Fo Rensic a Rc H E O L Ogy a Humanistic Science

Home , Forensic pathology, Outhouse (venue)

D a vid A . Poirier and Nicholas F. B e l l a n t o n i Fo rensic A rc h e o l ogy A Humanistic Science

rcheologists have often been h a r s h l y, and perhaps justifi- a b l y, criticized by the n a t i o n ’s Native Americans as “graveA robbers” for the discipline’s callous cultural groups, and the religious community t h r ough their respectful and professional handling A decorative 18th- t reatment of their ancestors. Fort u n a t e l y, the last century coffin lid decade has witnessed a significant transform a t i o n of these difficult situations. In this re g a r d, it is from Cornwall,CT, is of attitude and approach within the arc h e o l o g i c a l imperative that forensic archeologists establish a carefully uncovered. community re g a r ding osteological remains. The f o r thright, face-to-face dialogue with all intere s t e d Brass tacks were majority of today’s professional archeologists do p a r ties. A diversity of spiritual, social, cultural, commonly emotional, and political considerations needs to employed to indi- not focus scientific inquiry upon the explicit dis- cate the initials and c o v e ry and examination of human remains. In be explicitly recognized and professionally han- the age at death of c o n c e r t with the spirit and intent of the Native dled. Archeologists must facilitate the re c o g n i t i o n the deceased.Photo American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of mutual goals, articulate the unique perspective by William Keegan. of 1990, most archeologists acknowledge the crit- of forensic arc h e o l o g y, and re s t o r e the sanctity of ical importance of working in partnership with the grave. the descendants of the cultures whose arc h e o l o g i - F o r ensic archeologists also are scientific cal remains they study. p a r tners within the medico-legal system. Fro m N e v e rtheless, construction and other land c e m e t e r y desecration to horrific crime investiga- modification activities continue to result in the tions to natural disasters, the technical training u n f o reseen and accidental disturbance of and expertise of the forensic specialist offers sig- unmarked burials and cemeteries. With incre a s i n g nificant insights concerning the identification of f re q u e n c y, such discoveries date from the 18th and human remains, interpretation of past cultural 19th centuries and are abandoned rural family actions, and the recognition of taphonomic alter- burial grounds or forgotten institutional cemeter- ations. Archeological methods and techniques ies. In most states, legislative mandates pro v i d e often enhance and complement the data gathering a r cheologists with the critical responsibility for the investigations of local, state, and federal police identification of the deceased, coordination with agencies. Remote sensing is frequently employed descendants and other interested parties, and the to locate buried murder victims; interpretations of respectful treatment of the remains. soil and stratigraphic data provide reliable infor- R a rely do archeologists encounter a disinter- mation on the relative sequence of events. ested public in these cases. Public reaction often F o r ensic archeological analysis also may yield ranges from emotional distress to vocal hostility. i m p o rtant contributions re g a rding the age, sex, These unfortunate and sensitive situations and race of the deceased, and the time of burial as demand diplomacy, extreme professionalism, and well as the interrelationship between osteological humanistic compassion. Forensic arc h e o l o g i s t s remains, the surrounding natural enviro n m e n t , s e r ve to provide an important bridge between past and pertinent cultural material (i.e., “physical evi- and present populations. d e n c e ” ) . On-site and laboratory analysis of the osteo- F o r ensic anthropology brings a specialized logical evidence, associated funerary remains, bur- training in the osteological identification of human ial accouterments, archival re c o r ds, family remains developed out of studies of arc h e o l o g i c a l histories, and comparative databases often sheds samples from mort u a r y complexes, human gro w t h i m p o rtant light on the identification of the and development, and evolutionary specimens, to deceased, causes of death, and familial or gro u p assist modern criminal investigations. relationships. Equally paramount, forensic arc h e - Comparative skeletal materials re p r esenting vari- ologists can offer emotional closure for descen- ous biological populations, pathological condi- dants, concerned neighbors, related ethnic or tions, and traumatic injuries provide the necessary

CRM No 10—1996 3 dataset that permits scientific analyses of fore n s i c Cultural re s o u r ce managers are only infre- cases that reflect the best interest of the public. quently called upon to assist with forensic arc h e o- With increased federal and state legislation logical investigations as part of site development p r oviding for the reburial and repatriation of or pro j e c t - r elated mitigation and indeed, may human skeletal collections to their appro p r i a t e never partake in a criminal or disaster investiga- descendants, archeologists and anthro p o l o g i s t s tion. However, an increasing number of cultural have struggled with the ethical questions of bal- re s o u r ce management projects involve the pro f e s - ancing the respect for traditional belief systems of sional removal and re c o r ding of human burials. As specific peoples toward their dead and the inter- a result, physical anthropologists and osteoarc h e - ests of humanity through science. These issues ologists often provide technical guidance for those raise emotional and complex questions that have sensitive projects which deal with human re m a i n s . been discussed in the anthropological and native All cultural re s o u r ce managers should familiarize communities for over a decade. As scientists, we themselves with the appropriate state and federal recognize the importance of comparative collec- laws that pertain to the professional treatment of tions and appropriate methodologies for analysis. unmarked burials and forensic inquiries. As anthropologists, we recognize the humanistic G o v e r nment officials, who are mandated with n a t u re of our studies—not amoebas under a responsibilities for cemetery protection, should be m i c roscope, or stars throughout a galaxy—but identified and state-specific pro c e d u r es for notifi- humans analyzing the remains of other humans. cation understood before a crisis-related situation We are not callous individuals holding on to the occurs. State Historic Pre s e r vation Offices and i n t e r est of our scientific method at the expense of O f fices of State Archeologists are obvious sourc e s human emotional feelings toward the dead. of such information. Cultural re s o u r ce managers Reburial and repatriation are appropriate healing may be asked to participate as part of coord i n a t e d m e a s u r es in the correction of past insensitivities. teams for investigative purposes. Familiarization H o w e v e r, our science is not merely an esoteric, with laws and officials can expedite pro c e d u re s intellectual investigation of the past, but pro v i d e s during emergency situations. This thematic issue a practical scientific application in dealing with of CRM p r ovides important information concern- some of the most sensitive human issues in mod- ing those federal agencies with the appro p r i a t e e rn societies: identification and re c o v e r y of victims e x p e rtise in forensic studies, and examines proof war, mass disasters, criminal activities, and jects where forensic archeological and anthro p o - missing persons. As forensic anthropological scien- logical techniques have contributed to the tists, we seek to strike a sensitive balance between respectful treatment of historic burial grounds as the importance of re s e a r ch re g a r ding human well as the investigative processes used for crimi- remains and the application of that re s e a r ch for nal activities and disaster re l i e f . the re c o v e r y and emotional closure of distre s s f u l ______situations. Dr. David A. Poirier is Staff Archeologist and F o r ensic scientists contribute their unique Environmental Review Coordinator for the training and experience to both the day-to-day Connecticut State Historic Preservation Office. Dr. o s t e o l o g i c a l - r elated inquiries that occur in their Poirier also served as guest co-editor with Dr. local communities and state, as well as horr i f i c Kenneth L. Feder for a 1995 thematic issue of CRM crimes or large scale disasters which affect the which focused on Archeology and the Public. national psyche. Most import a n t l y, forensic arc h e - ologists must seek answers to sensitive questions: Dr. Nicholas F. Bellantoni serves as the Connecticut who is re p r esented by the re c o v e r ed skeletal State Archeologist with the Connecticut State remains, what was the probable cause of death, Museum of Natural History at the University of and what is the appropriate post-analysis tre a t - Connecticut. His office coordinates with the Office of ment of these remains. Scientific analysis pro v i d e s the Connecticut Chief Medical Examiner in forensic f o r ensic archeologists with a pertinent framework cases involving human skeletal remains. for both rigorous medico-legal testimony and the humanistic comforting of family members and other concerned part i e s .

4 CRM No 10—1996 Thomas A . J . Crist and Daniel G. R o b e rt s E n g aging the Public T h rough Mort u a r y A rc h e o l ogy P h i l a d e l p h i a ’s First African Baptist Church C e m e t e r i e s

...our particular species is utterly distinctive in this re g a rd , laws and implementing regulations make cultural re s o u rce consideration an important aspect of the that our very concept of who we are and of our basic e n v i r onmental and land planning processes. Local w o r th is inextricably bound up in our abiding impulse to and state ordinances re g a r ding abandoned or u n re c o rded cemeteries are also frequently invoked honor and memori a l i ze our dead...the simple act of when development threatens a historical burial respect for the dead that is, in its essence, an expre s s i o n g r ound. Along with federal pre s e r vation legislation, local and state statutes offer various levels of of respect for their lives. p rotection for undocumented cemeteries. While —Newsweek* many of these statutes fall short in terms of Photos courtesy n today’s economic and political cli- e n f o r cement, their existence has facilitated either John Milner mate it is fundamentally important for the avoidance or the professional arc h e o l o g i c a l Associates, Inc. a rcheologists to promote archeology to excavation of numerous historical cemeteries. the public. This is especially true since The past two decades have also witnessed a publicI dollars fund the vast majority of arc h e o l o g- fundamental change in the way archeologists and ical re s e a r ch currently conducted in the United a n t h ropologists approach their re s e a r ch. Tw o Members of the States. While many archeological projects are sociopolitical currents have come together to make First African Baptist w o r thy of, and indeed attract, public attention, it a n t h ropologists realize that they no longer have Church and the is mort u a r y archeology projects that fre q u e n t l y project team pre- complete domain over the data they can poten- pare for the Tenth elicit the most intense public interest and com- tially collect. First, various Native American Street Cemetery munity response. As such, historical cemetery g r oups have begun to assert their claims to cul- Reburial Ceremony a r cheology provides a natural educational foru m tural pro p e rt y, whether newly discovered or held at Eden Cemetery t h r ough which archeologists can reach and by American museums, particularly human on May 8,1995. engage the public. The human remains and grave goods associated with their remains were rein- Over the past two decades, most of the his- ancestors. This movement culminated in the terred in a plot torical cemetery excavations conducted in the Native American Graves Protection and adjacent to those United States were undertaken in compliance with Repatriation Act, enacted by Congress in 1990. from the Eighth federal pre s e r vation mandates, especially the This legislation protects Native American human Street cemetery, National Historic Pre s e r vation Act of 1966. These buried in 1987. remains and associated cultural items and sets out guidelines for the appropriate treatment of these materials. Second, the public has incre a s i n g l y demanded an active role in scientific re s e a rc h , especially that which affects interpretations of the past. In the archeological realm these curre n t s have resulted in a new focus on public outre a c h and the engaged involvement of communities descended from those buried in threatened ceme- t e r i e s . The inclusion of cultural, social, political, and spiritual components of historical cemeteries benefits both archeologists and the public at larg e (Crist, in press). For the archeologist, such inclusion serves to bring into clearer focus the non-scientific values embodied in past human re m a i n s . For the public, these projects serve to heighten

