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I NTRODUCTION /

Wh&n the dissat1sfied people" of Europe decided to emigrate, the United states was naturally the first choice of the immense major1ty because of its cheap landa, cb.eap ocean pas sage, political and religious equality and its limitless opportunities. The Poles of Russia, Prussia, and Austria were til pert of that dIssatisfied group whlch made a,n exodus to the Unlted states in large Dumbers. The lot of the Polish peasant was always an unhappy one. When Poland, at the zenith ot her power, ruled 'over White llussians, Ruthenians, and Lithuanians, when her dominion extended from the OdeI' to the Don River and from the Baltic to the Black Sea, the positIon of the Polieh serf was as unenviable as it 1s today. Poland was an ol1garchy 1n wh1ch the ruling nobles and their m1eerable serfs had no bond of sympathy. There

W8B no Polish middle class suffic1ent to carryon trade and commerce, to serve ae a connecting l1nk bet­ ween the two w1dely separated classes. And that is perhaps one rea,son why Polish serfs who mlgrated to the United States entered the mining and manufacturing 1ndustries of the eastern and middle western states , and became for the most part unskilled laborers rather -2

than farmers. There is no basic industry in which they i are not represented in large numbers, in fact, it can be said that they have almost completely monopolized unskilled labor activities in many important industries. It is the intention of the writer to discuss at length Polish immigration to the United States with special reference to the period from 1870 to 1905. -3

CHAPTER I i

Poland had been a large Bnd important national sta.te since the sixteenth century. It represented not only a geographic unit but also a union and partial fusion of' three nationalities--Poles, Lithuanians, and Letts (Latvians.) During the seventeenth century, the unified Polish state played a conspiCUOUS military role~ It then con­ tested Baltic ports with Sweden, interfered in Russla, helped the AUstrian Hapsburgs to defend Vienna agaInst the Turks (1683), Bud exte.nded its own frot:ltlers soutb.., eastward at the expense of the Ottoman E'mpira. ,,11 th the expansion of' the Polish ata te, the -jeal­ ousy of its neighbors was aroused, and by the eighteenth century certain internal weaknesse.s manlfested them­ selves. Relative to its geographical extent, its population was sparse and its public wealth slight. It encountered increasing difficulty 1n r a ls1.ngand maintaining a.rmies of sufficient ·size and effectiveneS8 to cope with the military establishments of Prussia, Russia, and Aus tria. It lacked adequate fOl't1tlcatlons, natural as we ll 88 artificial. Her land .as unprotected by moun talns-. -4

There were troublesome minorities within Poland. i The largemajorlty of the population was PolIsh 1n language and natl0.oal1 ty and Catholic in religion.

Part of the country, however, was peopled by LIthua­ nians, who, though roainlyCathollc llke the Po les , constltu.ted a national mInority. In many of t he towns, moreover, were consider able settlements 01' Jews, ..ho were treated and wished to be trested, 8S a separate nation. Besides, Inthe southeastern dlstr·icts were numerous Ruthenians (Ukrainians) and. Rus8ianCo-ssacka, who were non-Polish in speech and ortbodox in rellgion, while In the western towns and Baltic provinces were an appreciable number of' Protestant Germans . In the eIghteenth century the Orthodox and Protestant dis­ senters demanded from the CathollcUlajorlty an equality whlchat the t1me existed in no other country of Europe, and wben It was not forthcoming they appealed for asslstance to foreign powers--the Protestants to the King of Prussia, the Orthodox to the Tsar of Russia. The aocial and political conditions in Poland were particularly bad. By the end of the seventeenth century, Swedish eOm:l!lerciol control of the Baltic bad inflicted hardsh1ps on Pollilnd' 8 eoonomio 11te. lIer cities were not Rrowing and bel' middle cl088 waa -5

i declining in wealth and numbers. The nobilIty was the one class which r e tained Q,n eminent social poai tion. The Polish noblea, as a class, were too mu.ch given to f euds to present a un1ted front to any foreign enemy. Yet the nobles owned t he l and , lived prodigally, looked out selfishly for their own economic advantage, end depressed the peasantry into an ever more ml eerable condition. W1th a selfish nob il1ty on the one hand, and en oppressed peas,antry on the other, the best gusra,nty of pol1tical I ndependence, was notably lacklng. 1

1 O~lton J. H. Hayes, A PolItical ~ Cultural History of Modern Europe, I : 3"74-377

I n 1772, Catherine the Greater Russia joined with Frederick the Great of Prussia and w1th Maria Theresa of Austria in makIng the f irst par tition of POl~ld. Russia took overall the country whlch lay east ·01' the Duna and Dnieper rivers. Prussia took West Prussia, except t he town of DanZig . Au str1a took Gal1cla, ~ except the city of CPacow. In all, Poland was depr1ved of about a .fourth of her terri tory, a fif th of her popula tion, and almost a half of her wealth. :2

:2 Ibid., I, 344-345, 382 -6

i In 1793, Po land was subjected to Q seoond parti­ tion by Russia Bnd Prussia, and 1.n 1795, frussla, Pruss1a, and Aus t ria completed t heir partltionin"" work and erased Poland irOIli thepol1tlcal map of Europe.

L~ the part1tions of 1793 and 1795 , Austria obta.lned the upper valley of the Vlstula, end Prussia the lower. including the c1tyof Warsaw, whil e tbe rest of Poland, --the major share--went to Russia. Rut-hanla {or Ukralnla} and almost all of L1thuania passed Into the hands of Catherine the Great • .3

:3 Ibi,d., I, 382-383, 700-70.3 '----'-

Lord Phl111more once remarked that the part1tIon of Po land in the eigbteenthcentul"Y wa2 an internatIonal crime. The empires whicb carried out the partItion accepted a heavy responsl'bll1ty. For thIs they pald, and they no longer exist. But the real su11t was on the Poles who lost their independence through their lack of national unIty. Among the social classes, the heaviest guilt reat,fj on the nobilIty, wno by their selfishness brought disunity and ruin to the Polish national state.

I t 1s needless to day that the socIal, economic, -7

and political causes of Polish emigration to America .' had their roots in the dismemberment of Poland. The Kulturkampf was perhaps the greatest factor in Poll$n emigration from G'tU!'lllany. Bislllarck inaugurated the policy in 1871 by suppres.sing the Catholic Department in the r.E1nlstry of Public Worship and Instruction on the pretext of ita Polonizlng tendencies. 'Jlhe Bo-called

It M,S.y Laws !! were enacted which restricted the pzolvilegea of the clergy, even those guaranteed by the constitution. Numerous penalties were inflicted on refractory ecclesi­ astics. Msgr. Ledochowski, Archbishop of Posen, wsa imprisoned in 1874 and later condemned to ban18hment~ i\~any parishes remained without priests. Posen WS8 given a Gel"'tllan bishop_ 4

4 Ladislas Konopczynskl, A Brief Outline of Polish Hi .s tory, 79 -

The struggle of the Gorman imperial government against the Catholic Church, though a painful epieodel! was not without ita fortunate Co.fissquenccs for the

Polish popu~ation which was whole-hcartedly C a thollc~ It woke up the masses of' the people, associated the idess of patriotism and religion, united the Catholic clergy wIth the opposition, and created a bond of -8

union between all classes end hastened the revival i in Uppe r Silce1s . Soon the name of Pole was linked with that of the Socialist in the war-cry of the followers of Bismarck. In 1872-1874, t hroughout the whole extent of the Polish territories, the p;ri mary and eeeondary schools were completely germanized .• and the Polish l anguage banished from the eourts of justice. When autonomous institutions were introduced in 1872-

1875, the Grand Duchy of Poznanla "ftaS excluded from t h is privilege. 5

5 Ibido, 78-80 --to-

At the end of the decade of the '80s,. Prussia inaugul'ated the poliey of b uying up Polish lands and settling theI'son German farmers. This proved a failure ss far as Germanization was concerned. It strengthened the cause ,of the Poleg, l"1ho with" the money received fr-om the Prussl8..'1 government, bought and Poland1.zed more farms than could be Germlu:tized. Thi:s policy, however, w8s . changed in a new law_ It W88 provided i the t Po lish landowners be not p81d exoessl ve sums f or their property, but that their property be acquired throu.r.: h condemnation proceedIngs, allowIng compensations equal to -the real value of the' pro,perty_ It is this -9

measure whic,h the Poles denounced as barbarous and " which was so characterized by many newspapers i n different par ts of t he world. Economic er rors wer e also made by the Prus slan Government in suppor ting the great landed property which i n the main was owned by Poles. The se land- owners have always been dls1oyal~ having never relin- quished their dr eam of a Polish state with aristocratic rule 88 it formerly existed. The politica l success of' the Austrian Poles gave an ever increasing stimulus to Polish agitation in

Pru s s;ta~ and the Pruss lan Poles made no secret of their hope of re-establlshlng an independent Polish state. They communicated with the Poles in Austria and un­ doub tedly maintained a secret understandIng with the Russian Poles. They desired to sever the bonds that bound t hem to the countries to which they politically were attached. 6

6 Henry Sienkiewicz snd E. Kloesaing l' "Dispossessing the Poles~ \t Outlook, 88:541-4

A fresh outburst regarding the languag e for relig ious instruction in the schools of tha.t parto! Poland which was governed by Prues1a_ marked a renewal -10

of an active campaign agaInst everything Polish. The i main features of that campaign were the acquisItIon of the land from Polish landowners by the agency of the Settlement Commission, and the suppression of the Polish language. Amongst other guarantees given the Polish people by t he King of Prussia at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 was a promis e that "their annexation should not in any way entail the loss of t he ir nationality! • uYour langua.ge", it was declared, "shall be used, to­ gether with the German, in all public transactions. ft 7

7 posen, ttpersecution of the Prusslan Poles," Livi~ Age, 252:36-42

In spite of these assurances only a few years had elapsed when attemp ts were made to banish the Polish language from Government offices and from all official correspondence. In 1831, it was decreed that

German must be the language used by all Government authorities. In vain did the Poles appeal to the Vienna guarantee--the language was placed under dis- abilities . This was the first huroillatlon inflicted on the polish people. -11

i The no.xt aot of opprt::)$sion was tho attempt to eliminate the i nfluen ce of the Catholic Church . The schools in the Poli sh provinces were declared t o be a GoY.ernment i nst! tution; but the relig ious teaching as lef t to the care of the va!'ious religious congre­ gations iIi the Duchy of Posen . At first the schools were cared f or b y the- cle.r gy. As time wentoD, how­ e ver , the i nfluence of the Church was diminished and the Governrnent gradua lly tranaf erred religious teach­ ing t o lay schoolmas t e l's . pl'evented inspection by the clergy. aud f.orbadeall supervision of the methods of re11gious i nstruction emp lo;y ed by government s chool­ mas ters. By the ordinance of' 1842, it was provided that i n the Duchy of Posen lnatruction should be given in the language which wa s spoken by the majorlty of the ,pupils in the bi-lingual dis tricts. '.Phis system con­

t inued f or th1l"t'1 years . In 1872, the Pruse1an Gover nment determined to abolish the Fallah language . 'rhe laurels Which Bbmarck had won during his wars of conquest prompted him to wa ge war with the

