoire économique et sociale (vormals Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte – Société suisse d’histoire économique et sociale), Band 23, 2008, pp. 87-98. 4 Williamson, «A Short History of the Washington Consensus», Paper commissioned by Fundación CIDOB for a conference “From the Washington Consensus towards a new Global Governance,” Barcelona, September 24–25, 2004. 4 La seconda – indiretta, pacifica e ancor priva di un nome specifico – ha impiegato invece sistemi più raffinati delle vecchie guerre commer- ciali, doganali e valutarie. Tra le due guerre l’America modificò infatti radicalmente a proprio favore gli equilibri geo-economici con l’Impero britannico sia attraverso il controllo degli armamenti (conferenze navali del 1921-1930) sia utilizzando abilmente il suo credito per i prestiti di guerra, peraltro relativamente modesti, sia ingaggiando una complessa partita per il controllo del petrolio 5. Inoltre Wilson fece legittimare le c. d. «sanzioni», un nuovo sistema di attacco al commercio, più flessibile del blocco navale e utilizzabile anche in tempo di pace, la cui effettività non si basa sulla coercizione militare, e nemmeno sul consenso internazionale, ma, in ultima analisi sul peso decisivo degli Stati Uniti. Infatti il fallimento delle sanzioni collettive all’Italia nel 1935-36 dipese dalla mancata adesione america- na, mentre l’embargo unilaterale degli Stati Uniti al Giappone (1940-41) ebbe effetti talmente ultimativi da spingerlo all’attacco suicida di Pearl Harbour. Fra il 1935 e il 1939 il prevalere delle correnti isolazioniste obbligò gli Stati Uniti ad una rigida neutralità, ma in compenso Roosevelt otten- ne importanti riforme costituzionali che concentrarono nel presidente degli Stati Uniti dei veri e propri poteri di guerra economica. Questi, unitamente alle sanzioni, all’arms control e agli aiuti economici confi- guravano una vera e propria macchina da guerra economica che fu ap- plicata e potenziata durante la guerra fredda. 5 F. William Engdahl, A Century of War. Anglo-American Oil Politics and the New World Order , Dr. Bottiger Verlags-GmbH, 1992. 5 Phase I – Imperialism (1900-1914) 1900 L’americano Peter Chardon Brooks Adams (1848-1927), critico del capitalismo e assertore di una visione ciclica della storia, pubblica The American Supremacy (New York, Macmillan), dove prevede che New York sostituirà Londra come centro del commercio mondiale. 1902 Il giornalista britannico William Thomas Stead, morto dieci anni dopo nel naufragio del Titanic , pubblica The Americanization of the World (New York-London, Horace Markley). Esce Imperialism. A Study (James Nisbet & Co., London), l’opera più nota di John Atkin- son Hobson (1858-1940), l’«economic heretic» britannico che ispirerà Lenin, Trotskij e Hanna Arendt. La tesi è che l’imperialismo è una conseguenza del capitalismo. La strutturale sotto-remunerazione del lavoro produce il «sotto-consumo» interno. Il capitale cerca così nuo- ve fonti di profitto nelle esportazioni, provocando sia la globalizza- zione sia la competizione nazionale per il controllo del mercato mon- diale, e innescando il nazionalismo, il militarismo e la collisione tra imperi. 1902 (22 dicembre) Squadre navali inglese, tedesca e italiana bloccano i porti venezuelani esigendo dal governo di Caracas il pagamento im- mediato dei debiti contratti con le società europee. Allarmato, il pre- sidente Theodor Roosevelt minaccia l’intervento a fianco del Vene- zuela e impone la propria mediazione («big stick policy») 6. La crisi si risolve col Protocollo di Washington del febbraio 1903, e da occasio- ne per formulare il «corollario Roosevelt» alla Dottrina Monroe, esposto nel suo messaggio del 1904 al congresso, che afferma il dirit- to degli Stati Uniti di intervenire per «stabilizzare» la situazione eco- nomica dei piccoli paesi dei Caraibi e Centro America non in grado di pagare i loro debiti internazionali, allo scopo di prevenire interventi europei. Termina così la «gunboat diplomacy» europea inaugurata nel 6 Henry J. Hendrix, «Overwhelming Force and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902-1903», in Bruce A. Elleman and S. C. M. Paine (Eds.), Navies and Soft Power: Historical Case Studies of Naval Power and the Nonuse of Military Force , Naval War College Newport Papers 42, 2012, pp. 21-46. 6 1850 in Grecia dal filelleno Lord Palmerston col «Don Pacifico Af- fair» 7, e cominciano la «Dollar Diplomacy» 8 e le «Banana Wars» (1898-1934) americane. 1904 Sir Halford John Mackinder (1861-1947) presenta alla Royal Geographical Society il suo celeberrimo articolo The Geographical Pivot of History , che sotto una terminologia pseudo-geografica, riacu- tizza la secolare ossessione britannica di un contropotere continentale sotto forma di un asse geo-economico russo-tedesco 9. L’intervento va interpretato nel contesto della drammatica fase finale del Grande Gio- co (1807-1907): già nell’estate 1900, mentre era in corso la spedizio- ne internazionale contro i Boxers, l’ammiraglio Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914) giudicava inevitabile una guerra anglo-russa per il con- 7 Derek Taylor, Don Pacifico: the acceptable face of gunboat diplomacy, Vallentine Mitchell, 2008 8
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