CRM No 10—1996 5 f r om two separate cemetery sites (Roberts and M c C a r thy 1995). The results effectively focused public attention on the urban experience of P h i l a d e l p h i a ’s free African Americans during the first half of the 19th century. Close cooperation with the leaders and members of the current First African Baptist Church provided them with opportunities to learn more about the churc h ’s founding, as well as the growth and development of other African-American Baptist congregations in the re g i o n . T h i rteen African Americans founded the First African Baptist Church in 1809. The church subsequently split into two congregations in 1816. The splinter group relocated to pro p e r ty owned by the R e v e r end Henry Simmons at Eighth and Vi n e S t r eets about 1824 and buried their dead there until about 1842. The original congregation wor- shipped at a meeting house on Tenth Street below Vine, where a burial ground was used between c i r ca 1810 and 1822. The Tenth Street churc h relocated to a building in south Philadelphia in 1906, where the congregation currently meets. The Eighth Street cemetery, in use between c i rca 1823 and 1842, was discovered during a r cheological monitoring activities associated with the construction of a commuter rail tunnel in 1980. Excavated by archeologists from John Milner Associates, Inc. in 1983 and 1984, the remains of 140 individuals and associated mort u - a r y artifacts were identified and carefully re m o v e d f rom the site. Recognizing the keen public interest in the a w a r eness about the scientific value of studying excavation of the Eighth Street cemetery, the past human remains while also enhancing knowl- a r cheologists erected a wooden platform at the site edge about historical American social gro u p s so that visitors could safely view the excavation in about which only incomplete documentation a panorama-like setting. Staff members from the Although used by exists. Furt h e r, educational outreach programs that separate congrega- A f r o-American Historical and Cultural Museum, celebrate a past gro u p ’s heritage frequently foster tions, both First located three blocks from the former cemetery, cultural pride and community involvement. African Baptist p r ovided organized tours from the platform ’s van- Church cemeteries Because people are interested, they often become tage point. Advertisements for the tours were were located active in exploring their community’s history. placed in all major Philadelphia newspapers, within two blocks Many times this interest extends to the children in of each other including the African-American Philadelphia the community, a traditional focus for many of the along the northern Tribune. Almost 3,000 people took advantage of A rchaeology Week programs sponsored by State boundary of 19th- these tours over the two field seasons, including century Historic Pre s e rvation Offices around the country. school groups and numerous members of the First Philadelphia.Today Public interest in African-American arc h e o l- African Baptist Church congre g a t i o n . the Vine ogy has increased in recent years due to the exca- Expressway carries A significant area of community engagement vation of several historical African-American thousands of vehi- c e n t e red on the current members of the First cemeteries, most notably in Baltimore, Dallas, cles over the for- African Baptist Church. The archeological team mer site of the New York, St. Louis, and Philadelphia. These apprised church members of the excavation’s church’s original excavations were all necessitated because con- re s e a rch design early on in the project and the lat- meeting house. s t ruction activities threatened unmarked burial Drawing by Sarah ter actively participated in assembling data on the g r ounds obscured by highways or modern build- Ruch. c h u rc h ’s founding and early history. The scientific ings. In Philadelphia, the First African Baptist team periodically made presentations to the con- C h u rch Cemetery Projects brought arc h e o l o g i s t s g r egation re g a rding the excavations and actively and the public together through a series of educa- solicited church members’ input. Most signifi- tional outreach eff o rts designed to engage the com- c a n t l y, members of the congregation became munity in the excavation and analysis of re m a i n s

6 CRM No 10—1996 original church building. The Tenth Street site was identified prior to construction of the Vi n e E x p ressway through center-city Philadelphia and was excavated in 1990. This time the location of the site within the lanes of Vine Street pre c l u d e d public observation of the excavation, although members of the congregation again visited the site on numerous occasions. Here, the arc h e o l o g i s t s excavated the skeletal remains of 89 individuals and associated funerary artifacts interred between c i r ca 1810 and 1822, including well-pre s e r ved coffin hard w a re and clothing fragments. These remains were analyzed at John Milner Associates’ Osteology Laboratory in Philadelphia, located four blocks from the site. Since public involvement during the Te n t h S t r eet cemetery excavation was limited, a con- c e r ted eff o rt to engage the public in the laboratory The Tenth Street d i rectly involved in planning the reburial of the analysis of the remains ensued. The firm hosted cemetery site was human remains disinterred from the site. The over 50 school groups and tours in the laboratory located just west of reburial ceremony took place in July 1987 after the Benjamin during the course of the subsequent several years t h r ee years of study at the Smithsonian Franklin Bridge of study. These groups ranged from first-graders to Institution. The remains were re i n t e r red at Eden between the east- graduate students, with a particular emphasis on bound and west- C e m e t e r y in neighboring Delaware County, c h i l d r en from the inner-city schools. Groups fro m bound lanes of Vine p resently used by the modern First African Baptist the Phil-A-Kids program sponsored by the local Street.A tent was C h u rch congre g a t i o n . erected to protect Atwater Kent Museum also toured the laboratory Due in no small part to the active engage- the human remains each summer during this phase of the pro j e c t . ment of the African-American community and and associated arti- The highlight of the laboratory tours was an facts during the members of the church, media attention generated ancestral homecoming ceremony conducted in excavation. by the project was particularly positive. The local June 1993 by the pro j e c t ’s cultural anthro p o l o g i s t newspapers carried numerous articles about the for members of the First African Baptist Churc h Nearly 3,000 peo- excavation, while radio and television news pro- c o n g r egation and other interested members of the ple observed the grams devoted several segments to the project. A c o m m u n i t y. This ceremony brought together the excavation of the local filmmaker also produced a documentary Eighth Street ceme- p ro j e c t ’s scientific team and the current members video that chronicled the archeological investiga- tery site in 1983 of the church to honor the spirits of those interre d tion. Narrated by a prominent Philadelphian, the and 1984.The in the cemetery, discuss the findings of the analy- archeologists fielded R e v e r end Paul Washington, the film G round Tru t h : sis, and begin preparations for reburial of the questions from the A r chaeology in the City was released in 1988 and human remains. In the months following the cere- visiting groups and has been shown in classrooms across the nation also distributed a m o n y, church leaders actively planned the re i n t e r - and around the world. short brochure out- ment of the remains, again at Eden Cemetery, John Milner Associates, Inc. also excavated lining the project adjacent to the burial plot in which the Eighth and its progress. the Tenth Street cemetery at the former site of the S t r eet cemetery remains were reburied in 1987. The Tenth Street cemetery reburial ceremony took place in May 1995 and was attended by over 40 members of the current church and most of the scientific team. At the congre g a t i o n ’s request, the m o rt u a ry artifacts from the Tenth Street site are p e r manently curated at the Afro-American Cultural and Historical Museum in Philadelphia, complet- ing the circle of engagement that began with the excavation of the Eighth Street cemetery 12 years e a r l i e r. The two First African Baptist Churc h C e m e t e r y Projects elicited the involvement of P h i l a d e l p h i a ’s African-American community in a meaningful exploration of its past. The re s e a rc h findings and public presentations made by the p r oject team effectively focused public attention on

CRM No 10—1996 7 the many ways in which African Americans con- Bioanthropological Investigation of African tributed to Philadelphia’s history and society in American Skeletal Populations: Two Interrelated general. Both projects highlighted the benefits of Case Studies from Philadelphia, In: Bodies of public outreach in mort u a ry archeology pro j e c t s Evidence: Reconstructing History Through Skeletal and underscored the potential to effectively engage Analysis, Anne L. Grauer, ed. (Wiley-Liss: New the community in the various aspects of arc h e o l o g - York, 1995). ical excavation and analysis. They also emphati- ______cally demonstrated that involvement of the public Thomas A.J. Crist is Principal Physical in mort u a r y archeology projects has significant Anthropologist at John Milner Associates, Inc. He is benefits for all, as long as archeologists are willing also the Forensic Anthropologist for the Philadelphia to recognize concerns of the interested or aff e c t e d Medical Examiner’s Office. segments of the community and most import a n t l y, respect those non-scientific values embodied by Daniel G. Roberts is Vice President and Director of burial grounds and human remains that the com- the Cultural Resources Department at John Milner munity holds as import a n t . Associates, Inc. Among his recent publications is The ______Buried Past: An Archaeological History of R e f e re n c e s Philadelphia, with John L. Cotter and Michael Thomas A.J. Crist, Public Support and Civic Dividends Parrington (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992). of American Mortuary Archaeology, In: The Public Benefits of Archaeology, Barbara Little, ed. (National * Quoted from an article by Meg Greenfield in Park Service: Washington, D.C., in press). Newsweek, April 22, 1996, p. 88. Daniel G. Roberts and John P. McCarthy, Descendant Community Partnering in the Archaeological and