Ca t hol1c Church throughou t the Gel'lllQ.n Empire 1n the Kultul'kampf and his example awoke similar ambi tions in other Prussian ministeI'tI . The Minister of PubliC - 12

\\'orship, Adalbert Folk, put t hrough aserles of laws .' which bears his name . Th.ese drastic measures made it a puni ~ hsb le of'fense f o'r ser\'snts of the Church to impose penalties in ma tters not of a religious charac­ ter; placed education of the clergy under state super­ vision arlO gave the Gov611 nment tl right of vet o on all clerical appointrr. ents, facl11 t a t ed aeceGsion from the Church f o l'" t hoe6 who wi shod to l eave it, snd subjected ecc l esiastical discipl ine of the Cat holic cler gy to state c ont rol. It VJas believed by PrussiGn officinldom that the excessive liberality establlshed by the Or dinance of 1842 had led t o res ults al arming tO Prussla. It was maintained tha t the Oer'me,n element in Polish Prussia was bein g gr adually ab sor.bed. Ger man c hl l dren we re forgetting their own l anguage and were becoming Polish. A cOtrm:l ission made an i nvestigation and recolT'.mended that a ll subjects except r eligion should be taught only in German. The cntechi3m could be taught eitber in Poliah or Oerman. It was l~f t to the lay schoolmas ters to judge whether their pupil s had Q sufficient know ledge of German t o 0 0 tnu.s;ht religion. in that laneuage . I t wa s at t hla t i me t hat the Archbishop of Posen, IJedochow s kl, pl-'otested against this perver sion of' -13

i religious training. Po l ish plU"6nts submitted to the

substl tutlon of Oel.. tmm foI' Pol ish .ill all secular sub- jects, and begged for only LhI'€e or four hours a week,

during wh'ch the c~techlsm could be tsus<:h t in the mot h er t one,ue . The Goverr.ll,r. ent usually I'epl1ed by forcing the chIldren to say t he1!' prayers in German,

wi th the :resul t t hat t he Qer nuaIl lanf,1.l.sge became more and more hateful to both parente and ch11dren. 8

8 Ib1d., 37-38

When the ]:Cu i turksmpf had ended atld Church snd s tate had reached an understandi ng .. the banisl:uuont ot t he Pollsh language became geuer 'al, not only where the

popul ation WDS mixed, but where 1 t riBS purely Polish. The Arch biahop of Posen, MSg,r. Dinder, a oat'man, inter- ceded for the Poles undoX' h1s charge . He prevailed

UDon b oth clergy and laity to protest against the

meaSU1"es. 9

9 -Ibid., 39- 42

Wb®n Emperor William II came to the throne in 18S8, he" on the insist.tine a of t he Archbishop ot Po sen, -14

I M$gr. stablewski and of the Germa.n Chancellor, Capr1v1, introduced s ome conciliatory rneatl ur es and f or a time t he state of afi'airs was 30Iaewhat improved. But Blsrn-arck' a policies hod taken. root too deeply to be eas1ly 0radictl t od . Pan- Oerman s mb ! tions allllod at notbing; short of the t otsl eAtin~tlcn of everything distinctively Polish by the !assimi lation of the Polish element by dlspot;scssion, by exclusion from office~ end by t ho aboli t10ll of tho Polish llUlguac;e. 10

10 P.osen, loc . c1 t .

It w111 be readily understood how , in the face ot such oppression and humiliation, the Polish element was ready to flame out in retJellioIl, especle.lly when Pl'us:Jian pet'secution laid violont hands on the Ca tholic

Church in Prussian POlal'ld . "rhe Government bad Ii! voice in every ecclesiastical election. When a parish becam.e

vacant and the bishop had sanctloned the e l ection of Q

successor, it cDuld ~ti l l exercis e its veto. It was clear that, oy the r tlpe tltion of t his proceeding , the Government could dominate any e lection i n favor of its oandida. tes. The absence of 8.11 cOIlvents, e .x cept such religious - 15

i orders t hat nur s e d the a i de: , was 6.1s o a gr'ieva nc e t o which the Pollsh Cat hol ics i n Ger many had to submi t . !\!or eover, the closing of the seminari e s dur ing the r< u l tur ka );rrpf , bad thinned t he r ank !:l Qf t h e sEl cu lar e l e!' gy , wh ich was s Ciu-cely numerou s onough to fill a ll the vnc ancien. 11

11 Ca t h o 11e Wor l d , 82: 372

The dIvi s i on of e l ector a l d i s t ricts i n such a manner 8 5 t o assure ther e in a German ma jorities in e l ect ~o n 6 wa s a major pol i tical grievance . The p ostal s ervice was &1 80 Ii r.'.sdium for c onst ant pet t y discrimina­ tion. Two oJ'f1c08 we ro e ~ t a b l :tohe d .. one i n Posen, the o ther in Br omberg , t h e i r o~') J e ct b e ing t h H tral1s1ut l on of a 11 ~ddrc s s 6s incomprehens:lb l e to t hl3 or d i nary s orting c l erks . 12

12 Ib l d . ~ 37 5-376

A Gor.:mi rw ion wa s Cl" 8 sted by t he Pru~ : ;i an Gove rnreent f or t he pur rone of' c olon izi ng gr Hchwlly all of t he Po lish provi l1 ces . Tne Germu n D. ilOre to domlnute t h e provinces .

Na t u r ally ; tb.e se German coloni s t s beO!U'Ha t h e nHtural -16

./ enemies of t he Kaiser's Pol1.sh subjects, who were ever

esiI'OUS of ncq1.liring l snd . 'I'hese aims Yi~H' e charac­ teristic of the policies of 1!Germanizationtl a-nd

Prote8t~ntlz-aticn . f' 13

13 Ca tholic World , 82:366

,"\.2 far as Pr-Llssian Pelano wus c or..ceX"nad , it 15 appal'ent that Pru82.iap policie s not only e3t~b l ill!b.e d s. closer bond oetwee n rel igion and J,)a tr'iotism but ;,tave t o the Polish clerGY an opportunity to become capable a.nd :popul u.r na tiona l l eaders. 14

14 R. Dyboaki , Pahna, 52

I n Ru s s i~n and Austrian Poland conditions we:oe almost as 01::ld . In 17\;14 .i\. OSciUS 4ko l ed a fruitless !'eoe11100. Napoleon tn the course of h i s conqueo-ts partially reconstituted Po land as the ephemeral

G;NU1cl Duchy of Warsaw . 7he Congre::o a of' Vie nna

!'e - es tabll~hi}d the arron,gell'l-ent of 1795. 'I'aaI'_A.loxander I made of nuseian P ol~nd an l;lUG0110rooUS kingdom with a lib­ e r al e Crls.titution. Polish rtationalism .. however, wse t rowing s r:; a ce. 'rhe RU2s1ar. k ingdom of Pol and waa -17

i shattered when l as an afterma th of the EurOl)ean revolutions of 1830 , thB Po lish pa t riots Dought to re9H ze their dreams b y insurrection. They did not r eceive any ai d from Bny 1'01'6 15n nation, and , a fter cruBhing the revolt, Tsar Nichol as I instituted reprisals aga inst the Polish l eaders Bnd pr a ctically

ahr oc a ted t he Polish constit ution. In 1863, ~ u~sian

Poland bHO ano the r even more trasic insurI'0ction against the Tsar. Tens of thousands of Po les were exiled to Si berio . An int ense pol icy of Russlfica tion began thereafter. Polish autonomy VlSS abolished. The RU8 s:1.an I f;,n guage was made obli6s tory in Polish s chools. Re signation and despair settled on the land. As e a rly as 1832 , Russia increased t he t ariff duties on a ll artlcles coming from t he "K i ngdom of Poland . Thi s p roved a ha rd b l ow t o Poland I s trade and i ndu&try, espe cially, for cloth manufa cturi ng. 15

15 Polish National COrrttittee of America, Ec onomic

Life of Po18nd l 3 : 395

Austria's abolition of the r epublic of Cr acow , the last independent portion of Poland, in 1846, a dded still more to Polish misfortunes . Moreover, the harsh -18

i i nheritance laws caused Ga licia a lone to los e with in

8 period of t hirty years about 856, OOC l nh8~i t ant2 , who were f erced t o seek hOlrer. i o fore 19n 1 Bnds . Gener ally speakl n&, the l et of the Aus trian Poles was less s evere t han t bat or the 'R ussian and Pruseian

Poles . After Austria '8 defeat 1n the Seven Wee.ks T War

in 1866 , s be bad to refo.I't'tl he l~ internal policies nnd

gran t con c essiol1tl to tho subject lls tioD.nllties wi thin

th e empire. f'rOIu tbat dute the cond:l Hons of the Pole:.

in Ga lic ia ,,;\:: .('e brestl y !uneliol'a.ted. Besides the political and religious roasons f or

the ~m l g r & t ion of' tJiC Pole s , there were economic s nd

social r easons 8S viel1. In the nineteenth cent ury Polish vills6eB suffered ilclltel j' because of the prim­

itive agricultura l methods that fl till prevailed. Slum

conditious axisted on many .farn,s.. The ind\l ~ \ tri a l de­

v e loon:ent of Poland W88 s low. Wagcs we re low and

ues werehl(,h. La nd for t.he peasants t;.ad been sub­

divided i n to extrolt' ely s mall l ots., eepecill lly i n Ga licia. 'rho Polish peopl e were mogtly peasan ts . The

r ~te of ll1itex'oc' onb them was nearl y one 1n f our. Goaded Cll reprcss1.ve meusuros" Pru.ssian, Aus trian, and Hussian Pole s looked elsewhere for a n.ore promising

land whe re t hey could a s su.re tuen.:oe l v!;:s of b oth pea ce -19

and comfort. They chose the United states as their .' haven snd asylum. Emi gr ation to America, however, was only e part of a wider mi gratory movement. The

Poles ht1d long been e oing 88 settlers to Eastern Ga licia or a cross the Dnieper in Russia. In the early seventies, when this no lons er affor.ded a sufficient outlet, a movement hegan to the industri al l'eg10ns of Bohemia, \~oravia, and lowe r Austria, to various part s of South America end to t he United states . We shall concern ours elves, however, with the migrations to the United States . -20

i CliAPTEH !!

