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Transnational Systems of Care and Women's Labour Migration

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Transnational Systems of Care and Women's Labour Migration Transnational Systems of Care and Women's Labour Migration: A study of Indonesian domestic workers to and in Malaysia Kenji Kimura This dissertation is part of the research programme of CERES, Research School for Resource Studies for Development. © Kenji Kimura 2021 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be repro- duced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission by the author. ISBN 978-90-6490-131-7 Transnational Systems of Care and Women's Labour Migration: A study of Indonesian domestic workers to and in Malaysia Transnationale systemen voor zorg en voor arbeidsmigratie van vrouwen: Een onderzoek naar de migratie van Indonesisch huishoudelijk personeel naar Maleisië Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the Rector Magnificus Prof.dr. F.A. van der Duijn Schouten and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on 3 March 2021 at 15.00 hrs by Kenji Kimura born in Nagoya, Japan Doctoral Committee Doctoral dissertation supervisor Prof. D. Gasper Other members Dr B.P. Resurreccion, Queen’s University Prof. M. van Reisen, Tilburg University Prof. I.P. van Staveren Co-supervisor Dr TD Truong Contents List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Appendices vi Acronyms vi Acknowledgements vi Abstract vi Samenvatting vi 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background and statement of the research problem 1 1.2 Research objective and questions 6 1.2.1 Research objective 6 1.2.2 Research questions 6 1.3 Justification of this research 8 1.3.1 The magnitude of cross-border migration between Indonesia and Malaysia 8 1.3.2 Political sensitivity with regard to the migration issue 9 1.3.3 Accelerated commodification of MDWs: the moral question 10 1.3.4 Gaps in policy for the rights of MDWs 10 1.4 Organisation of the thesis 11 2. THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCESS 13 2.1 Introduction: on exploring an invisibilised group 13 2.2 Transnationalism as a methodological approach: justification, strength and limitations 15 2.2.1 The formation of transnational migration of domestic workers: the role of multi-sited research 17 vi vii 2.2.2 Multi-scalar global perspective and intersectionality in practice 19 2.2.3 Triangulation of the research findings and insights gained from other observation periods and secondary sources 21 2.3 Research methods and techniques of data collection in fieldwork 22 2.3.1 Overview of my research in Indonesia and Malaysia 22 2.3.2 Karawang as a migrant sending site in Indonesia 24 2.3.3 Jakarta as a migrant departure site in Indonesia 32 2.3.4 Kuala Lumpur as a migrant receiving site in Malaysia 33 2.3.5 ASEAN (Jakarta): ASEAN policies on migrant workers and the CSOs cooperation 37 2.4 Conclusion 39 3. THEORISING DOMESTIC LABOUR AND CARE IN TRANSNATIONAL MIGRATION 41 3.1 Introduction: connecting and deepening theoretical insights on care, gender and transnational migration 41 3.2 The domestic labour debate and the public-private divide 43 3.2.1 Domestic work in Marxist feminist thought on patriarchal opression 44 3.2.2 Critique of the debate on domestic work from a ‘development’ perspective 46 3.2.3 Domestic work as paid work in cross-border migration 48 3.3 Viewing care from the perspective of globalisation and social reproduction 50 3.3.1 'New constitutionalism' and social reproduction: the restructuring of the world economy and shifting public- private divide 51 3.3.2 Re-conceptualising care: implications for theorising domestic labour 54 3.4 Transnational migration systems and care in practice 59 3.4.1 From global care chain to care circulation 62 3.4.2 Placing transnational families within the care triangle 64 3.5 Conclusion 67 4. CONTEMPORARY TRANSNATIONAL LABOUR MIGRATION SYSTEMS FROM INDONESIA TO MALAYSIA: WOMEN’S CIRCULAR CROSS-BORDER viii MIGRATION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR HOUSEHOLD PRACTICES OF ORGANISING CARE 70 4.1 Introduction 70 4.2 Labour migration from Indonesia to Malaysia: geographical and cultural proximity 72 4.2.1 Geographical and cultural proximity between Indonesia and Malaysia 72 4.2.2 International labour migration under the national development programme 75 4.3 Invisibilisation of MDWs in the legal framework: the politics of recognition 77 4.3.1 Law and policy on labour export in Indonesia 79 4.3.2 ‘Formalising’ informal domestic work 82 4.3.3 Legal framework governing MDWs in Malaysia 84 4.3.4 The ‘revolving door’: a zone of legal ambiguity for migrant workers 87 4.4 The recruitment and placement system for MDWs: transnational migration networks in the migration industy 88 4.4.1 Indonesian government’s management structure for labour recruitment 90 4.4.2 Meso-level brokered