G re go r y F. Wa l we r Combining A rchival and A rc h e o l og i c a l R e s e a rch The Connecticut School for Boys Cemetery

hen it was announced that available re c o r ds suggest which portion of the state land which lies adjacent g r ounds was used as a cemetery, word of mouth to the State Police and local newspaper accounts indicated to many H e a d q u a r ters in Meriden, that a small hill re p resented the principal burial ConnecticutW would soon serve as grounds for a g r ounds at the facility. In 1986, a monument multi-million dollar hospital project, considerable marking the site was installed. public outrage ensued. Concerned citizens indi- Despite this information, local citizens were cated that many adolescents were interred on the convinced that the boys had been buried thro u g h- p ro p e r ty when it was occupied by the out the 50-acre pro p e rt y. To support this con- Connecticut School for Boys, a re f o rm a t o r y and tention, they contrasted the small size of the hill orphanage that operated between 1853 and with a list of well over 100 names of boys who 1973. they had determined to be buried at the facility. To Also known as the Meriden School for Boys add confusion to the matter, community members and the State Reform School, the facility housed w e r e concerned about several depressions in the up to several hundred juvenile males at any given e a r th, which were later found to correspond to time. Historic sources indicate that many of the a r eas of previous geological testing. As a result of boys who had died at the school were interre d vague historic information and intense concern s o m e w h e r e on the pro p e rt y. While none of the e x p r essed by local citizens, the Connecticut

8 CRM No 10—1996 the many ways in which African Americans con- Bioanthropological Investigation of African tributed to Philadelphia’s history and society in American Skeletal Populations: Two Interrelated general. Both projects highlighted the benefits of Case Studies from Philadelphia, In: Bodies of public outreach in mort u a ry archeology pro j e c t s Evidence: Reconstructing History Through Skeletal and underscored the potential to effectively engage Analysis, Anne L. Grauer, ed. (Wiley-Liss: New the community in the various aspects of arc h e o l o g - York, 1995). ical excavation and analysis. They also emphati- ______cally demonstrated that involvement of the public Thomas A.J. Crist is Principal Physical in mort u a r y archeology projects has significant Anthropologist at John Milner Associates, Inc. He is benefits for all, as long as archeologists are willing also the Forensic Anthropologist for the Philadelphia to recognize concerns of the interested or aff e c t e d Medical Examiner’s Office. segments of the community and most import a n t l y, respect those non-scientific values embodied by Daniel G. Roberts is Vice President and Director of burial grounds and human remains that the com- the Cultural Resources Department at John Milner munity holds as import a n t . Associates, Inc. Among his recent publications is The ______Buried Past: An Archaeological History of R e f e re n c e s Philadelphia, with John L. Cotter and Michael Thomas A.J. Crist, Public Support and Civic Dividends Parrington (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992). of American Mortuary Archaeology, In: The Public Benefits of Archaeology, Barbara Little, ed. (National * Quoted from an article by Meg Greenfield in Park Service: Washington, D.C., in press). Newsweek, April 22, 1996, p. 88. Daniel G. Roberts and John P. McCarthy, Descendant Community Partnering in the Archaeological and

G re go r y F. Wa l we r Combining A rchival and A rc h e o l og i c a l R e s e a rch The Connecticut School for Boys Cemetery

hen it was announced that available re c o rds suggest which portion of the state land which lies adjacent g r ounds was used as a cemetery, word of mouth to the State Police and local newspaper accounts indicated to many H e a d q u a rters in Meriden, that a small hill re p resented the principal burial ConnecticutW would soon serve as grounds for a g r ounds at the facility. In 1986, a monument multi-million dollar hospital project, considerable marking the site was installed. public outrage ensued. Concerned citizens indi- Despite this information, local citizens were cated that many adolescents were interred on the convinced that the boys had been buried thro u g h - p ro p e r ty when it was occupied by the out the 50-acre pro p e rt y. To support this con- Connecticut School for Boys, a re f o rm a t o r y and tention, they contrasted the small size of the hill orphanage that operated between 1853 and with a list of well over 100 names of boys who 1973. they had determined to be buried at the facility. To Also known as the Meriden School for Boys add confusion to the matter, community members and the State Reform School, the facility housed w e re concerned about several depressions in the up to several hundred juvenile males at any given e a rth, which were later found to correspond to time. Historic sources indicate that many of the a r eas of previous geological testing. As a result of boys who had died at the school were interre d vague historic information and intense concern s o m e w h e r e on the pro p e rt y. While none of the e x p r essed by local citizens, the Connecticut

8 CRM No 10—1996 a r ea, was used for agriculture that supported the school in its administrative goal of self-subsis- tence. To w a r d the middle of the 20th century, ball fields had replaced the agricultural fields. In 1973, the school closed and the project area served as a training ground for the State Police K-9 unit until c o n s t r uction began earlier this year. None of the historic sources yielded a clear indication of the c e m e t e ry ’s location. The initial list of boys included those which had been found through re s e a r ch of the Town of M e r i d e n ’s death indices by concerned local citizens. Some names also came from an 1899 ledger of a former school superintendent. Public re c o rd s kept by the state provided a yearly account of how many had died at the school (121 deaths by 1940), but no specific names or information on burial location. Unfort u n a t e l y, the state’s account- General Assembly enacted Special Act 95-25 ing often conflicts with the yearly count of deaths which called for the Connecticut Department of f rom town hall re c o rds. In order to help re s o l v e Public Works to more thoroughly investigate the this problem, Archaeological Consulting Serv i c e s possibility for the existence of burials and their independently reviewed all available death indices location on the pro p e r ty before its final transfer to at the town hall. In many cases, the names pro- the hospital development gro u p . vided on initial lists appear in the death indices The Public Archaeology Survey Team Inc. and other sources with the place of death noted as conducted a ground penetrating radar study of the the school (86 total), but without specific burial small hill which was marked by the monument, as location information. In other cases, the entries well as a similar hill located within 200 feet of the did not give the school as the place of death and first. The first hill revealed a high density of both a p p a r ently had been included because of youthful point and multiple anomalies as well as a scatter age or lack of parents’ names in the re c o r ds (21 of shallow metal strikes, while the adjacent hill total), thus their affiliation with the school revealed a rather normal distribution and density remains unsubstantiated. of anomalies. Available death certificates, death indices A rmed with the citizens’ list of names, death f r om the town hall, and the 1899 ledger confirm c e r tificates for many of the boys who died at the that at least 23 boys were buried at the school, school (provided by the Connecticut Office of State which still left a significant discrepancy with A rchaeology), and the results of the remote sens- respect to the total number of boys known to have ing study, Archaeological Consulting Services con- died at the school. Archaeological Consulting ducted re s e a rch using a combination of arc h i v a l S e rvices then consulted the Hale Index to head- and archeological methods in order to determ i n e stone inscriptions in Connecticut. This mega-vol- the location of burials on the pro p e rt y, the pro b a- ume re f e r ence, a 1934 Works Pro g re s s ble number of interments, as well as any other cul- Administration compilation, includes compre h e n - tural re s o u r ces which might be pre s e n t . sive indices of alphabetized names appearing on A rchaeological Consulting Services worked with headstones within each town. Between death cer- the Connecticut Department of Public Works, the tificates indicating burial location and a search of O f fice of the State Archaeologist, and the the Hale Index corresponding to the known birt h Connecticut Historical Commission (State Historic location or previous town of residence for each P re s e rvation Office) in creating an appro p r i a t e b o y, 24 of the originally listed boys were found to re s e a rch design. be buried off - g r ounds. Others may have been Various sources were consulted in an eff o rt buried in unmarked graves in their re s p e c t i v e to independently document the location of the home towns; in other locations thro u g h o u t c e m e t e r y, the names of boys who had died at the Connecticut as families relocated; out of state as school, and their final disposition. Local histories d e t e r mined for a few of the boys; or in the several and historic maps revealed that the project are a Town of Meriden cemeteries where there are many was initially open space, and subsequently used headstones with either initials or last names that as an orc h a r d by the late 18th century. For much c o r respond to the names of boys whose burial of the school’s history, the proposed project are a , locations could not be further determ i n e d . beyond the limits of the “recognized” cemetery T h e re f o r e, of the 86 boys who were confirmed as

CRM No 10—1996 9 having died at the school, the burial location of 39 Two excavation units were placed on the hill Illustrations, from remains unknown. marked by the monument, and situated so as to the Catalogue of The 1899 ledger, a highly confidential docu- cover the greatest density of anomalies and metal Casket Trimmings ment, indicates that 36 burials took place on the strikes revealed by the remote sensing study. The Manufactured by the Meriden p ro p e rty by the turn of the 20th century. Impro v e d first unit revealed an intricate network of holes or Britannia medical techniques and conditions at the school tunnels created by a burrowing animal, as indi- Company,West by this time drastically reduced the mortality rate, cated by a nest, at a depth of three feet, containing Meriden, as indicated by the seven burials and less than pine needles and modern debris. Several casket Connecticut, two dozen deaths known to have occurred after trimmings found in this test unit re p resent intru- USA (1880),of coffin hardware this time until the school closed. The long list of sive material as a result of the animal tunnels. recovered from causes of death listed on the death cert i f i c a t e s The second excavation unit revealed a signif- archeological test- includes albuminuria, appendicitis, brain conges- icant feature which was detected at less than six ing at the Meriden tion, brain dro p s y, cere b r o-spinal congestion or inches below the surface. The feature turned out School for Boys meningitis, cholera, consumption, convulsions and to re p r esent the edge of two overlapping feature s site. paralysis, diabetes, diarrhea, drowning, dysentery, which lacked the normal stratigraphy of the sur- e n d o c a r ditis, epistasis, heart failure, influenza, rounding soil matrix. By a depth of appro x i m a t e l y i n t e rnal hemorrhage, liver disease, malarial fever, four feet, one part of the feature tapered into the membranous croup, nephritis, otitis media side wall of the unit, while the main portion of the p u r uleuta, pericarditis, phthisis, pneumonia, re n o - f e a t u r e revealed a soft, brown stain in a corner of c a r diovascular disease, rheumatism, scarlet fever, the unit. Further excavation in this area re v e a l e d skull fracture, spinal cord apoplexy, suicide, sun- the crumbled corner of a casket and a high density s t roke, transverse myelitis, tuberculosis, tumor, of casket trimmings. and typhoid fever, some of which reflect the diff i - Analysis of the features and re c o v e r ed mater- cult working conditions and possible physical ial produced interesting results. The overlapping of abuse at the school early in its history. While i n t e r ment features is a good indication for the his- a r chival re s e a r ch indicates that as many as 100 toric lack of headstones and the school’s lack of boys could have been buried at the school, only p r ecise re c o r d-keeping re g a rding prior burials. In 23 individuals could be confirmed as buried at the addition, the burial orientations do not reflect a school, and best estimates indicate about 50 to 60 traditional facing to the west or nearest road; this burials on the pro p e rt y. situation is not unusual given the nature of this Field testing included excavation units on historic institutional setting. The wood species of the two hills, a stratified-systematic placement of the casket, however, was revealed to be shovel tests throughout the pro p e rt y, and the sys- L i l i o d e n d r on tulipifera, or yellow poplar, which is a tematic placement of mechanically-assisted test good quality soft-hardwood. The exterior of the t r enches. The latter test units covered appro x i - wood exhibited a fine varnish coating. Most sur- mately 10% of the 11.5-acre impact area to the prising, perhaps, was the inclusion of silver- p l a t e d n o rth of the two hills, and were excavated in casket trimmings. The ornate, zinc alloy coff i n a p p r oximately six-inch intervals in order to expose tacks and screws were determined to have origi- possible burial features. All test units were exca- nated from the Meriden Britannia Company, a vated to a depth which revealed undisturbed l a rge producer of fine household goods until well glacial gravel, so as to exhaust all possibilities of into the 20th century. The terminal date for the revealing interment features and/or their contents. m a n u f a c t u r e of the coffin hard w a r e has not been d e t e r mined, but they appear in an 1880 catalogue