Although the Polish immigrstlon to the United

States i~ ~rgely a phenomenon of the period be­ tween 1870 and the World. War, there were Poles 1n significant numbers 1n the Un1ted states before the Civil War. A few Poles lived 1n colonial Virg1nia, and the Journal of the Virginia House of Burgesses oon­ ta.lns a reterenoe to Itaome Polanders to make pitch, tar and potash. '* A small colony settled in colon1al New Jersey, and some were indentured servants 1n tbe Southern 0010n1es. 1 I n the Revolut10nary War,

1 For an aooount of the Poles 1n the colon1al per1od, see I Iec1Blsu.8 Haiman, Polish Pioneers C!f Virginia ~ Kentuclg

Thsddeus Koaciu8zko and Casim1r Pulaski, becalne nat10nal heroes .for tu ture genera tiona of 1'o118h­ Americans. KoscIu8Zko oame to PhI1adelpbia in 1776 as a young milItary engineer and fought with. Groene in his Southern campaign. Pulssk1,who came to

Amerios on Franklin's endorsement, raised SD army mostly among tbe Germans. He tell mortally wounded -21

.. at Savannah in 1779. 2

2 For an acoount of the Poles i,n the .American Revolutionary War, see Mlecls1au8. Haiman, Poland !!!2. !!!! American Revolutionary !!!:

A.fter the unsuccessful Polish r1sing of 1831, some 550 Polish exiles came to the United States andCongres8 granted them thirty-six sections of land to be selected by them in Illinois or the territory of Michigan. 3 Again, after aimI1ar fruit-

:5 Aet of June 30, 1854 (4 Stat. L. 743). For the melnor-ial of exIles from Poland IIpraylng that they be granted public la.nds, II see Ex. Doca., No . 353, 25 Cong., 1st sess., Vol. V.

less :rebellions in 1848 s.nd 1863, Polish political L refugees fled ·to America. The P·olisb uprising in

184S found a host of sympathlzeors 1n the United States who believed that the cause of Poland f or

political freedom was similar to that Oof the American colonies during the Revolution. At the behest of Polish patriots in Parie, the American novelist, Jomes Fennimore Cooper sent a letter to all the prominent journals in the United States -22

Bsk1ng them to support the insurrectionists. Cooper, .' together with Marqu1s de Lafayette and Adam Mickiewicz, the Polish poet .. W8S a very active member of the Pollsh­ American Committee in France. -4 80th Bishop Dubois

4 Miecz7s1aw Heiman, Z Przeszlosc1 polsklej Vi Ameryce (The Polish .£!!! in-America), 154-162 - of' Naw York and Father John Hughes of' Philadelphia (later bishop of New York) sol101 ted funds for the Poles and t he response on the part of the Ca t holic Ch urches was more than grat i fying • . Although the!'"8 are records of Polish f am1lies, chiefly politIcal refugees from Europe, settling 1n different parts of tbeUn1ted states prior to 1850, there 1s no evldence of a sufficient number in any one 10ca11ty to cons tltu.te s colony. Polish settle­ ments had been begun In Texas and Wiseonsin before the CivIl War. The advance of' Polish settlement can usually be traced by the estab11shment of Catholic parishes, for more than seventy-five per cent of the Poles were devout members of that Church. The f1rst permanent Polish aettlement in the -23

Un ited states was established at Panna Marya. Karne.8 . County, Texas, in 1855. by about three hundred exilea from Auatrian Pol and. The first Polish Gatholic Church was erected in the Panna Ma rye settlem.ent in 1855. 6 Tne first settlement was quickly followed

5 Mleelslaus He i man, The Poles .!!! the Earll History of Texas

by other Pol1s.h colonies in the Lone star state. r~ farming community of S11esla·n Poles was established 1n 'Pexes in 1856 and 1s described in Olms ted's .! Journey Through Texas ( Page 270). Five of the Polish settlements e stablisbed churches in 1856, and eleven others followed in the course of the next t wo decadee. In 1905 , t he Polish populatlonof Texas was e8t1 m~l'I;ed at het ween 10 ,000 and 17,000. 6

6 E. G. Balch, Our Sl avic Fellow CItizens, 228-230

The firat permanent Polish settlel!l ent in Wisconsin was made at Polonia, in Portage County.

I t 'tHiS located 8 \'l'J o nB earli er German, Irish, and French commun i ties. Thes e Pole! c,&me ma inly .f"roln .. 24

Ruse1a, and were said to be "gett1ng on better all " the time," though in the previous year hall bad destroyed most ·of their crops. 7 The first Polish

'7 W. Kruszka, !listor,a Polska !. Ameryce, 2:6-7

Catholic Churcp. in Wisconsin 'Was established i n Polonia 1n 1858. 8'1 1905, the se,t .tlement counted 360 families. Poles alao settle:d at M1.11 Creek, Junct10n City, and stother points 1n Portage County. The first Polish Church W8snot opened inMllwaukee untl,l 1865. 8 The flrs't Polish parish school 1n the

8 F. Nlklewlcz, Pole,s in the Sta,te of W1sconsin; F . H. M111e.r, "llhe 1'o18nd81'5 In WIsconsIn, if In Parkman Club Papers, ~, 239- 246

United states was establ1ahed at Panna Jiarya, Texas, 1n 1866. 'l'hls was followed by the St. Stanislaua School 1n MIlwaukee, founded 1n 1867. 9

9 w. Kruszka, 9..2. ill., 2 :84

In the middle of the nineteenth century, the attraction of desirable lmmlgrWlts was the over- -25

i powering amb! tl0.nof practically every state 1n the Middle west. State after state 'began to enact leg ­ islation to encourage immi gr a tion. WisconsIn, 1"01' example, had a special commi ssioner as ear l y as 1851, and its board of immigration, created by legislative act 1n 186"1, publ1&hed pamphlets 1n many different languages. From 18"11 to 1875, 30,000 copies were printed for distribution in 11aJrope. Other ma ter ial was distributed 1n New York. Advertisements lauding

Wisconsin t s at tractions were publiShed in eight foreign newspapers. 10 In 1864 Wisconsin pet1tioned

10 Carl WIttke, We ~ Bu1lt Amer1ca, 106

Congress to solicit foreign 1mnli gratlon because labor was scarce and wa ges had more tban doubled. 11

11 E. a .Balch, 2E- ill., 218-219

In 1864, Congress passed an act to encourage i mm i gration. 12 The act authorized the President of

12 United States, s tatutes ~ Large (lSS4), 385-387 -2{)

.: the lTn,lted states .. with the advice and consent of the Senate, to appoint a commissioner of immigI'ation who was to be subject to the direct10n of the Depart .. ment of state. I t also provided for tile creati on of an immigration off ice in New York City and for the appointlllent of a superintendent of IDlmigrat10n who was to be stationed at the Por t of lJew York. 'The commi ssioner' was authorized to malts eotltrects wi t h rs.llroad and steamship companies foI' transportation tickets to be fUrnished to 1mmlg;t'snt.sand to be pald for by them. He was to protect immigrants from fraud and ,furnish them w1 th such In formation and fectH ties as would enable them to proceed "in the cheapest and most expeditious manrte·ro ,to their destlnstlon., '1'he repeal of the aot in 1869 was tbe ns tural re.sult of the close of' the war and in flO way 1nd1cated opposition to immigr ation. The Homestead Act, the acU vlt1ss of the states .. stoBJnshlpcompa,nies, rail­ way and land a g~ncle8, letters of immigrants and the boa.stlng of returned uWligra.nts continued to encourage i mmigration. St.eamshlp and railway companies had a speCial interest in stimulat1ng the immigra,nt traf'fic for obvious reasons . 'r'he ral1roadcompan1es had an - 27

additional objective in promoting the disposal o.f .( their railroad lends to actual settlers. The Atchinson, Topeka , and Santa Fe Railroad .. through its foreign immigr ation department, extended i ts activities to the Ural Mountains. 13

13 ... . . Carl Wittke, £E. ~., 111

The Illinois Central Railroad conducted one of the most v:l60rous i mmt gration and colonization pro- grams in the Un1ted states. EdItions of land pam­ phle.ts in English, Swedish .. German, and Polish Vlere prepared and were distributed by agents and immigrant o~g anlzatlons. After 1870, the company employed General John Basil Turchin as agent. Turchin, a Russian by birth, had seen considerable military service abroad and in the American Civil War. Prior to the Civil War he had been employed In the engi­ neering service of the IllinOis Central. In 1872, he became interested in a project to establish a colony of Polish illlll'iigran ts in southern Illinois. With a number of Polish and Russian friends , he opened negotiations with t he McAlister and Markoe Land Company, a Phi l adelphia corpor at10n ownin -28

i 32,000 nerea in Washington, Jetferson, and Fra.nkl1n counties. in 1111no-ia, and was commiss1oned to sell

1. ts lends. The Illinois Contral, however, Wa5 'I;;he largest landed proprietor in those counties, and

Turchin turned to it and asked for Q commisslon as a ~ ent in the Land De'pSl'tll'lsnt. After a shox·t delay this was granted . The agreement was to run for one year. Turchin's purchasers were to be parmi tted to transport all hou~ehold stfeets, 111?'estock, and lurr;ber for building over the line at one-half the regular rate. Half-rare tickets were to be sold to proa,pectlve purohasers, and if they bought land this fare was to be applied on the first payment. Turchin and Michalski, his associate, then organized the Agencja Pol&k1ej KolonizQcj1 to promote imT!ligrat1on from Poland and from Polish eentel'8 in All'iBri ca. A Polish colony at Radom, 1n Washington County, was developed, e. Catholic Church was estab­ lished there, and a priest secured. The latter spent much of his tllI:e 1n t he interests of 1illm1grution. I n 1876, the new pr1est, Father John Wolowski,. planned to visit Cleveland, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Ch1cago, Milwaukee, DetI'olt, and other Polish communi ties to -29

arouse ints,rest in emigration. To secure further " publicity foI' the colony, the editors ot: Polish newspiilpers weI'S i nvited to visit the community. In response to t he invitat10n representatives i'rom Polish newspapers in Chicago and New York came to the settle­ men t to view its development B.nd prospects. To pro­ tect the Polish imm igrants arriving from Europe, an eRant was stationed 1n New York, and agencies abroad were also established. III feeling developed not only between 't urchin, Michalski, and I" ather Wolowskl, but also between Turchin and the local agents of the PhI1adel phh Company which also owned laods in the vic1nity ot Radom . Cut- throat competitIon developed between

Turch.in and Henr'Y Holbrook, an agent of the company in Philadelphia. }'ollo'lllng a quarrel with 'rurchln, Michalski deserted hirr. and joined forces with Holbrook.

These ~ en employed every means t o induce the incoming "PolalJdersu to purchase their lands, fI'om the firm In PhiladelphIa instead of from the Illinois Central. They promi sed to build a Cat.holic Church at Dubois, four mi l es from Radom . 'rurchin then determined to estab l1sh a new settlement at l'al1sh, in a locality where the Ill1nois CentI'al had l.a'l'ge amounts of' land -30

i but where Holbrook had. 11 ttle 0.1" none under his super vision.