networks for recruiting MDWs: case of Karawang district 92 4.4.3 Malaysian government’s labour recruitment-placement management 95 4.4.4 Brokered recruitment-placement system building for placing MDWs 99 4.5 Indonesian women’s circular cross-border migration as domestic workers and implications for caring relations in the household: evidence from Karawang district 101 4.6 Conclusion 106 5. CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN MODALITIES OF CARE SERVICE PROVISION IN MALAYSIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR ARRANGEMENTS OF DOMESTIC WORK AND THE RIGHTS OF PAID DOMESTIC WORKERS 108 5.1 Introduction 108 5.2 Changing gender relations and care service provision during the implementation of Vision 2020: the implications for demand for MDWs 112 ix 5.2.1 Demographic transition and increasing Malay population 114 5.2.2 Family structure and care obligations 117 5.2.3 Gendered labour market reform toward a knowledge-based economy 119 5.3 Care service at the household level and structural dependence on MDWs 124 5.3.1 Continued demand for live-in MDWs as care workers and preference for Indonesian workers 124 5.3.2 Diversifying the procurement channel of MDWs 129 5.4 Experiences of female live-in MDWs inside and outside the workplace 132 5.4.1 Invisibilisation of live-in MDWs at the physical and legal levels 133 5.4.2 Runaway MDWs and the surveillance of undocumented migrants 136 5.5 Conclusion 139 6. KARAWANG DISTRICT: A CASE-STUDY OF GENDERED LABOUR MIGRATION AND TRANSNATIONAL FAMILIES IN INDONESIA 142 6.1 Introduction 142 6.2 Urbanisation of Jakarta metropolitan area and industrialisation of its peripheral area: shifting of the socio-economic landscape in Karawang 143 6.3 Labour hierarchy in the industrialial sector and gendered labour migration 146 6.3.1 Research findings concerning aspiration for and knowledge about cross-border migration 147 6.3.2 Limited chances for local workers in the industrial sector 156 6.3.3 Men's double marginalisation from local and international labour market and women's inclusion into the international labour markets as MDWs 159 6.4 Transnational families and (re)arrangement of care for stay-behinds 162 6.4.1 The concept of womanhood and family: ideational and material change and continuity 162 6.4.2 Managing transnationally-bonded families with extened family members 164 x 6.5 Conclusion 172 7. THE DEFENCE OF THE RIGHTS OF INDONESIAN MDWS IN AND TO MALAYSIA AND THOSE OF THEIR FAMILY MEMBERS: THE ROLES OF ASEAN AND OF CSOS’ TRANSNATIONAL ACTIVISM 175 7.1 Introduction 175 7.2 The rights of MDWs and their family members in ASEAN Community building 177 7.2.1 ASEAN policy on the rights of migrant workers: politics between migrant sending and receiving states 178 7.2.2 Political and cognitive barriers to ‘one caring and sharing community’ and to cross-border migrants 181 7.3 The roles of CSOs’ transnational activism in ASEAN for the rights of MDWs and their family members: scope and limitations of their cooperation in Malaysia and Indonesia 185 7.3.1 CSOs' participation in the ASEAN Community building processes: transnationalisation of their activism 185 7.3.2 Conflicting views among CSOs on the rights of female live- in MDWs and challenges of their limited accessibility in Malaysia 188 7.3.3 Gap in CSOs’ activities for the rights of MDWs and those of their family members in Indonesia: creating caring connections at the grassroots level 191 7.4 Conclusion 193 8. CONCLUSION 196 8.1 The problematique of women's cross-border migration as domestic workers and the multi-level invisibilisation: review of main arguments and findings 196 8.2 Transnational care circulation between Indonesia and Malaysia: methodological, theoretical and empirical reflections 199 8.3 Recognition of rights for MDWs and their family members as a societal obligation: policy implications 202 APPENDICES 206 REFERENCES 235 List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Appendices Tables 3.1 Transnational recruitment and placement system for domestic workers 61 4.1 Length of time and frequency as MDWs 102 5.1 Female labour force participation rate in ASEAN (% of female population age 15+) 121 5.2 Statistics on MDWs into Malaysia (source countries and numbers) from 2007 to 2011 130 5.3 Experiences of Indonesian live-in MDWs in the employer’s household 134 7.1 Total population and number of regular cross-border migrants within ASEAN 178 7.2 CSOs platforms to engage with ASEAN 187 Figures 3.1 Care diamond 56 3.2 Concept of care, reproductive labour, domestic labour 57 3.3 Care triangle 67 4.1 Percentage of debtors (returnees from Malaysia) 103 4.2 Educational status of returnees from Malaysia who used a sponsor 104 5.1 Registered number of Indonesian MDWs in Malaysia, 1997-2011 (unpublished data by the Department of Immigration Malaysia) 125 6.1 Occupation of aspiring migrants 148
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