10 CRM No 10—1996 of casket trimmings a funerary nature. Information from shovel tests and do not appear in t h r oughout the project area confirmed the pre s - the 1869 catalogue. ence of a plow zone that re a ff i r ms the contention The fine crafting and that the grounds outside of the cemetery area were expense devoted to at used primarily for agriculture. This disturbed stra- least two of the cas- tum contained a scatter of whiteware plates and kets is surprising chamber pot fragments whose density incre a s e d given this institu- t o w a r ds the school buildings which lie outside the tional setting. p roject area. T h r ee part i a l A r chaeological Consulting Services stro n g l y f e a t u r es were recommended that the cemetery area be avoided exposed in the 200 and pre s e rved; final design plans for the pro p o s e d s q u a r e feet of excava- hospital re s e r ved the cemetery as open space. As a tion. The demarc a t e d final protective measure, Archaeological Researc h bounds of the “ceme- Specialists monitored constru c t i o n - r elated activi- t e r y” that corre s p o n d ties in order to ensure in situ c o n s e r vation of the to the raised hill unmarked burials. enclose an area that The Connecticut School for Boys Cemetery m e a s u r es appro x i - demonstrates the importance of using a combina- mately 5,000 square tion of archival and archeological re s e a rch to solve feet. This suggests a 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y problems. More significantly per- density which could haps, re s e a r ch confirmed the cemetery area as the accommodate up to final resting place for those boys who had died at 75 burial feature s , the school without violating the trust that they taking into account would remain “undisturbed, in perpetuity. ” the partial exposure s Likewise, archeological re s e a rch ensured that an and overlapping fea- i m p o r tant 20th-century development project could t u r es. It was there f o r e p ro c e e d . Community concluded that the cemetery area could very well A highly vociferous handful of local re s i - activists protesting contain all 50 to 60 suspected burials. dents, who strongly opposed the proposed hospital the presumed des- A single excavation unit was placed on the p r oject based upon their fears that the new facility ecration of second hill in an area for which the remote sens- would in fact provide fewer medical services than unmarked burials associated with the ing study revealed the highest number of point the existing health care system, produced an inter- former Meriden anomalies. Excavation to a depth of less than two esting aside to this project—a diff e r ent arc h e o l o g i- School for Boys. feet revealed a glacial gravel substratum as pre- cal consultant for each phase of the investigation. Photo courtesy dicted by surficial materials maps. In addition, This group continually refused to accept the arc h e - Archaeological small boulders were found throughout the unit, ological results and even cast aspersions re g a rd i n g Research Specialists. thus accounting for the anomalies which in the the “independence” of the re s e a r chers. In contrast, remote sensing study merely indicate notable the Office of the State Archaeologist, the changes in density beneath the surface. Several Connecticut State Historic Pre s e rvation Office, the bones were found, but all were identified as p a rticipating agencies, and the general public re a l- belonging to domesticated animals which were ized an unintentional extra benefit from this local known to have been raised at the school. c o n t r oversy—the professionalism and integrity of No other archeologically examined are a s t h r ee Connecticut-based archeological consulting revealed any traces of burial features or remains of o rganizations applied to a common purpose: the identification and protection of the school’s historic burying gro u n d . ______Although 23 burials at the school were confirm e d Gregory F. Walwer is a doctoral candidate in the t h r ough historic documentation, public re c o r ds of the State of Anthropology Department at Yale University, special- Connecticut indicate 121 deaths at the school between 1853 izing in North American prehistory and the and 1940. Only 86 individual deaths at the school were Paleolithic of the Near East. He and his wife, re p o r ted in the death indices at the Meriden Town Hall or Dorothy N. Walwer, are directors of Archaeological other sources. At least 24 of these were found to be buried in Consulting Services, a cultural resource management their home towns or other Meriden cemeteries, thus account- firm located in Guilford, Connecticut. ing for 47 of the 86 confirmed deaths. The school cemetery contains an estimated 50 to 60 graves.

CRM No 10—1996 11 D a vid A . Po i r i e r In Pe r p e t u i t y The Northrup Cemetery

small hardscrabble parcel, bor- d e r ed by a seldom used rail line and a lesser traveled town ro a d , the Nort h r up Cemetery was a for- l o r n half-acre.A Although the oldest bury i n g g r ound in Brookfield, Connecticut, the Nort h ru p C e m e t e ry was barely recognizable as sacre d g round. The few surviving gravestones had been Vandalized 18th- vandalized, knocked over, and were on the verg e century gravestone of being reclaimed by the surrounding soil. from the Northrup Incomplete strands of barbed wire fencing Cemetery. Photo marked the cemetery ’s border with the railro a d courtesy Phenix Environmental Inc. tracks; an adjoining, privately-owned sand and gravel operation threatened to undermine one side of the cemetery. This rural, family burial g round was poised to become another forg o t t e n and abandoned historic site. to re p r esent potential grave sites along the pro- Despite its near- t e r minal appearance, the posed narrower construction right-of-way. The N o rt h r up Cemetery was identified through exten- a r cheological excavation of the proposed pipeline sive cultural re s o u r ce re s e a r ch associated with the c o n s t r uction zone, the professional disinterment of p r oposed construction of a buried natural gas any effected grave, and subsequent reburial else- pipeline through areas of New York and western w h e re within the cemetery was considered a viable Connecticut. Consultation among the Connecticut course of action in light of the complexity of the State Historic Pre s e rvation Office, the Office of the s i t u a t i o n . State Archaeologist at the University of After considerable analysis of its options, Connecticut (Storrs), and the Iroquois Gas I r oquois decided that disturbance of this historic Transmission System revealed that alternate ro u t e c e m e t e r y was an untenable solution. In that the alignments were not feasible. Parallel routing with GPR study indicated that bedrock occurre d the extant rail line posed unresolveable safety between 40 and 120 inches across the cemetery issues; other route variations would seriously site, the surprising pre f e r red option was to bore impact sensitive wetlands or the nearby 20th-cen- t h r ough the bedrock beneath the cemetery and t u r y United Jewish Cemetery. Iroquois was literally install the pipeline within a rock tunnel. The cor- caught between a railroad and a wetland, rather porate consciousness and flexible decision-making than a “rock and a hard place.” of the Iroquois Gas Transmission System ensure d P r oposed narrowing of the pipeline constru c - the perpetual rest and continued sanctity of this tion right-of-way from the standard 75 feet width o t h e r wise neglected late-18th-century colonial to 24 feet was examined as a possible solution. c e m e t e r y in rural Connecticut. Of equal impor- H o w e v e r, uncertainty existed as to the possible tance, the Nort h r up Cemetery is a powerf u l p r esence of historically unmarked graves. Pre v i o u s reminder that creative insights deserve full explo- re s e a r ch in Connecticut has revealed that, among ration with respect to the sensitive treatment of other threatened burial grounds. others, infants, paupers, Native Americans, and ______African Americans were often interred without gravestones. In an attempt to resolve this impor- Dr. David A. Poirier is Staff Archeologist and tant concern, Iroquois Gas Transmission System Environmental Review Coordinator for the conducted a ground penetrating radar surv e y Connecticut State Historic Preservation Office. t h r oughout the Nort h r up Cemetery. The GPR study identified several anomalies which appeare d