In February, 1877 , it ~ us estiml>ted t hat there were 300 Polish families residing at Radom. I n 1878, that Peliah community raised 80,000 bushels of wheat and smaller amounts of other comm oditles ~ Turchin was successful to. an u.nexpected degree in developing Polish a g,rlculturnl colon los~ 14

14 P. W. Gates, 'l'he I llino.is Centra,1 Naill-cad and l!! Cc1o.nizatTOn Wo.rk , 316-321 ---

I t is needless to. add that many a custo.rn s and i mmi graticn cfficer in New York City was in the pay

0.1' ,somo 1'8,11ro.&d co.mpany and was expected to. use hie persuas1 'Ie powers,# suppo.rted by h1s cfficial et e tue, to. direct the immigrant to. some particular spct in th,e western pra1rie eculltry_ 'rhe number o. f regularly employed and paid steam­ ship agents 10. Europe was enormous. The Red s tar Line alone had 1500 of them. In addition to the regular agents 7 there Yiere thousands of otber per­ sons in tbe smaller towns in the interIor of Eurcpe who. acted as ugents b y receiving D ccmmission cn the -31

i sale of tickets. 15

15 P. :F . Hall, IISe l ect i ol1 of Immigratlon, tb Annals of ~ American Academy of Social and poIitical Science, 26-27

Although under' tbe laws of most European countries, agents could not enlarge at l ength upon the prosperous condItions of' tbe United s tates, or upon the c omforts and deligh. ts of travel, but could merely make announcements concerning tha i.V s a i lings, accommodations , .and prices, ne vortheleaB, the conlpany agents by the hundreds invaded the COWlty districts, espeCiall y of southern EUl"OPC, and by sl{l lful argu­ ment and e ven perhaps by enthusiastic descriptions of the comforts of bome life i n America, s timulated many more to mi grate than would ba..ve b een possible therwise. Doubtless the'so agents a,t times delib­ erately exagger a ted and misrepresented conditions in mer-le a ,. though it is difficult to Qscertain bow wIdespread this influence wss . Such work was often done s ecretly . A good aut hority has s tate-d tha t t wo of the leading steamship lines had 5,000 or 6,000 ticket age n t s in Galicia alone, tha t 'there was Us great hunt" for 8mlg1'ants, and that the work there -32

i h ad been very s.ucc6:Jsful. rtlle cblef field ot: ae tiv1 t,. of the secret ag ents was in Eastern and Southeasterll r~urope. I n Russia s;.}ch agents not only procure d the tickets for emigr ants, but tool{ un actille part in obtainIng passports or in aidi ng them to leave the country 1n violation of law. 16

16 J. ' W. Jenks, ~ Inunl gration Problem, 21-22

Various other motives pr'omp ted the Poles to leave their Jruropea n home lands . Tbe desire f or

owno,l'shlp of l and and a h ome WtlS present in a l ar ge proportion of cases . Then, too, there was the rest- l ess emi grant who w1shes .s1mply to i mprove hi3 flnan-

c1al status. l~a ny emi§ronts left in order to escape mi litary ser-vice i n support of a g overnment in which they had little or no representation. 'rha failure at crops , the general depression of trade among the Poles,

and the desire to live where labor WIlS better paid,

proved suf ficient to induce Ii large numbe r of Poles t o leave for the New World.

'I'he immigrants who r eturned to thEftr native

heath i n fluenced .further' emigration. 'l'ho I'etul'ning

i t!".m i gr ant ,nas 8 1w8Y5 a conspicuous figure i n his -33

i home community. He boasted s.bout his success and higher standard of living in his adopted country, and ad vex·tised American prosperity 1n tel'rn a that could be eas11y misunderstood. Le tters of i mmi grants to hotilo folks were ef fective stimuli to emigration. These l etters were usually filled with g lowing accounts of con­ ditions in America. In contrast with their U f o In peasant Poland with its poverty and hardships , any success , however slight, meant much to them and they took delight in telling about their life in America. Mleczyslaw Haiman, the Polish h istorian, who has made a s tudy of Polish i mm i grati on to the Un ited s tates, found that in 1860 the number of immigrants frOm Pol and wa s 30,000, with ten we ll established Polish colonies . In 1870, immigration increased to 50 , 000 and t he colonies to t wenty. ChIcago boasted ­ of 10,000 Pol es wlth twenty- fi va priests vJ orking in their midst i n the various parishes then flourishing there . Five years l ater the nu..Tllbe r of colonies grew to three hundred and the immiAI' On ts totalled 200,000. In 1890, the Poles in the Un1ted States r eached the one mi llion mark. '1'he1'e wel'e 150 schools. In 1900, -34

i there wa& an increase Of one million over 1890 with about 400 pa.rishes. In the flI'st years of'the twen­ tieth oentury there were 3~OOO"OOO Poles tn the United States, \With 530 parisnea, '700 Polish priests, and 300 schools. There wa s :no state in the Union in which Polish ittllnlgrants had not settled. 17

17 M:leczysla.w Ha.iman, PolaeI !. Amery!?!" 68-70

Carl wittke has summarized Polish immigration statistlcs somewhat dif ferently . Between 18'70 and

1880 ~ 35,000 Poles entered the Un! ted states" l;lnd the figure Jumped ·to 236,000 during the next decade.

Fr'on: 1900 to 1910" total i mm i gration was nearly 875,000. 18

18 Carl WIttke, ££. cit., 420

The United s t ates Census shows 7,298 natives of Poland living in the United States in 1860 and 14,438 i n 1870. In the next t wo deccdes ~ 1880-1900, t.he g ~t1ns were 99,.000 and 236, 000 respect! vely. 19 The

19 Mleezys1aw Szawle.ski, Wlehodztwo ,Pola,kle w Stanach ~ Jednoczonlcb, 17 - :35

,;' census shows 48, 557 natives of Pol and l iving in the United s tates , a gai n of nearly 35, 000 in ten years . In t ho yesI' ending June 30, 1880 , 12 , 700 Poles arrived in the United states and 1n t he following year, 42. 000 . 20 It is intere s t ing t o note that

20 Mleczysls0 Szawlewskl, 10c. cit. among the Pol ish immigrants , there is a l ar ger pro- portion of children than is u sual among immigr ant s , owing to the fact that persecution drives out whol e f am.l·1" les . 21

21 Hichmond Mayo- Smit h , "Immigr ation and the Foreign Born Popul a t i on", Ameri ca n St atistica l As sociation, 3:309-310

PolLsh emigration from Ga licia began wi th the revolutionary movements of 1831 and 1848, and in­ cr e a sed steadlly until 1900 when there were 2 , 280 in the Un! ted r tates. Durinf.l: the next f1 ve yeers 1l1'1lUieration increased rapld1y rising to 50, 788 f or t he year ending June 30, 1905. In the period, 1900-1905, Ga licia sent 194 , 000 Po l es to the United States . 22

22 E. G. Balch, II H.'m 1g ratlon trom Galicia,n Chari ties, 16:171-183 -36

i CHAPTER III

The Polisb Immigrantcame to America witb the bope and expectation or making a permanent home. In tbe pioneer stage, both women and children shared in the toil of the father. Poles were willing to pay tbe pr1c.e to succeed and their success was due chlefly to hard work and economy. lOne o.f the

1 E. G. Balch, ~. £!!., 473 outstanding cha.racteristlcs of the Poles is their intensive love of home life. Th1s is indicated by the higb percentage or Polish home owners. Another characteristic is their intensive patr1etism whlch has made 1t difficult· fo.r them to -forget their mother country and to. adopt the English language. Upen their a.rr1val in America the Poles knew enly agriculture. They had come from the rarms and villagea er Peland. Yet, it 1a a surprising fact that bardly one-third of the immigrants have settled in the rural villagetl and town. of the United sta.tes.

The tew who have taken to farming have done 80 through -1>7

thelnstlgatlotl ot private a gencie8~ wh1.ch lured the i Polish immigrants to the vaat unoccupIed farmla.ndsot the country. AmOng the many reasons whIch contributed to sUQh a neglect of the virgin Boll by this group ot iJllmi 8r an~s was the lack or monay to purchase farm 1mplements. PolIsh ImmIgrants came from the peasant clas8, and con­ sequently, what little money he had was sp$nt on his trip acrosa the ocean. F.atigued and pennIless the choree on the heavily-wooded soil dId not attract him in the least; he ..a8 by far better cOll1penaated in t·he c1ty where he received abundant remuneration and pos­ sessed greater leisure. In Wisconsin alone the lure of the city was so great that the state Legislature was disapPOinted to learn that the tree-land it granted toa Poliah immigrant group was tot'ally abandoned wIthIn the comparatively ahort period of forty years. 2

2 . . w. Krus&ka, ~. £!!., 1>:111-115

The farmIng of the Poles WBS regarded aa a great econ01ll.1c advantage in the, fact that all the members of the famIly .ork thereby elimineting hIred help_ Pole a -38

i became farmers because they wished to own property, r .&ther than to be laoorers. Many lett seasonal factory and mine employment for permanent ram work.

'llhe early settler8 changed their types of farming wi th changing economic conal tions. In Portage County, Wisconsin, 1'or instance, potato g.rowlng had developed to large proportions. In Texas,. the Poliab cotton farms were prosperous, and one c1istlnctlve feature was ths.t they were largely self-sustaining. In New England, the Poles raised specialized crops, such as onions and tobacco. In the Connecticut Valley, they rent land; because it was too valuable to purchase. In Illinol.8, many were tenants bef·ope. they. bec8JII& owners.

The Pollah .immigrants in the United states not only sought out those industries in which opportunities for employment were moat numerous, but also thos'e into which, because of the handicaps of language and lack of money and experience, or because of racial charac­ teristics, they fitted most easily. Industry has tended in some respects to accommodate itself to and take advantage of these preferenoes. Describing the economic moti ve8 o.t the peasant ,Thomas and Znanleeki state that the Poles attempted to fInd employment in''101vlng no technical or intel.lectual preporatlon. -39

He was, at first,. perfectly satisfied with the wages i he secured for his unskilled labor. It was readily discovered, too, that the immigrant desired a change of employment only when a quick ac.cumulation of cash wae evident. 3

3 W. Thomas and F. Znanieckl, tf''1'he Polish Peasant 1n ~ope ~ America, 1:192--

The majority of the Poles entering the United states between 1870 and 1880 went to the larger industrial conununities and cities to engage in in­ dustrial pursu1ts. Some migrated to the North- western States, where they found employment in lumber camps and sawmills, while a comparatively large number settled on the farms of Wisconsin, Michigan" Indiana, Ill1nois,snd Texas. By 1887, there were more than fiftyPollshagrlcultural settlements 1n the United states. About 18BS, the tide ofSlav!1e immigration be- gan to sweep through our ports of entry in an annu­ ally swelling stl'eam" and Polish agricultural colonies were rap!'dlyestablished in the Great Lake states" -40

i Minnesota, and in the Dakotas. A distinct change in the character o f the colonists began about thi8 time. Instead of the Polish peasants who etnigrated from Europo directly to the agricultural regions ot this country s.eeklng permanent homes, the movement became .an immIgration of Poles to the agricultural regions from the cities and industrial communities of the United s tates, where they had been encaged in the coal and oro m1nes, quarries, steel mills , and other indus trial establlshment.s. This change was largely due to the efforts of land: agents and thel.r advertisements In the Polish newspapers. Having been fa~r8 abroad, and with savings fr.om tbeir earnings 1n toe industrial pur­ suita, these groups made good pioneers and ware soon firmly eetahlisbed on the cut-over and pl"atrle lands of the Northwest, and the poorer farms of the Middle West. With hardly aD excoption thes.e colonies exhibited indicati ons of progress. '

4 Ley Roy nodgos. S lavs on SoutQ.ern Farms, 10-11 -41

;./ In religion the Poles in spite of the effort,s of the Protestants and Unitarians during the Reformation, remained almost universally zealous Roman Catholics. In the United States, apart from a recent schism, practically all are Roman Catholics having today close to numerous churches and mi ssions. .Y To the Pole, no ma tter how exquisite the church, none was too good for the service of the Lord. When it came to building an ediflceof worship, the Polish zeal knew no bounds; It is often marveled how these penniless political and economic outc8sta, regardless of all the odds agains t them, managed to bear this burden.