12 CRM No 10—1996 Nicholas F. Bellantoni and David G. C o o k e Criminal Investigations A Fo rensic A rc h e o l ogy Case Study from Connecticut

ecent state legislation in was considered to be “old bone” by the Office of Connecticut has provided for pro- State Archaeology in that it contained little org a n i c fessional archeological involve- matter and exhibited a breakdown of the ment when unmarked burials are c o r tical/periosteal surface. Although the skull was accidentallyR encountered during construction and found lying on the surface of the ground in a other land-altering activities or as a result of wooded area, it showed no signs of weathering, c e m e t e r y vandalism. As a result, the Office of bleaching, rodent gnawing, or other marks indica- State Archaeology at the University of tive of exposure. In addition, the skull gave no evi- Connecticut (Storrs) and the State Historic dence of soil adherence or plant root development P re s e r vation Office have provided technical assis- in any cranial foramena. Thus, it had been neither tance to law enforcement agencies throughout the buried in the ground, nor exposed to the elements state. Most notably, criminal trespass at the for any length of time. Age, sex, and racial esti- Chauncey family crypt at the Indian Hill mates strongly suggested an adult, white female, C e m e t e ry in Middletown, Connecticut, evolved p r obably 45 to 55 years old. All dentition was lost into a case study where forensic arc h e o l o g i c a l p e r i m o rtem. Cause of death or other pathological and anthropological techniques were employed to conditions could not be discern e d . assist municipal police to understand the nature After pre l i m i n a ry analysis by the Office of of the vandalism, to provide information on the State Arc h a e o l o g y, the police requested furt h e r sequence of criminal events, to sort skeletal technical assistance with an on-going investigation remains disturbed during the vandalism, and to of vandalism at a family crypt in a Middletown re s t o re the desecrated family crypt as near as c e m e t e r y. Police investigators had been working possible to its original condition. the case for a number of months and questioned In August 1991, the state archeologist was whether the Cromwell skull could have originated notified that a human skull had been discovere d f rom the Chauncey family crypt at Indian Hill in a wooded area behind a car wash facility in C e m e t e r y. One investigative “lead” involved cer- C r omwell, Connecticut. This discovery appeared to tain individuals of known satanic cult associations be linked to a diff e r ent on-going investigation that whose motive for the break-in and vandalism Chauncey Family was being conducted by the Middletown Police would be to obtain a human skull for ritual pur- Crypt,Indian Hill D e p a r tment, which requested our technical assis- p o s e s . Cemetery, tance in identifying this unusual find. The Chaunceys were a very prominent early Middletown, Connecticut.Photo The specimen consisted of a single human New England family, emigrating from England by by the author. cranium (the part of the skull that includes the 1638. The Chanucey lineage includes the second bone face, upper jaw, and vault areas). No p resident of Harv a r d College, the first full-term mandible or lower jaw was present. The discovery graduate of Yale College, celebrated ministers, and a co-builder of the Panamian railroad. The family c r ypt is architecturally impressive with bro w n s t o n e a r ched doorways leading to the 130 square foot i n t e r i o r. Three rows of stacked vaults house 17 members of the Chauncey family dating from 1821 to 1979. The state archeologist and a team of students and avocational archeologists entered the c rypt to identify and interpret human remains and material culture disturbed by the vandalism. Four vaults had been clearly violated. The cry p t ’s mar- ble-tiled floor was littered with disart i c u l a t e d skeletal remains, wooden and cast-iron coffin fragments, burial clothing, casket linen, and hard w a re

CRM No 10—1996 13 f r om the dese- re c o v e r ed by the police was removed from Lucy crated burials. C h a u n c e y ’s crypt, supporting the contention that In ord e r satanic cult activity may have been a possible to facilitate the m o t i v e . re c o r ding of the With the evidence from the forensic arc h e o l - spatial distribu- ogy at the Chauncey family crypt, Middletown tion of the Police arrested a suspect, of known satanic cult human re m a i n s involvement, for the ro b b e ry of a gun store. This and coffin part s individual was taken into custody in lieu of s c a t t e r ed within $10,000 bond following his arrest and was the crypt, a a r raigned on four counts of interfering with a modified arc h e - c e m e t e r y or grave site, one count each of third - ological grid d e g r ee burg l a r y, first-degree criminal mischief and system was s i x t h - d e g r ee larc e n y. devised. A wooden frame, constructed and ele- Federal, state, and local law enforc e m e n t vated by corner posts over the crypt floor, pro- agencies are recognizing the importance of estab- Vandalized vided pertinent datum points for subsequent field lishing an investigative partnership with arc h e o l o - Gravestone for Lucy Alsop m e a s u r ements. A gasoline-powered generator and gists and anthropologists in their eff o r ts to collect Chauncey resting several large flood lights were installed for ade- physical evidence from crime scenes whenever on the Floor of the quate lighting. Once in place, standard arc h e o l o g i - human remains are involved. Archeological field Interior of cal field methods for the re c o r ding of human techniques have been designed to maximize the Chauncey Family remains and material culture enabled the con- i n f o r mation retrievable from a given site where Crypt.Photo by Middletown,CT t r olled re c o r ding of horizontal and vertical pro v e- ostensibly very little cultural material re m a i n s Police Dept. nience in order to determine the spatial exist for analysis. The application of arc h e o l o g i c a l orientation and relationship of the vandalized re s e a rch methodologies to a criminal investigation b u r i a l s . will result in a greater degree of accuracy in the Skeletal remains of four individuals ranging location of physical evidence and the best assur- in age from 2 to 68 years at death were docu- ance for the re c o v e r y of materials and re m a i n s mented in situ on the cry p t ’s floor and subse- that may otherwise be lost. Archeologists are sel- quently sorted in order to develop a sequence of dom familiar with criminal investigation pro c e - criminal activity and to re s t o r e the remains to d u r es and re q u i r e the supervision of a pro f e s s i o n a l their appropriate burial vaults upon completion of criminal investigator. Likewise, the criminal inves- our investigation. In this process, it was estab- tigator may not be aware of the sophisticated tech- lished that the cranium discovered in Cro m w e l l niques and analyses archeologists can pro v i d e . was that of Lucy Alsop Chauncey, who died in A rcheologists need to familiarize themselves with 1855 at 56 years of age. state and local legislation re g a r ding forensic appli- Based on the horizontal and vertical distrib- cations of their work as well as the appro p r i a t e ution of osteological remains, coffin parts, and state cultural re s o u rce managers with mandates to f u n e r a r y remains on the crypt floor, the Office of oversee such investigations. Cooperative part n e r- State Archaeology was able to re c o n s t ruct the ships between law enforcement agencies and p r obable sequence of events for the criminal activ- a r cheologists and anthropologists, like the suc- ities. Skeletal elements for all of the individuals cessful case of the Chauncey family crypt, will whose vaults had been violated were accounted result in the improvement of forensic sciences and for in the crypt with the one exception of Mrs. h o p e f u l l y, successful prosecutions at the commu- C h a u n c e y ’s cranium. The degree of decomposition nity and state judicial levels. of her post-cranial remains were consistent with ______that of the cranium and the mandible fit into the Dr. Nicholas F. Bellantoni serves as the Connecticut temporal-mandibular fossa. The arc h e o l o g i c a l State Archaeologist with the Connecticut State re c o v e r y of jewelry and other objects of monetary Museum of Natural History at the University of value as well as the haphazard manner in which Connecticut. His office coordinates with the Office of human and coffin remains were scattered thro u g h- the Connecticut Chief Medical Examiner in forensic out the crypt appeared to eliminate burg l a r y as a cases involving human skeletal remains. motive for the vandalism. There was no indication of any systematic search for artifacts which one David G. Cooke is an amateur archeologist who would expect if the vandals were looking for mate- resides in Rocky Hill, Connecticut. He frequently pro- rial to sell or collect. While we cannot positively vides technical assistance to the Connecticut Office of account for what else may have been removed, we the State Archaeologist. a r e absolutely confident that the cranium that was

14 CRM No 10—1996 John L. Ko n e f es and Michael K. M c G e e Old Cemeteries,A r s e n i c , and Health Safe t y

mbalming human remains for burial has taken a long road to its present state as an art that now minimizes health and enviro n m e n - Widespread use of tal concernsE of burials. Along the way, health and arsenic in embalm- safety were not always considerations. From the ing fluids began during the Civil War Civil War until about 1910, arsenic was the main period. i n g r edient in the embalming fluids used widely t h r oughout the country. Although eff e c t i v e , arsenic is toxic and persistent, and elemental Photos by John L. arsenic will never degrade into harmless by-pro d- Konefes. ucts. Pro g r ess in embalming practices during the late 1880s has left a legacy that can potentially h a r m the health of archeologists or cemetery At the end of the Civil Wa r, successful workers, and impact the environment. Aw a re n e s s embalmers re t u r ned to their hometowns and took of this potential problem is the first step in allevi- their craft with them. This expansion of arsenic- ating any real damage that might occur. based embalming gradually came to encompass all Arsenic embalming began as a sanitary prac- a r eas of the country. tice and a practical means to pre s e r ve the body F r om 1856 to 1873, six patents were issued until burial or for transport. Considering that the for fluids that contained arsenic, from as little as a l t e r native was ice, arsenic embalming seemed four ounces to as much as 12 pounds of arsenic like a significant improvement. What the embalm- per body. Individual embalmers could also cre a t e ing practitioners, or undertakers, did not consider their own formulas by going to the local pharm a c y w e re the long-term effects of placing significant to get the necessary quantities of arsenic. The amounts of arsenic in concentrated burial are a s — 1878 publication, The Undert a k e r ’s Manual, c o n- cemeteries. tained several embalming fluid formulas, the The arsenic that endures today can pose sig- majority of which were arsenic based. A popular nificant danger to forensic archeologists, cemetery f o r mula of the time contained about four ounces of workers, or individuals that may be utilizing arsenious acid (an arsenic trioxide) per gallon of potentially contaminated groundwater supplies. w a t e r, with two or more gallons of fluid re c o m - In the U.S., the widespread use of arsenic in mended for proper embalming. embalming fluids began in the Civil War period. Chemical embalming spread most rapidly in D r. Thomas Holmes, the “father of American the 1880s, when fluids were compounded and sold embalming,” was engaged by the medical depart- c o m m e rc i a l l y. Fluid compounders sent salesmen ment of the Union Army to set up battlefield on the road to demonstrate fluid use and bro a d e n embalming stations to enable the bodies of Union their customer base. The salesmen provided at dead to be re t u rned home. Numerous embalmers least ru d i m e n t a r y instruction in embalming tech- w e re trained in these new techniques, which niques and helped continue the growth of chemi- included preparation of embalming fluids. cal embalming. Although fluid composition was often a trade The demand for chemical embalming stimu- s e c r et, arsenic was the primary embalming agent lated the creation of embalming institutes or because it effectively killed or halted the micro o r - schools. Some of the earliest were the Rochester ganisms responsible for decomposition. Other (New York) School of Embalming and the embalming compositions were used less fre q u e n t l y Cincinnati School of Embalming. Corre s p o n d e n c e and contained similar toxic materials such as mer- courses overcame geographic barriers and c u r y or cre o s o t e . embalming practitioners began providing serv i c e s