In the twentY-fib: years, 1855 to 1880 inclusive, eighty-five churches were founded; among them were seventeen par'ishe,sestabllahed in Texas, sixteen in Wisconsin, six were established in Michigan and in

Missouri. Of' six parishes founded in Illln01s, three were inChicaJ;1: o, the first of which were founded in 1869; of seven churches in Pennsylvania, the first one WQ.S in Shamokin in 1870. The first churches

;in, lfew York C1 ty and Buffalo appeared in 1873. Minnesota in the same year wlth three churches" - 42

Uebraska in 187 6 . Detroit is da ted 1872 , Cleve l and i 10'75 . 5 o Em ily G. Bal ch, op. cit., 230- 231 ; t;' . Kru. sz ke. ~ -t·· ,." · 6, '7 - -. -.- -..J-.0 1) ~C . " c, . -

"!.Iout tbe m:'Ldd lc of' tho eteht16fl . Pennsylvania bec;nn to gain l'a :r~ . d l y , ·.;: l tll t went.y- seven c'!-mcc1!.e s i n the <.1(3 ('.1',0.0 1 384 - 1 8Q~ . P:r'H1rious to V Iis t here

h ""e""'"..,,;,. .... '0' e'" 4L~.,·1-)+" ...... Po ". L .t."Sl "l 'n' ....r'11-"1. 1. C .. ... \.1.,"'''' ...... ~Y'\ th'"J 0 ;j>" t"~,,,ell, ... r" 'D"'~'"' ''G -~i"""''ing ...Ll .... ·" at Shrunok:i.n 1.n 18'70 nnd Shonandoah, 1873.

~! 9.i: 3ach1 1 S C tts h r. c1 9 Po l ish chu.:'ch ' .n noaton i n 18RO,

1n Ch:!. c o?GC i n 1287 , in I.1'all vel' In 1890. In t~e f01-lr yc~ rs 12 88 -1g~n , now YtJl'Ic t sJ.ned. twelve Polish churches , 1'01.1. 1~ of them in Bu.t' fe.lo.. Al l of this r~- prosonts t""e : rowt.h o.f ~inir:: .::- :?nd i'RCtoP:;- centors amonz. tho Poles , :ineont l~a s t to tho homestead settl ements fe.rthcr 1>,·ost. • 5a

5f.\. w. :Krtls~ k& . , 12.£. cit.

In the next p-eriod, 1890-1900, this c r owth in industrial di,stl"ict;s continued . Penns yl vania added twenty-eight ehuJ:'Ches , 1.1110.01£0 t wenty- six, includirlg the f ourteent h Polish chuf'c h in ChicaGO. In New

En g lcnd, Wc r ee ~l tel', ilud Holyok e in Massachusetts., -43

New Britain, Ansonia, Bridgeport and Norwich in i Connecticut, and Pro'lidence, Rhode Island gai ned Polish churches. The more agricultural dlstrl1cts were not~ ,however_ at til stands till. Wisconsin added twenty-one parIshes, and Texas took a fre$h , - start and added eight. On the Paclflc_ TQ:conie Wt:lS

added to the list 1n 1890 and sever~l other places in Washington soon after. 6

6 Emily G. Salch, £Eo cit., 264-265

. 'rhe beginning of Polish settlement in Connecticut dates back to the 'eightIes of the past century. Large scale immigratIon did not, however, commence till the 1900 ,.s. Wi thin approx- imately three decades , the Poles have become one of the most numerous of the f oreign groups in the state of Connecticut. Since mo s t of the Connecticut Poles immi grated at a period when 'Poland was under the domina tion of Russia, Austria, and Germany, their background varies considerably. yet two factors of utmost importance have tended to counteract this diversity, namely, the ... 44

,( Catholic f'al thana an i ntense patriotic feeling .

1'he Poles in Connecticut f o rmed ~ theref ore, a very closely-knit group. 'l1he Poles showed a strong tendency to f orm ooloni es, which in some ease~ become practlcally

self-sufficient societies , within ¥lhlch language and old-world folkways were maintained to an aston- lshing degree. An excellent example of this type of community was the one 1n New Britain. In this

Polonia, as th~ Poles Bre wont to call \;helr set tle­ ment. group lif e wi th its manifold phases was dis- tinctly Polish. While factory work was a mos t i mport ant source of livellhood o f the Connec tlcut Poles , fat· ming wa s taken up much more extensively among them t han among any of the other groups, thei r' proportion of the total foreign farmi ng population being 22 per cent. 'l

? S. Koening , I:pmti~l"ant Sett.lements 1n Connecticut, l1'I'helr Grotl tfi en Chara eter!stics ,w-30-31

All attempts to direct Pollsh 1mmi grat ion to the

states 80uth or the Ma ~on and Dixon L1ne have 'b een un&uoc8ss.f.'ul. The number of Poles 1n Texas, although -45

i they began to 1mmigrate there long before the CIv1l War, never reached 30,000, whIle 1n Wlsconsin" where

they star ted to eattle ab.ol.1t the same time, this

...../"" number crossed 300,000 m.ark. Moreover, t he Po les in the Northwest produced many prOf€HISional men vd th universIty training, while the Polish settlers j.n the "Rice and cotton Belt" during the S6ltenty years af residence in that uncongenial climate have produced not one prominent representatlve eitber in science or pol1tics. 8

S J . , K. Grove, 2E. cit." 156

The Pennsylvania, coal opexostor 1.mported the Slav (Poles are included) and to this day it is with the Pennsylvania products--coal and coke, iron and steel-­ tha t he 1s mainly busied. 'l'lle immigrant Poles did oIlot take to the various lines of street traffie and fpuit selling . Ra ilroad work was not their typical dally Yi ork~ 61 there But their moat e'harac,teriatic occupation was the of ton highl y paId emp loyment in the, mines and foundries. - 46

,( Poles like other Slavs also worked in large numbers in textile factories, sugar refineries, wine ractories.

oil works, stockyards 7 and packing houses. No Vl ork was to onerous, too exhaustine; , or too dangerous for them. The question arises now why so many of the peasant Poles who were associa ted with agriculture in their fatherland would upon their entry into America choose the industries instead of the farmland·s as a means of obtaining maintena.nce. The explanation is simple. At home the Polish immigrants. either had no property at all Or owned at most only a tiny piece ot land. In either case tbe money that they \ve re able to r'aiae when they left home was hardly more than enough to brine them to America. They could not think of buying a farm. The position of a farm laborer "88 not attractive to them because not only di d it mean lower pay than other employments that were open t o them, but it lasted only a part of the ye'3rj so necessaril y they settled in the c i ty. By the time that a f am ily had saved the considerable sum needed to buy land and beg an farming, ita memberll were so accustomed to city lif e that 1t would be hard -47

for them to charlge . 9 i

9 w. K~uszka, 1~. cit.

There were other difficulti es. The obstacl38 of language was far more sertous on the f'tlrm thall 1n the f actory. In a large indus trial group, there was likely to be a f ellow countryman at l~nd to interpret. On the farm, there was a constant change of t aaksand an endless opportunity for costly and annoy ing mia takes.

.from in8.0111 ty to understand orderll·. Farm life· was made forbidding to the foreigner by the strange f ood, the lack of h1s own church and,.

8:bovt;) all, by his separation from those of h is own speech and way;s . In Europe, county life was for the most part village 11fe. The isolation of the Arnet'lean farmhouse was a drawback to lIfe as an independent farmer. 10

10 E. O. Balch , £E.c1t., 317-319

Interesting examples of Polish farming were found at many plnces 1n the Connecticut Vulley, for - 48

i instance, in Massachusetts in the stretch hetw&en

l~ orthampton and Greenfield, in lindley I Hatfield, Sunderland. and South Deer field. The numbers in these pl aces were sma ll comp ared with those i n the neighbor- . i ng manufaoturing conters l ike ChIcopee Bnd Webster, (credIted with 5000 Poles e ach), or Holyoke, Worces t er, Palmer, Ludlow, \1 es ti'i eld, Ware, Greenfield , Turners Falls, Clinton, and FItchburg , wi th their' SIllIa.ller but s till considerable Pollsh industrial colonies. The most striking settlement was made at Old Hadley in Ma ssachusetts. All up and down th(J beauti­ ful elm- shaded s treet, t he old colonial mansions were occupied 'by Poles. Probably one cause of the att ract­ ivenes s of these New Enblnnd farms was t he compact vill a r.:: e life, so d.ifferent :from western se t t l ements, with each man on his isol ated quarter sect ion. 11

11 !bi d .~ 327-328

I t 1s significant I howevtn', that while Polish i mm i grants showed a wi llingness t o accept certain t ypes of wor k distas teful to nstive Americans ,t t he children of these i ttlnit:,r lm ts show un aversion to -49

i fol lowing in the footsteps of the1r parents in thin r e spect. From roy experienoe as a classroom teacber, I note tha t the sec ond &9Ueriltion tends particularly to move il'! to the Uwhi t e collaI'll claes and this proba­ bly expl ains ~hYI in the clerical oc cupationa, the ohildren of the f oreign born are so numerous .

The t wo f~ reat cla5ses of employrlont (besides far ming ) that intep6sted the Polh'h peaSAnt. upon hie c oml.n f!, to the United statesjO were vwrk about the steel mIlls and i n about t he mines . '1'h£. work in the steel mills was the better paid. The unski lle d laborer s i n. the tl1ills and yards who have had little or no knowl edt;e of Eng lish end wh o, as the case s tood, he ITa had no Is bel' union to h e I p them, l'aoe1 ved wages that v ~ r1ed. The maximum pay per hour W33 abou t sixteen and e half cant. III t he mines the waEe earner was paid likewise pel' hour and not per ton. The reason for this unjust payment was usually gi ven~ " others &re waiting to t aka your place if you Bre dissatisfied . " inges have declined continuously in the oteel industry between 1897 and 1905. 'r he explone tiolJ offered by

K:::' . !!'itchl in his admj r able Pi ttsbur gh Survey s tudy ot tbe l>teel industry I is the t t he cClupany cut the wages -50

; of tho$s men on whose speed the output depended, in order to increase their exertions. 1.2

12 J . li e Pitch, Il'llhe stee l Indu c, try and the Labor Problem,fJ Charities and t he Commone, 21:1079-92 !

Rowever, this can be said that in the two great industrles ·of the Pit tsburgh district, mtning and steel work, Professor Commons shows a most striking con t,rest in both conditions and earnings between the steel trade, in which unlon:lsnl htls collapsed completely" (at that. time) and mining , fJhere it has thriven to the advantage of both em ployers and men . Taking into ec- count waeee, hours, leisure, coat of living, conditions of work, the laborers employed by the steel lndustpies were better off than the S&m8 brade of laborers employed ut their mills end furnaces. And tbe semi-skilled

laborel"'S employ~d at piece r ates were better oft: 1n the

.,lnee; however, the s teel ro11erand tbe mine worker were ahout on an equal rooting. 13

13 J . R. Conm:ons, ftTh.e Wage Earners of Pi ttsburgh, It Chari t las W'ld $.! Commons, 21 : 1063-1064 "'01

i That perhaps can explain why the Austriun Poles emi grated incl'easingly in 1898" (12,420) und decreased in 1897 (5757 ). nd aa the conditions in the indu£- tries bec8llle more cheerful economically, the nurober of immigrants from the s bove mentioned increased numerl o~lly with s light f luctua t ions. 14

14, See popule,t ion table in Appen.:Ux.

By 1897 t he Slav c omp l etel y mon o p o~ . lze d the

fi m1nes . With poetlc j U3tlce t he !t new i n:mi ,grsnts whom: the miners had been glad to exploit, ousted the miners t hemsGlven as we ll as their laborers in the end . The Slav became not ' a me re pair of banda but a skilled worker. His position was transfor med.. He changed from n laborer to a miner--but as he r emained a cheaper laborer s o he becan!e a cheaper miner. 15

15 F. J . Warne, The Slav Invasion and the Mlne Wor k-ers, 211 ------

In s pite of having moved up a step i n h1s employment, he was stil l un-Am erican i n his ways , - 52

.' had his f ewe r wants l his lower cost of living, and his lower price for his labor. With charac teristic indifference to difficult conditions he was made a superb useful laborer. He would work in poorer scoms than the Eng lish-speaking (the flold immigrant") miner, and in more dangerous places. And as he drove out by his coming t he older industrial worker so now he began his drive against t he Bn6 11sh-speakin~ miner. 'rhe l ow standards of the southern and eastern European, (the Pole is included) his ready acceptance of low wages and existing wor king conditions, his lack of interest in t he corr.munity, hi s attitude toward l abel' ol's anlzatlons, his slo.. progresa toward assimila­ tion, and his wl111n6nesa seemingly to accept indc.fi­ nitely without protest certain wages and condit1ons of employment# have rendered it extremely difficult f or the older cla.sses of emp loyees to secure improveme,nts 1n conditions or advancement 1n wages. A..ccording to the census of 1900# 27 pe r cent of the Polish laborers wor-ked i n mines , another 27 per cent worked as me chanics, 22 per oent were agricul­ tural workers , whil e 21 ;per cent acted in t he ca.pacity of overseers of one kind or anothel' . I n numbe r end - 53

percentage of distribution of f oreign-bor'n in typlc.al i occupa tiona in Pennsylvunia, Massachuse tts, New York,. MichiGan, fannesota, and Wisconsln .. Poles were tabtuated as follows; OccuI!atlons No.eInJ)1o:;yed Percentage Coal mine opera.tlves 40,327 33. 1

Blast f u x-na.cc operatives 10,079 25. 2 l'\allroad workel's 3 ,479 10 . 3 Carpen to 1's 3 , 001 8 . 4 Farmers 9 ,.2 88 17. 1

I'orcltton and ove :r-seers 5'7.0 5. 7 Cl erical 1,137 G. 5 l)hysiclans 78 2 . ,1

A l .ike t abul n tion 01' females shows t hat 50. 4

PSI' cent 0:: tho .f o rolsn,-.ba r n P.olish women in G2. in1'ul occupat ions was to be found in cotton- factor i es and 34. 1 per cent in halnss as domestic workers and

S81"Vlimts. 16 From these i'is ures it is c l earl y s hown

16 Hiles Carpentc:t' J If-eJni grants ~1i!e ir Child.ren 7 :2 84 - 288

thu t the typicHl OCCl1pS. tiol1 of the 'mra. l e I mm1.G .ps n t of P(,:~li s h 1:rirth WBS coa l -l1lin:tn? and b l -a&%''-f'urn a ce

o rk , \ihco!'ens of t be Polish fem~le itmni C' r ant i t - 54

i was semi-skilled operatives :tn cotton f actories and domestic work. When speaking of the Po l es ' buoines s tac tic s , tbeir shrewdness and caution cannot be overlooked. They we re charact.erized In this respect by thrift and honest y . It was said that i f an evenine; s chool does not let them know of the pecuniary advantaGes that mi J.l:ht accrue from attendin[; such course, the enr ollment will dwindlo down .

'rho immigrant Pole had but little traini n g f or

busineGs and WuS generally no match for bu siness and

no match, vi hatsoevcr~ ;for t he Jew with hls natural cunning for barter, or the German, who has the bene-

1'1 t of a connn ercial education and \'1ho oft en has the busine s s aptitude in his b l ood. 17

17 L. E. Van Nor mon , Pol and, t he Knight Among the Nations, 35

'rhe Slavs ma y ha ve caused a s light dlstupbance in our economic endeavors to get ricn quickly, but they have been a di stinct ssset to Amer1ca. They made economic transforma tion in America possible. They helpecl to make us the richest notion in the -&5

i world and our s t andard of livi.ng the h i ghest of any country, would not have b e en possible but for the coming of the Sl avs and other i nm:i Grant s to d o the r ouch work of industry. Th e~ ha.. e built our 1'a·1 1- ways and road s , mined ou~ c oal, lron and copper ; lIcude our steel. '1'hey have helped to t rans fOr-ttl the unbroken prniries i nto om' most produc tive farm lands . 'They are making a suec.ess of fl;lrrns l ong Bin ce 18 abandoned y An ~er i c an s .

18 K. D. Miller , PeBsant Pioneers , 179-180

Hi gher education was n o t nee, lected am onG t h e

Po l e s in An:er i ca . A Pol ish Semi nar y , SS e Cyril and Methodi us , wee esta blished i n 1813 7 . At present, this instituti on is l ocs ted at Or churd La ke , Mi chigan. In Wisconsin, the Franciscan fatherD bu llt st. Eonaven t.ur e Coll ege tn 1889; in Chicaeo, t he Order of Resur r ect ionh t s founded st. St anisl aus Co llege in l 8G lj in Erie, Pennsylvani a , .st. John Csntius College was e stabllf>h€d . 'l'here are f our l ea.ding

Pol iah academies for Girlo in the Unite ~ st&tea: t he

Hol y F'arr, 11 ~' /Icnden:y In Chlcago" the Ac ademy of tbe -56

i lIi'lmacu la,t e Conception in Lod!,. New Jersey I the Academy of the Resurrection in Norwood Park, Illinois, and the Academy of st . Joseph at Stevens Point, Wisconsin. 19

19 D. Szopinski, The Polish Ec clesiast ical Monthly, 155

In considering higher education among the Po l e s, it must be remembered that more t han half of the Polish population of the United States belon5s to t he laboring classE;s . It was the peasant snd the lower clas~es t hat migrated to Ame rica. And moroover, Polish familie s are quite larg e and cannot afford to give all their children the education desired . Common speech, folkw ays, and in some cases political aims were not the only means of drawing the immigrant groups together. 'l'here were i n additi on to the above the dan gerous character of t he work i n the mines and foundries which employed so ma ny Pol es t hat ca lculated to enhance their ap~recin · tlon of the advantages of mu tual aid socIe ties .

The first attempts at organization that ml~h t take cat'e of a ll the problems of the Pol ish l 1timigrant - 57

took pl ace in Chicago, a few years before the Poles , from Prussian Poland made their entry into America. I n 1866 , the Groins Polska was established . However, this project was short-lived. 'r'he undertakltlg proved

too vast and the body dispersed wit hin a short ~ 3riod . Some years l ater , however , the Polish National

All iance CB me into existence and proved a success. The Na t ional Alliance beg an in Philadelphia during the first half of t he year 1880 . Its center was later moved to Chicago . The initititive came di­ r e ctly from Europe from Pollsh political emigres of 1863. who had gathered around certain political and cultural institutions endeavor i ng to concentrate and organize the social forces of Poland f or the continu­ ation of her mltions l s truggle. ';.' he f ormation of t he Polish Na tional Alli ance was meant to be one of tbese actions of s ocia l con c ~n t ration b y wh i ch t he scattered and consequently useles s energ ies of the Polish immi-

6rant~ in thIs countr y coull! va utilized f or Polish national air.1s .

'rhe task of the PDlish National Alliance a~

Gont: eived by i t ~1 initiator s Vias thus to turn the Polish imm i grants i n this country into a str ong and - 58

i coherent part of the Polish na tion. Even while thlnklng of i t s elf as an indissolubl e par't of Poland, Polish Amerioan society began to feel its own impor- tance more. This attitude found 1ts expression in the populer term lithe fourth province of Po1anctll applied to Polish American society. 'l'he Alliance was for nearly a quarter of a century the bearer of ~/ this ideology . 20 Today , it is the largest non-

20 W. I . Thomas and F . Zmmieckl , .2£ . £ll. , 2 -:1594-1602 ------denominational org anization with 9, me mbership of close to 200 , 000. It is mu ch more t.ban sirr_ ply a mut ual benefit SOCiety. In tts fino building, in Chicago, it has not only central offices and com- mlttee I'oomu , but also a museum, library and a printing estabHshn:ent. It hss special \'1f;:lf'are commltteesof Educatiot:l. Agriculture ~ and Indut:try , li1usic. GymnastiCS, and the like . Beside distributing books and pfllnphle ts , it Iua in tedrl subou t thirty

Bchol&rahlps and nlnety-two librtu,'les. L.:l

21 '5: . G. Balch., £2" ~.,. 380 -59

There ere other Alliances, too. Alliance of i

Singers; The Alliance of Polish Military ~. ocietle s; The Alliance of Po l ish sokol i , whj ch i n an athl etic alliance; The Association of Poles 1n Ameri ca wi th headquarters 1n Mi l waukee , has about 20 ~ 0 00 membe rs; tt !v'a.cier z Polska,!\ with headquarters in Chicago, i s concerned with the soclal we l far e of the young ; the Po l ish Union wi t h headquarters in Wi lkes Barr e ,

Pennsylvania , membership 18, 000 , and 8 Catholic

n ion in Wi nona, Minnesota , ~i th member&hip of 5 , 000. 22 The doct rine of t his Ca tholic Alliance

22 J . A. Godry c z , The Ca tholic Builders of the Na tion, 2 :170 . was interpreted to mean t he preservation of the cultural integrity of Polish- Amer ican co16n1es-- l anguage, religi on, mores--but no partIcipation at all :l.n t he poll tica 1 lif e of Poland or even, more generally, no polItica l a ims wb atever. Social ists

are b arred .