CRM No 10—1996 15 in every state. For example, chemical embalming in Iowa began about 1879. An enterprising young u n d e rtaker from Iowa City, Dr. Wi l l i a m Hohenschuh, took a correspondence course fro m D r. Auguste Renouard, founder of the Rochester School of Embalming. Dr. Hohenschuh spread the technique to his fellow undertakers and by 1899 t h e r e were at least 240 re g i s t e r ed embalmers in I o w a . Burial practices during this time period also have a bearing on problems associated with the Burials in the late release of arsenic. Initially, burials were primarily 1800s are most in wood coffins that were placed directly in the likely to have g r ound. Throughout the latter 1880s, use of metal used arsenic burial containers, such as the Fisk Metallic Burial embalming practices. Case and combination metal and wood caskets, i n c reased. In either case, no burial vaults that enclosed the coffin were used. Embalming and metal containers added cost to funeral arrangements, and were generally only used by those who could aff o r d them. In many cases, burial of non-embalmed persons in wooden caskets was still the only viable option. Ye t embalming became increasingly aff o r dable and p o p u l a r. Both wooden and metal caskets will eventu- revealed that arsenic was present at a concentra- ally degrade and begin to allow contact of the tion of 28,000 parts per million, or 2.8 perc e n t . embalmed remains with the environment. Arsenic, This is firm documentation that arsenic embalmed a basic element, will not change or degrade, but remains can carry the arsenic residue for many must remain with the remains or move into the y e a r s . e n v i r onment. As the containers corrode, water Evidence of elevated levels in the enviro n - moving downward through the soils of cemeteries ment near old cemeteries is only now beginning to can dissolve arsenic from the burials and move e m e r ge. Limited sampling of old hand-pump wells arsenic into the soil or gro u n d w a t e r. This slow that still exist at many smaller cemeteries has s p r ead of arsenic from numerous sources in an old been conducted in Iowa. These wells typically c e m e t e r y can lead to serious environmental and access the shallow groundwater aquifer and if still health problems. functional, can provide an initial indication of To understand the potential impact, assume arsenic presence. One problem with these old a hypothetical cemetery in a modest sized town. It wells is that they are often located up gradient or is reasonable, for the period 1880 to 1910, to peripheral to the burial area of interest and do not assume that 2,000 people died in that time period. p r ovide the ideal groundwater sample. If half of those were embalmed with arsenic, using F o u rteen hand pump wells at a variety of six ounces of fluid per person, the cemetery con- Iowa cemeteries were sampled for arsenic. The tains 380 pounds of arsenic. If the embalmers in U.S. Geological Survey staff in Iowa City did not the area used more arsenic, such as three pounds expect detectable levels of arsenic in shallow per person, then the cemetery would contain over g r oundwater samples. Two of the samples con- one ton of arsenic. In either case, this is a signifi- tained arsenic at 30 parts per billion, above the cant amount of a potent, toxic material to find in new proposed drinking water standard for arsenic. the ground at one location. Installing groundwater monitoring wells near In the early 1900s, arsenic use was banned cemeteries can provide a better indication of the f r om embalming. The driving force for the ban was impact of arsenic. In one study at Hamilton the concern for health of embalming practitioners, College in Clinton, New York, up gradient and and interf e r ence with autopsies after embalming down gradient wells were installed outside of the had occurre d . College cemetery. The cemetery contains at least To d a y, arsenic is prevalent in or near old 68 graves from before 1910. Samples from the cemeteries. Some of the most compelling evidence wells indicate elevated levels of arsenic down gra- is the recent analysis of the remains of an dient from the cemetery. Zinc, copper, and lead embalmed Civil War soldier. The tissue sample also increased down gradient.

16 CRM No 10—1996 D i rect dermal contact with arsenic compounds may result in mild to severe irritation of the skin (dermatitis), as well as irr i - Hand pump wells tation to the mucous membranes in old cemeteries of the eyes, nose, and thro a t . are a good source D e r matitis of the face and eyelids of shallow ground- is sometimes accompanied by water samples for conjunctivitis, with re d n e s s , arsenic and other metals analysis. swelling, and pain. Due to the level of toxicity associated with arsenic, it is i m p o r tant to take pre c a u t i o n a r y m e a s u r es when working in and a r ound burial sites that may contain arsenic embalmed re m a i n s . P r otective measures include using protective work clothing and equipment, housekeeping, and hygiene practices. Individual What significance does the presence of p r oject re q u i rements may differ; Occupational arsenic have for archeologists, cemetery workers Safety and Health Administration standards, in and others that may come into contact with conta- p a r ticular 29 CFR 1910.1028, can give furt h e r minated soil or human remains at old burial sites guidance on proper pro c e d u re s . or cemeteries? Because the main routes of expo- P r otective work clothing would include cov- s u re are ingestion, inhalation and skin contact, eralls or similar full-body work clothing, gloves t h e r e can be important health and safety implica- and shoes or shoe coverlets. Face shields or tions for personnel working at sites where arsenic vented goggles should be worn when necessary to is present in sufficient concentrations. p r event eye irritation. Protective clothing and Acute arsenic poisoning by ingestion can equipment should be replaced at least weekly, and occur as the result of hand contact with dusts or p r eferably on a daily basis. Disposable clothing is objects containing arsenic compounds, and subse- p re f e r red because laundering clothing and gloves quent hand-to-mouth contact. Another common can result in additional exposure pro b l e m s . mechanism includes the dust settling on objects Disposal of arsenic contaminated materials must which later have contact with the mouth, including comply with federal, state, and local hazard o u s the tops of soda cans, cigarettes in a shirt pocket, waste regulations. or eating utensils. The smallest re c o r ded fatal dose Engineering controls, such as exhaust venti- is 130 mg, although re c o v e r y has occurred after lation, will not be available to control dust expo- much larger doses. s u r e in many applications. In that case, Most ingested arsenic is quickly absorbed re s p i r a t o r y protection should be used to contro l t h rough the stomach and intestines and enters the dust exposures within acceptable limits. The mini- blood stream. A common effect of arsenic inges- mum level of re s p i r a t o r y protection would be a tion is irritation of the digestive tract, leading to half-mask air purifying respirator equipped with pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Other eff e c t s high efficiency filters. Eff o r ts must be taken to characteristic of oral exposure include abnorm a l keep the inside of the respirator free of dust, and h e a r t function and impaired nerve function, caus- filters should be changed fre q u e n t l y, usually at ing a “pins and needles” sensation in the feet and least daily. hands. S u rfaces should be kept as free from dust as The inhalation route of exposure may be practical. Use of compressed air, sweeping or operative at dry, dusty sites, or during the han- b r ushing should be avoided, since these methods dling of objects coated with dust. Inhalation expo- will increase ambient air dust levels. Vacuuming is s u re to arsenic can produce the same types of an effective method; however, special high eff i - systemic health effects as oral exposure, although ciency equipment should be used. symptoms and effects are usually milder. The cur- Smoking, eating, or drinking should not be rent Occupational Safety and Health allowed in any work areas where arsenic may be Administration Action Level for arsenic inhalation p r esent. Hands and face should be washed prior e x p o s u r e is 0.005 mg/cubic meter. to eating, drinking, or smoking. Protective clothing must be removed and handled carefully to avoid

CRM No 10—1996 17 vide critical information needed for proper pro t e c - tion of those engaged in archeological endeavors that could expose them to arsenic. ______R e f e re n c e s Crane, O.N., M.P. Hatfield, A.B. Perrigo and H. Samson. The National Funeral Director’s Official Chemical embalm- Text Book. Chicago: Donohue & Henneberry, 1886. ing fluid suppliers Gannal, J.N. History of Embalming and of Preparations aided the rapid in Anatomy, Pathology, and Natural History. spread of arsenic Philadelphia: Judah Dobson, 1838. embalming. Halsted, M. A Legacy of Excellence (History of Des Moines Funeral Directing). Des Moines: Hamilton’s Funeral Home, 1984. Hebenstein, R.L. and W.M. Lamers. The History of American Funeral Directing. Milwaukee: The National Funeral Directors Association/Bulfin Printers, 1955 Johnson, E.C. A History of the Art and Science of Embalming. Casket and Sunnyside. 1955. Johnson, E.C., G.R. Johnson and M.J. Williams. Dr. Homes Method of Preserving Remains. The American Funeral Director. February, 1989. Patty’s Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, volume 2A. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1981. Renouard, A. The Undertaker’s Manual: A treatise of Useful and Reliable Information; Embracing Complete and Detailed Instructions for the Preservation of Bodies. Rochester, N.Y.: A.H. Nirdlinger & Co., 1878. Strub, C.G., and L.G. Frederick. The Principles and the generation of dust. A separate area for storage Practice of Embalming. Dallas: L.G. Frederick, 1965. of street clothes should be available and a shower U.S. Patent Office. U.S. Patent #15,972, 1856; Patent should be taken at the end of each work period. #30,576, 1860; Patent #38,747, 1863; Patent These general guidelines are a starting point #44,495,1864; Patent #81,755, 1868; Patent for protective measures needed to work at old #144,602, 1873. Washington, DC. cemeteries, or with materials from old cemeteries, Wilson, L.E. History of 75 years of Funeral Service. Des that may contain arsenic embalmed remains. It is Moines, Iowa: Iowa Funeral and Embalmers recommended that a certified industrial hygienist Association, 1963. be consulted before beginning a project for specific ______m e a s u re s . John L. Konefes is the Director of the Iowa Waste Without an extensive review of public Reduction Center at the University of Northern Iowa. agency or private funeral establishment re c o rd s , With 20 years of environmental experience, he has accurate determinations of the number and loca- been working on the arsenic embalming issue for the tion of arsenic-embalmed bodies present in the past five years. n a t i o n ’s graveyards is impossible. Even if re c o rd s w e r e made available, they may not contain suff i - Michael K. McGee is a Certified Industrial Hygienist cient information to verify use of arsenic and the with over 15 years of experience in the field. He is e ff o rt to obtain such information would be enor- currently Cedar Falls Division Manager for National mous. Environmental Testing, Inc. The best opportunities to ascertain the pre s - ence and impact of arsenic in old cemeteries can come through cooperative eff o r ts of forensic and The authors would like to acknowledge past con- other archeology experts with environmental sci- tributions of Melissa Johnson Williams of Chicago entists. Opportunities to collect and analyze soil to the historical re s e a r ch on arsenic embalming. and groundwater samples from excavations should be utilized. Not only will this provide inform a t i o n on the dangers to the environment, it will also pro-