There are t wo organization s that need ~o be mentioned here, the Polish Roman Catholic Union of America and the Polish Association of America with -60

a total membership of over 175,000. In its program .. ' it was akin to the Polish National Alliance with this difference that it was and still remains under the immediate c ontrol and influence of the Ca t holic ClerGY. These organizations beside paying death benefits , maintain varlous educational Institutio~s, homes for t he aged, libraries, dally and we ekly papers, and citize nship classes. All of the larger Polish organizations carry fraternal insurance and are founded upon a systsm of subordinate societies of grou ps , giving unto such rights as they deSire or see fit though not inconsistent with the ir c onsti tution and regulations .

A. ll these groups main ta:in an i ndependent s1 ck benefit fund supported by individual contributions of the membe rs . 23

23 W. I . Thomas and F. Znamiecki. OPe cit. 2 :1602-1623 . --

Th ere eXisted , also, Polish cultural ore anizatlona which deserve cow~e nd a tion because of t heir contribu- t ion to Polish-Ame rican life. Around every Catholic -61

... pariah, there was g r ouped a lIterary society. The ob ject of such an organization was to further the spread and the developm.ent of t he mot her- tonijue.

Then there was, 8 180, the Kosciu8Zko FoundDtion. Its a i m was to make studies po s sible for the poor , but able Polish y outh i n the universities by means of burses and to make s.n e xchanL8 of t eGchers between t he Polish and American seats of learninG a mu ch­ desired advantage . The Alliance of Polish Singers had for i ts object the spread of Po lish songs among the Polish s peaking people in Am erica by founding choirs and creat i ng concerts. Polish students in our univer­ s i t ies and colleges have f ormed different clubs in which they pursued a s tudy of Polish lit er ature a.nd art. The motive factor toward culturing t he Pole along lines of national citizen type was the PolIsh PreS E. The f irs t Polish-Amer ican paper, t be Echo from Poland , was i s sued in J·uns, 1863, in New York . This publication was Catholic and propse;ated en­ thue:ta::. t ic love for r\me r ica, whe re, R S it used to say, Polish i mmigrants, persecuted b y Russia, -6~

i Germany, and Aus t ria ,could i'lnd a. sat'e haven. Another paper, the White Ea g le, first appeared in

18r/O at Washln;;ton, Mi ssouri . This paper was still more devoted t o t he propagstion of an enthusiastic love for the United s tates , and tried to instruct

the Po les living herG 80 a s to make them ready to be who lly assimilated into the lif e of t his country. The t h ird paper was the Pl1gr'lm, published in 1875, i n De troit. Then c al!! ~ Gazeta KHtOl1cks (CathOlic

Gazette ), and the Dzlennlk Chic Q ft osk~, which a l ways was eminently Ca thoU.c and a thoroughly American

Jour-nd. O th~n' publications b y benefic ial societies, we re t he Zgoda , of the Polish Na tional Alliance and

the ~.o d_ Polski, of t he Polish Roman Catholic union. At present, there are about 113 monthlies, week11es, and dailies , published in t he Polish l angua ge , of which elghty- f:1.ve per cent are Ca tholic, the r est neutral or a nti- Ca t holic. 24

-_ ._-- - - ,----_. -~ 24 J . A. Godrycz , o~ . cit. , ~:171 -172

Alth ough the custOr:1 S and manners o f the Poles

are some times crude and 1n many wO.ys repugnant to -63

Amorlcan ideas, t heir s t.sndsrds of morality ax'e , on .. ' t he wh ole, commendable. The stock i s char8cterized by a vl€, or and vitality that mus t be c onditioned on right living . 'I'he fami l y is regarded wi t h re ~ pe ct and rever ence.

In menta l quall ty, the Po l e shows his shill ty to cope with his Ya nke e neighbor in the market place . There is a s trong disposition to put the b oys and girls to work when the states' requirements for school ing have been met, but t h is policy i s based not so much on lack of l n terest in education, a s it is on t he wi ~ b to add ta t he Incor:e of the family . - 64

APPENDIX i

statistical 'fable of Immigration of Poles from Prussia" Russia, and Austria ----1870-1905--,-- -:;-

~ PRUSSIA RUSSIA AUSTRIA TO'rAL

1870 5,900 5 .900

1871 12,400 12 ,400 1872 21,100 21,100

1873 22,500 22,500

1874 13,100 13.100 1875 7,200 7,200

1876 4,800 4,800.

1877 4.400 4,400

1878 4,400 4,400 1879 5.200 5,200

1880 12,700 12 ,700

1881 42,000 42,000

1882 5,000 5 ,000

1883 39,000 39,000

1884 36,000 36,000 - 65

i

YEAR PRUSSIA RUSSIA AUSTRIA TOTAL

1885 24, 900 24,900

188 6 16,900 16,900

1887 21, 300 21,300

1888 21, 800 21,800

1889 19 , 900 19,900

1890 18, 500 18 ,500

1891 17 ,000 27 #497 44,497

, 189~ 17,900 33, 299 51 ,199 ,

1893 10,800 12,000 22,800

1894 8 , 100 7,000 15,100

1895 4,800 1,000 3 , 852 9 ,652

1896 3,20 0 1,000 10 , 785 14,985

1897 2,200 7 , 000 5 ,757 14 , 957

1898 1 , 700 12,000 12,420 2 6,120

1899 1,211 15,547 11,660 28,418

1900 1,633 22, 500 22,800 46,933

1901 1,844 2 4,475 20, 200 46,519

1902 3 , 373 33,850 32,429 69 , 652

1903 5,252 39, 548 77,498 122,298 -66

7 36 .3 3

i

YEAR PRUSSIA RUSSIA AUSTRIA TOTAL

1904 4,.091 32,577 30~243 66, 911

r 1905 v':t ., 8'8· \) 4? ~ 224 50,788 101,8l0 Total 446,962 316,517 278,432 1,040,905

* Szawlewskl, Mieczyslaw , Wychodztwo Polskie ! Stanach Zjednoczonych Amer,kl, (The Polish Ip:!migratlon .in t he United States,)-r7. -67

i

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Balch, EmIly, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens, New York, Cliirltles PublIcation Commit.tee, 1910. Though written in 1910 lUes Balch's work stlll remains the most comprehensive and scholarly treatment on the SlaVlC immigrants in America. It tr"8ces the condition of the Slavs in Europe, emigra­ tion from their respective countries, and the dls·trlbutlon, adJuatmentand assimi­ lation of the Slav in American lIfe. Boswell, Bruce A., Poland and the Poles, liew York, Dodd, Mead, 1919. The book is readable and instructive. The P.ollsh national characteristics are clearly descr ibed. It is rather a series of essays than a continuous narrative and aims to treat Poland ethnically rather than politically.

Cambridge, History of Poland (From Augustus II to pl!8udskl), (169·7-1935). EdIted by w. F . Redds.ay, J. H. Penson,. O. Ha1eckl, R. Dyboski, Cambridge University Press, 1941. It is a study of the history of Poland, from 1697-1935. It is a com­ prehensive study of the decline and the rebIrth of Poland. The chapter on "Emigrationft i8 one that deserves consideration. -68

i

DyboakI, Roman, Outl.inesofPollah HIs tOR' (A Oourae of tinture,sl5e11vered at K ng 's College Un1versity of London) New York, Oxford University PI~e8s , 1924. This book Is wr1tten for a foreIgn public. I t glorifIes the unconquerable vItalIty of the author's race. ------Poland. New York, Charles Scribner's Sona, 1933. Fairchild, Renry P., Innnlgration (A world movement .and t ts American aignificance) I New Yopk, :MacmIllan, 1913. Gl;ltes, P.W., The Il11nols Central Ra1lroad and Its COlonIzation work, Ca~brldge,-­ MS88Ilchusetta-:--m34. Godrycz, J. A., "Cathollea of Polish Descent,.11 Catholic BuIlders of the Na tion, New York, Catho11ct3oOlCco., 1035, Vol. 2:163-173. Th1s art1ele begIns wItb the settlement of the few prominent Pol1sheettlera of 1654 and sallies f orth gradually into the more pro­ gressive era of Polish 1mm.1gra.tlon untIl the World War .

Gros.e, Howard B., The Incomln~ !Ullions, London, Reve!!; 1906. This volume Is the work of a missionary whose wOl"k l,s an epItome of evangel1zation or the allen woman. - 69

i

------... ------Aliens or Amexalcan&? With Introduction by JOB iah Strong. Young People' a Missionary Ilfovemen,t. Inseriea ot Forward Miss10n S,tudy OOUl"seaof Amexaloan-Baptlst Home M1ssion,ary Soc1ety, l'iew York, Toronto, 1906. Saiman. Mlecislau8, pollah . PIoneers of Vlrgln,la and Kentuclij .. Cbicago, 1931f.' -

------,-Pol.andsnd ~ American Re volutlonarI -ft ar, Chicago, 1932. ---... ------The Poles in the Early Histoxay S!! Texa~1 CfiIcago, lW6. ------... -----11'o1aol W Amel'yce, (Tile Poles in America) Bulfao'""; 1921~ ------,,---.. ------ZPreeszlosciPolsklej .!.Americe, TThe PolIsh Past in America) 608-1865, Bmalo, PolIsh Cithollc Union, 1927. Tbls Poliah h1storian presents a resume ofthePolisn past in America. The S t8t18tl~s used by liailtan have t heir souroe in Rev. Krusz.ka's thir­ teen voluIne, . Hayes, Carlton J ., A Politioal and CultUral !tiston of MGGern Eiirope,rriw torte, 1939, -Z-volumes.

Jenks , J. W. and Lauck .. . W. J. • _ 'l'be I. ·· mmi~atlon l>P"oblem, New YOl"k-;-Fuiii a · wagnalls, 1926. 'fhe materIal presented 1n this book: 1s taken directly from the Imml­ gratlon Commission Reports. The work 1s a oomprehensive atu,d,. of tbe Imml­ gration problem. Mr . Jenka points -70

i

out repeatedly that the ll1U1l1gratlon problem i.s recognized primal'ily a8 a socls1 factor in the great wave towards the United s tates. To the Appendix of the study are attached Naturalization Laws and Regulations.

Konopczynakl, Ladislas, A BrIef Outllneof Polish History, translated by Frances Benett, Geneva, I mprimerle Atar, Corraterie, NetionalCommlttee ot America Publications, 1920. The work of this author is too limi ted to obta1n a co.mprehenslve view of Polish History. Nec8ssery details are entirely omitted. The,re are no references in the antil'e study. The book presents unpleasant reading . Kruszka, Waclaw, lU steRs Polska ! AmerIca, (Poliah History ...E America), Milwaukee, Kuryer Prese, 1905,. 13 volumes. These volumes epitomize the work of the Polish immigrants wI thin the colonies e stablished by them. The work Is valuable f ·or information relati ve to the beginning of the Pol1sb Communities. The history becomea some­ what disappointing as the reader re­ counts the author '8' remarks about the toundations of som8of the parishes scattered througbout the various sts,tes.· HoV/ ever, 1 t gives s p lendid information for the period covered by the thesis. -71

.. -

Ma.yo-8mi th, Richmond , Emigrat ion and Immigration, New York, scribners and Sons, 1892. Miller, HePbert A., Races, Nations, Classes, (The psychology of domInatIon and freedom), Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1924. A poorly written book with little informing mat.rial. It does not possess a scholarly attitude toward the subject. Miller, Kenneth D,., Pe asant Pioneers, Council of Women for Home MIs-alons and Missionary Education Movement of the United s ta tes and Canada,_ New York, 1925. Niklewioz" Frank, Poles in the _state of Wis conSin, Green Bay ,-Wisconsln. --

Osada, Stanislaw, Historya ZwiGZku N'arOdOWe~ o polskiego i Rozwoj Ruchu Naro owego Poiskiego WAmery ce PolnocneJ . (HIstory of the Polisb NatIonal Movement in 'N'O'rth America) ; ChIcago, Press of me PolIsh Nstlonal Alliancejl 1905. Panunzl0, Constantine, I mmi gratIon Crossroads, Ne·w York, MacmIllan, 1927. This book aims to set forth in broad outline America's significance to the laborer of the Old World , the contributions immigrants have made to the development of the United state-s and the changes in the atti­ tude of the people of this country toward immigr ation. .. 72

i

Pol1akoff, Vlsdlmlr, (Augur, Pseud.) ~ A Bulwark of Democracy, New York, AppTeton, 1Q31: Polish Immigration Society, Kalendarz Emigracyjny, Warsaw, 1928. Poliah 'National Committee of America, Economic Life of Poland, Geneva , Imprimerie Atar;-­ corraterie 12, 1922, 3 volumes. PolIsh Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia publications , 1926.

Ree1y, Mary K .~ Selected Articles on Immigration, New York, Wilson, 191:5.

The book in~ludes many selected articles on I~~ ig r2tlon. Roberts, Peter, An thracite Coal CommunIties, New York~ MacmrrIan, 1004. Th is book is a study of the soclal, educational, and moral life of the Slav labol"ers In the anthra- cite N~ gi ons. Roucek, Joseph S., Poles in the United states of An:erica~ Gdyni'i";-Poland, Baltic InstItute, 1937.

Smith, William C .~ Americans in the Making, New York, Appleton:-Century, 1939. This work is a history of the assimilation of immigrants in the Un! ted states . 'l'hroughout the entire volume the immigrant is treated as a potentia 1 Am.&rlcan. -73

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steIner, Edward A. /I F''rom Allen to Cl tlzen, New York, Revell-;-rg14. - . s tephenson, Geor'ge M., A Historyot American I.mm lgrat~on , 182.0-l!rn4, Ne-w York, Ginn, n}~6 . This work attemp ts to deal with immi gratIon as a factor in AmerIcan political development. The chapters on the European background i ntroduce tbe r eader to some of the cond1tions and events which set in In'otlonor retarded the great migr ation.

Szawlewekl, MleCZ.Y81aW, ~ Chodztwo Pol,skle !: St anach !:!..Jednoc,Zonych (The Polish ::tnnnigra tIon In the unIted--states of America,.) t wow, Warsaw, Krakow, ?olund I Ossol1nskl Ns tlona 1 Pub 11 sh­ ing House , 1924. Thomae, W. I . end ZnanIeokl, Florian, 'rha Po lish Peasant In Euro~e and America, llew York7"""A lfre A. Knopf" Publ. I 1927, 2 volumes . This study 1s based on the soc1010gical aspects of Pol1sh immigration. The study is i ntense and very illustrative of factors th$.t dominate the Polish 1nlt!l l grant. EspeCially 1nteresting are the court reports and readings of individuals in CS Ge studies.

Van Norman~ Lou13 E. 1 Poland, the f{ nie;ht Amos; Nations , With anmtroductlony fie len Modj eska, New York" Revell, 1908 . -74

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The author desc1'1bes how almost three mi llion pOlish people are nOYJ settled in this country, r apidly becoming bone and sinew- of A4nerican national 11fe. Wa chtel, Karol, J)zieje Z e'd.noczenia Polski eg o RZfimsko Ka-to . c ., _ego .! Ameryce" (-T~e Work of the RomBn Catholic Arrra~in Americai' ChIcago, L. J. l)'~ ~nieckl, Pub ., 1913. Chapter two is of especial i rr.portance. I t depicts the work of the Alllanceand records the issues of work ascribed to this organi zation. Warne, Julian F., The Slav Invasion, PhIladelphia, Lipp i nco~1904. Di ecusse a theeffect of Slav immigration on the mining regions of Pennsy l vania. A good pen pic­ ture 1s given by the author' about the habitat of the Slav immigrant. Wittke, Carl, We Who Bu ilt America, New York, PrentTce HaIl, 1939. This volume is an important portrayal of the role played by the i mm i grants from Plymouth landing to the present. It 18 tbe saga of the immigrant. The author gives the imruigrant his "due place in history." -76

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MAGAZIliE ARTICLES

Balch, R.ml1y G., n Imm,igra t ion t ;rom Ga lie 1e.;" Charitle-s)I Charities Publication committee, 1910)1 16:171-63. Carpenter, N. , and Katz, D., IlCultural Adjustments of the Polish Groups ie the o1t,- of Buffa.lo. It Social Forces" Sept., 1927, volume 6.

------'t.Immigrants !!!9. Their ChIldren, It Washington, D. C., Census Monograph, united stateli) Governmemt prInting Office, 1927.

This Monograph Is a ~tudy based on Census Statistics relative to the forei gn born and tbe native vJhite of fOl'el~n .or mixed parentage. The statistics show tbe work of 8.n earnest scholar. Co.mmons, John fl. ., liThe Wage Eal"ners of Plttaburgh," Charities and the Cotnnlons , 'Nel1ties and the Commons, New York, l'903, 13 :22~2V:-

This article g l ~/e8 a,orne general information about the Slavs in schools Qnd in the, untons. A brief pta.ragraph 1s devoted to the problem. of the 1111nola !111n1ng dis trlcts. -76

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Daniels, J ., /tAmericnni zi ng Ei ghty ',rhous and Poles , u s urve!, New York, The Charity Or gan zatlon Society, 1910, 24:373-385. 'rhe art i cle describing Little Poland 85 t he author calls it 1s uni que in as far as it is wr i tten, i n condemnation of the i mmi gr ant Pole but; wi t tl a sincer! ty that 18 somewha t atar tling . It is s. nar rative of t he entll'e section of East Buffalo.

Garret t , Laura B' I tJNotes on t he polos 1n Daltlmore,tt Char-lti es, New Yor k, The Char i ty 01'gan17.ation Society, 1905 .. 13 :235-239. ·The articl e presents a fair vi ew of t he l abor problem among the Poles of Balti more. Gr ove.. Jul ian K., 'l'l'hc Po.llsh Group in the United s tates,1l Annals of the American Academy of Po liticnland socIal Sc hmce , Phil adelphIa, Edltor in oh&rge of t his volume, Carl Kelaey, June, 1921, 93 :163--156. An exce llent portrayal of Polish Immi f:, rat l on . lIall, Prescott P., lISe lecti on of- I.m.migratlon,n ·Annals of the Amerioan Academy of Sociar and PoB tical Sc1.ence, New Yorlt : TIle Forum .PUbl. Co., Jul y , 1904

------__ fINew Pr ob l ems of Imm i grat1on,II Forum , Jan., 1901, 30:555-067. -77

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Hodges, Le Roy, Slavs on Southern Farms, Washington, D. C., Government printIng Office, 63rd Congress, 2nd Sess., Senate Documents No. 595, 1914. An a ccou.nt of the Bohemian, Slovak, and Polish Agricultural SettleTl1ents in the Southern States. Mr. Hodges was the Counselor of the Bureau of Economics and Public Efficiency and Assistant Counselor of Immi gra tion.

Independent, "Agricultural Strikes In Austrian Poland," New York, s ept. 18 , 1902 , 54:2216-17. This art i cle describes the Austrian a ttitude towards the Poles i n a peculIar way. It makes 8 parallel study of the Ukrainian and Polish peas ants in lend holdIngs on tbe boundary f rontier. Koening., Samuel, Immigr ant s ettlements in Connecticut, Their Growth and Characteristics, Hartford, Connecticut, s tate Department of Education, 1938. ·

Mayo-8m! th, Richmond, f~Imm i grstion and the Foreign Born Popu l atlon, U American Statistical Association, Boston, 189~-1893, Vol. 3, Nos. 17-24. McLaughlin, Allan, 1!Imrnlgration," Popular Sc1ence Monthly, New York, 65:164-169.

------"The Slavic Immigrant,n Po~ular Science Monthly, 1903, 63: 6-28

------.... IIDistrust of the Immigrant," Popular Scl~nce . Monthly, 1903, 63: - 78

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Miller, Frank 1I., ftThe Polanders in Wisconsin," .in Parkman Club Papers, 1896, Milwaukee, 239-246. Moffett, Samuel E., ftThis Year's High Tide of Immigration .. It Review, of Reviews, 1903, 28:50- 8 . -

Posen, (Pseud.) "Persecution of' the Prussian Poles," The Living Age , Boston, 1907, ~:36-42. - 'l'hls article comes from an authori tati 'Ie PolIsh source. I t portrays the policy ofwuich PI'Ussia was pursuing towards her Polish sub­ jects, and of the 8ufferingsental1ed by the r'uthless systematic oppression by which s he endeavored to stamp out every manifestation of racial senti­ ment in the short-sighted and vain attempt to Germanize a people whose memory of their pas t renders their language, and a ll else that serves to recall the great part they have pla,yed in the h istory of Bur'ope, 8 peculiarly prec10us possession. Self, E., "Why They Come , " North American Review, New York, 1882, · 134:347-367. The title of t his article is se1f-explan8tory. It 15 a fall' portrayal of the Slav of south­ easter n Europe and the role be played in t he u ne... J immigr a t1on. '"

Slenklewlct, Henry and E. Kl aes5ing, "Dispossessing the Poles,"' Outl.ook, 1903, 8.8:541-544.

The article 1:3 8 v1ew ot two opposite sldes--one presented 1n a -79

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l etter from the famous PoUsh novelis t He-nryk Sienk1ewicz, the other 1n an article b y Emil Kl ae ssi ng, a well-informed Ger man wr1~ e r . The f ormer begins t he art i cle with the title "An I nsult to C l villz a tion; ~ the latter, "Nationa l Se l f - Preserva tion. "

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