18 CRM No 10—1996 Paul S. S l e d z i k Personal Identification in Mass Disasters, p u b l i s h e d in 1970, was the first publication combining physical anthropology and mass disaster response. Since then, forensic anthropologists have gained pro m i - Federal Resources in nence in the medico-legal community not only in mass disaster response, but in other types of investigations. Mass Disaster Response Two federal organizations recognize the i m p o rtance of forensic anthropology to disaster response. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology mericans have endured a torrent of and the Disaster Mort u a ry Teams of the Public natural and man-made disasters in Health Service provide aid to local communities in recent years—floods, hurr i c a n e s , mass fatality incidents. Forensic anthropologists are bombings, and aircraft accidents. i m p o r tant members of the emergency re s p o n s e Amid Athese difficult events, disaster workers teams for these agencies. respond to re t u r n normalcy to the community, to The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, a recover and identify the dead, to help obtain and D e p a r tment of Defense agency, is known intern a - p r ovide information, and to help families grieve. tionally for its expertise in consultative pathology A disaster becomes a “mass fatality incident” and medical re s e a rch. Additionally, it has a long when the local re s o u rces of the medical examiner h i s t o r y of documenting the remains of soldiers or coroner cannot manage the fatalities. The med- killed in battle. The Institute was founded as the ical examiner or coro n e r, who has the legal re s p o n - A r my Medical Museum in 1862 for advancing the sibility to document and identify the dead, can state of medical care for Civil War soldiers. The request the assistance of experts in pathology, A r med Forces Institute of Pathology’s role in mili- a n t h ro p o l o g y, dentistry, mort u a ry affairs, and t a r y mass disaster victim identification is largely an s e a r ch and re c o v e r y. Forensic anthropologists have o u t g r owth of military aircraft accident investiga- played an increasingly important role in re c e n t tions after World War II. American disasters because of their arc h e o l o g i c a l Within the Institute, forensic anthro p o l o g i s t s and physical anthropological skills. specializing in mass disaster victim identification A n t h r opologists are relatively recent additions a r e employed in the Office of the Armed Forc e s to disaster response teams. T. Dale Stewart ’s Medical Examiner and the National Museum of Health and Medicine. The Office of the Armed Forces Medical Anthropological Skills in Mass Disasters Examiner (OAFME) is responsible for investigating all military fatalities as well as civilian deaths S k i l l Examples under federal jurisdiction. When called for emer- Devise grid systems for search and recovery USAir 427 gency assistance, OAFME sends a team comprised Oklahoma City bombing of pathologists, dentists, anthropologists, and fore n- Devise search criteria based on size and Hardin cemetery flood sic scientists. OAFME has a close relationship with scope of disaster Oklahoma City bombing the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s disaster team, the National Tr a n s p o r tation Safety Board, and Identifying and reassociating fragmentary USAir 427 other federal investigative agencies. Wi t h i n remains American Eagle 4184 OAFME, the Armed Forces DNA Identification Valujet 592 L a b o r a t o r y is responsible for the DNA identifica- TWA 800 tions of military fatalities, including those from the Forensic anthropological analyses (age, sex, All cases Vietnam and Korean Wars. The staff of the Arm e d stature, etc) F o r ces DNA Identification Laboratory have also been involved in the identification of victims fro m Radiographic comparisons of skeletal struc- Oklahoma City bombing several recent mass disasters. tures The National Museum of Health and Positive identification based on biological All cases Medicine also has forensic anthropologists on staff criteria to support OAFME needs and to conduct re s e a rc h and teach in the field. The museum’s collections of Reconstructing injury and fragmentation Operation Desert Storm human skeletal specimens and archival materials patterns USAir 427 Oklahoma City bombing a r e similarly available for re s e a r ch in fore n s i c a n t h ro p o l o g y. In addition, both OAFME and the Determine reburial criteria based on Hardin Cemetery National Museum of Health and Medicine off e r remains recovered courses in forensic pathology, forensic dentistry,

CRM No 10—1996 19 D M O RT Contact Info r m a t i o n Disaster Mort u a r y Teams, or DMORT S . Each team consists of forensic scientists Main Office: 1-800-USA-NDMS, extension 205 ( a n t h r opologists, dentists, and pathologists), funeral directors, embalmers, med- Regional Contact Information ical re c o rds technicians, and specialists in Region 1: CT/MA/ME/NH/RI/VT Dwight Camp 802-457-1222 mass fatality incident management. When Region 2: NJ/NY/PR/USVI John Oldfield 212-362-6160 activated for a mass fatality incident, the National Disaster Medical System pays all Region 3: DC/DE/MD/PA/VA/WV/VA Howard McComas 410-676-4600 associated expenses for DMORT team Region 4: AL/FL/KY/GA/MS/NC/SC/TN Fred Berry, Jr. 423-577-6666 members. DMORT teams can only be acti- Region 5: IL/IN/MI/MN/OH/WI Gary Strand 414-639-8000 vated for a pre s i d e n t i a l l y - d e c l a red disaster. Region 6: AR/LA/NM/OK/TX Jack King 409-295-6363 Qualified specialists who are interested in p r ofessional participation with a team Region 7: IA/KS/MO/NE Dean Snow 816-776-2255 should contact the appropriate team leader Region 8: CO/MT/ND/SD/UT/WY Don Heer 970-842-2821 in their re g i o n . Region 9: AZ/CA/HI/NV Robert Hennis 602-464-8728 D M O RT teams have been activated Region 10: AK/ID/OR/WA Charles Parks 503-397-1154 t h ree times since formed in 1992. In July 1993, nearly 700 graves from the town f o r ensic anthro p o l o g y, and DNA identification meth- c e m e t e r y in Hardin, Missouri, were eroded by flood ods. waters. The DMORT team worked to locate, The Office of the Armed Forces Medical re c o v e r, and identify the remains, which dated fro m Examiner and the National Museum of Health and the US Civil War to the time of flood. In 1994, flood Medicine have supported local re s o u r ces in several waters inundated two cemeteries in Albany, recent mass disasters, including USAir 427, G e o r gia, forcing over 400 caskets into the central American Eagle 4184, the Oklahoma City bombing, p a rt of the city. Using their experience from the and TWA 800. Under a mandate to investigate all H a r din flood, DMORT teams worked with the federal and military crashes and deaths, OAFME G e o r gia Bureau of Investigation to recover and s t a f f have identified remains from the crash of identify the remains. Following the Oklahoma City D e p a r tment of Agriculture Secre t a r y Ron Bro w n ’s bombing in 1995, DMORT personnel pro v i d e d plane in Bosnia in 1996 and the shootdown of two a n t h ropologists, funeral directors, and medicolegal US Army Blackhawk helicopters over Iraq in 1994. investigators to support the Office of the Medical National Museum of Health and Medicine staff also E x a m i n e r. p r ovided technical guidance for cemetery floods in The National Foundation for Mort u a r y Care the towns of Hardin, Missouri (1993) and Albany, was founded in 1991 as a nonprofit org a n i z a t i o n G e o r gia (1994). with several objectives: to assist civil authorities OAFME and NMHM staff can respond to non- with incident command and mort u a r y services dur- m i l i t a r y mass fatality incidents if a request is made ing a mass fatality incident; to re c ruit and train t h r ough the Director of the Armed Forces Institute of D M O RT team members; to coordinate disaster P a t h o l o g y. For assistance, contact Dr. Wi l l i a m training and educational programs; to publish Rodriguez, Chief of Special Operations, Office of the Disaster Management News; and to pro v i d e A rmed Forces Medical Examiner, at 301-319-0000, $1,000,000 in liability insurance protection for or Paul Sledzik, Curator, NMHM/AFIP, at 202-782- D M O RT staff active during a mass fatality incident. 2204, or . The National Foundation for Mort u a r y Care Within the U.S. govern m e n t ’s Federal Response also operates a mobile morgue containing equip- Plan, E m e r gency Support Function No. 8 tasks the ment and supplies used in identification and Public Health Service to staff an Office of Emerg e n c y m o r gue operations. The morgue supported activities P re p a redness. This office provides the federal gov- at the crashes of USAir 427 and American Eagle e r nment with coordinated assistance to supplement 4184. For more information, contact National state and local re s o u r ces in response to mass disas- Foundation for Mort u a ry Care, 1900 Whittles Wo o d ters. Implementation of Emergency Support Function Road, Wi l l i a m s b u r g, VA 23185-7697 (phone/fax: No. 8 provides medical assistance (patient evacua- 8 0 4 - 2 5 8 - 4 5 0 4 ) . tion, health surveillance, personnel, supplies, and ______equipment) and victim identification and mort u a r y Paul Sledzik is Curator of the Anatomical and s e r vices. Pathological Collections at the National Museum of The Office of Emergency Pre p a redness estab- Health and Medicine in Washington, DC. His special- lished the National Disaster Medical System to fur- ties include the application of forensic anthropology to ther the ESF No. 8 function. A critical component of mass fatality incidents, paleopathology, and historic the National Disaster Medical System is the period skeletal biology.

20 CRM No 10—1996 Douglas W. O w s l e y Fo rensic A n t h ro p o l ogy and B i o a rc h e o l ogy at the Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n

he Smithsonian’s Division of Identification of the cremated remains of two Physical Anthropology has a long American journalists who disappeared in h i s t o r y of providing assistance to Guatemala in 1985 depended on this type of com- law enforcement agencies by comparative information (Owsley 1993). A field searc h pletingT examinations of human remains and pro- re c o v e r ed the incomplete and fragmented re m a i n s viding expert witness testimony. Additional f rom the location where they had been burned and contributions include professional advice and then scattered. Three small, completely calcined, training re g a rding technical pro c e d u r es involved in fragments of the frontal bone of one person could the discovery, re c o v e r y, and analysis of human be pieced together, which collectively re p re s e n t e d skeletons; Smithsonian staff also conduct fore n s i c - a portion of the forehead the size of a quart e r. related re s e a rc h . This segment contained a well-defined sulcus in Smithsonian forensic cases generally involve the frontal crest that overlapped a centrally placed skeletonized or poorly pre s e r ved bodies that need lobe of the right frontal sinus, a structural feature identification and examination for trauma or other that was also visible in an antemortem radiograph pathology that might explain the death of the indi- taken four years before the disappearance when vidual. This work involves not only laboratory one of the journalists was involved in an automo- evaluation of the remains, but also fre q u e n t l y bile accident. To rule out the possibility of a coin- includes field re s e a r ch and excavation assistance. cidental match, 350 crania of African and This expertise is currently provided by two fore n - E u r opean American males and females and a larg e sic anthropologists, Douglas Ubelaker and series of radiographs were examined to determ i n e Douglas Owsley, who are employed as re s e a rc h p a t t e r ns of variability with respect to intern a l scientists and curators of the human skeletal col- f r ontal crest and sinus morphology. The compara- lections at the National Museum of Natural tive re s e a r ch demonstrated the uniqueness of the H i s t o r y. In this capacity, their re s e a r ch deals with radiographic pattern observed in this small piece b i o a rc h e o l o g y, particularly as it relates to pre h i s - of frontal bone. Even in instances of extreme frag- toric and early historic populations; topics dealing mentation and burning of bone, positive identifica- with demography, pathology, morphometric variation can be achieved, which in this instance was tion, and adaptation; as well as involvement with validated by comparative collections that pro v i d e d legal investigations as forensic scientists. population data (as well as a better understanding A f filiation with the Smithsonian and its of cranial anatomy). extensive collections often proves to be of assis- In another case, Ubelaker (1990) was asked tance in the resolution of specific human identifi- to examine the skeleton of a homicide victim cation cases. The museum’s anatomical collections found in a shallow grave on the Pine Ridge Indian a r e frequently consulted for comparative re f e re n c e R e s e r vation in South Dakota. His evaluation iden- when specific questions arise during examinations tified the male as Native American, and the osteo- of individual cases. Reference collections are logical profile and the estimated time since death essential for understanding individual and popula- matched a missing member of the Sioux tribe. As tion variation in skeletal and dental morphology. dental re c o r ds were not available, confirm a t i o n The importance of this re s o u r ce is often re a l i z e d depended on thoracic radiographs obtained fro m when attempting to establish personal identifica- the local Public Health Service hospital. These tion of remains through comparison of antemort e m a n t e m o r tem films revealed an unusual notch in and postmortem radiographs. The significance of the axillary border of the right scapula, a trait that an unusual feature for establishing an identifica- was also evident in the skeleton. To determine the tion can be gauged by systematically surv e y i n g uniqueness of this feature as a basis for establish- a p p ropriate re f e rence collections to determine its ing personal identification re q u i r ed checking o c c u r rence by age, sex, and population. scapulae in the Smithsonian’s collections including

CRM No 10—1996 21 Native Americans fro m strate an obvious nutritional effect; however, the the Nort h e rn Plains. v e r tical orientation of the tree trunk was appar- No other examples ently altered at the time of burial. Unlike the cir- w e r e found during this cular growth rings of the control trees, the s u rv e y, which re i n - c r oss-section of the test tree showed eccentric f o r ced the uniqueness rings and the formation of compression wood. This of this anomaly as atypical feature was used to estimate the number basis for identification. of years since death for the murder victim, With the re t u r n of because it clearly indicated a gro w t h - re l a t e d Native American response to a disturbance of the tre e ’s norm a l human remains to developmental pattern . a p p r opriate tribal gov- Z o o a r cheologists have helped with many e r nments as a result of cases requiring the identification of nonhuman the Native American bones. For instance, the search of Jeff r ey Dahmer’s Graves Protection and boyhood home in Bath Township, Ohio, re c o v e re d Repatriation Act (NAG- the fragmentary skeleton of his first victim along PRA), future identifica- with the bones of several animals (Owsley, et al., tions based on 1993). The identifiable nonhuman bones and comparative evidence bone fragments found at this semirural site re p r e- will prove more diff i c u l t sented a variety of species: cow, sheep, pig, dog, to the disadvantage of cat, rabbit, woodchuck, opossum, and other ani- law enforcement agen- mals and birds. Although many of the bone frag- cies and the families of ments re p resented typical cuts of meat found at a missing persons. market, the skeletons of at least three dogs were The collections of re p resented. The most unusual piece was the the Department of femur of a large dog with a metal spike driven into Ve rtebrate Zoology the shaft. There was no evidence of healing, indi- have also pro v e n cating that the modification was made at about the invaluable to fore n s i c time of the dog’s death or soon there a f t e r. Abnormal growth investigations. Each year, incomplete or fragmen- In 1996, a case re q u i red help from the rings (top photo) t a r y bones that have been burned, sawed, or scav- Division of Sedimentology to resolve questions in an eastern red enged by animals are submitted for identification about provenance. Specifically, the investigating cedar indicating as potentially human. Two calvaria (i.e., the supe- agency requested assistance in determining the that the tree was rior portions of the cranial vault) with human pro- original location from which the human re m a i n s pushed over when a body was buried p o r tions but atypical morphology were identified actually came. Soil from the suspected burial site against the trunk. as hydrocephalic calves through comparison with was compared to soil extracted from the medullary Smithsonian documented museum specimens (Ubelaker, cavity of one of the bones to determine whether Institution photos, B e r ryman, Sutton, and Ray 1991). the bones came from the location where they were 1995. Besides immediate access to collections, re p o r ted to have been found. f o r ensic anthropologists at the Smithsonian have Multiple analytical pro c e d u r es were used, the benefit of ready consultation with other including visual examination for color and classifi- museum specialists. Scientists re p r esenting a vari- cation using Munsell soil color charts, texture ety of specialties including botany, entomology, analysis using a laser particle size analyzer, and z o o a rc h e o l o g y, and geology have advised on spe- X-ray diffraction to determine the mineral compo- cific cases. Determining time since death, for sition of the two samples. The samples matched in instance, has been aided by evaluations of insects color and had identical mineralogical diff r a c t i o n found with the remains, as well as by the size and p a t t e rns indicating that the same minerals were complexity of plant roots growing in and aro u n d p r esent in the same relative pro p o rtions. The dis- the bones. When a partially buried skeleton of a tributions of particle size diameters also agre e d , stabbing victim was found against the trunk of a the only diff e r ence being the inclusion of larg e r small cedar, the tre e ’s growth rings were analyzed sized particles in the soil sample. Infill material to see if there was a noticeable “fertilization eff e c t ” removed from the medullary cavity consisted of a due to the availability of nutrients from the decay- finer filtrate that had migrated into the bone, a ing body. Recovery of skeletal remains and cloth- s o r ting process that had selectively limited part i c l e ing indicated that the body had been placed there size. Without question, the samples originated several years ago. Cross-sections of two trees of f r om the same soil series as the location where the same species, but from a short distance away, they were said to have been discovere d . w e re used as controls. Analysis did not demon-

22 CRM No 10—1996 i n c u r red at the time of death can be gained only through working Dog femur with an with samples that show changes embedded metal or damage as a result of burial or spike recovered re c o v e r y pro c e s s e s . from forensic investigations at S m i t h s o n i a n ’s Bioarch e o l og i c a l Jeffrey Dahmer’s D a t a b a s e boyhood home in B i o a rcheology at the Bath Township, Smithsonian is directed toward Ohio.Photo by the analysis of human skeletons Robert Mann. using a comprehensive osteological database approach. The application of modern biological and a n t h ropological techniques to samples from archeological con- texts provides data effective for studying biocultural adaptations, Ties to Bioarch e o l og y t r ends in demography, trends in health and the F re q u e n t l y, remains from archeological con- h i s t o r y of disease, and cultural and historical re l a- texts become the subject of legal investigations. tionships. Information about archeological pro v e- Several cases each year prove to be historic buri- nance and dating, bone inventories for each als that are exposed by construction activities, skeleton, demographics (including determ i n a t i o n s vandalism, or land subsidence and ero s i o n . of age, sex, and race), skeletal and dental pathol- Identification of these remains depends on an o g y, nutrition, cranial and postcranial measure- evaluation of historical re c o r ds, associated materi- ments, dental and skeletal growth and als and provenance, and osteological analysis. development, and taphonomic observations are Cases that involve accidental disturbance or expo- incorporated into the Smithsonian’s computerized s u re by natural processes generally re q u i r e no fur- databases as a basis for comparative re s e a rc h ther police investigation, although eff o r ts to using a temporal and geographical framework. establish personal identification can assist legal Historic populations are an important focus p rocesses necessary for determining the final dis- of this re s e a r ch. Smithsonian re s e a rchers are cur- position of the remains. Intentionally disturbed rently involved in the analysis of arc h e o l o g i c a l l y - remains re q u i r e further investigative action by law re c o v e red remains from important colonial sites e n f o r cement agencies, as unauthorized distur- such as Jamestown, Vi r ginia and St. Mary ’s City, bances or disinterments are violations of sepul- the first colonial settlement in Mary l a n d . c h e r. In some cases, we have conducted field Additional re s e a rch is focused on 18th- and 19th- investigations of broached graves to obtain evi- c e n t u r y groups, including more than 300 skeletons dence and ascertain whether human remains were of inmates of the former Richmond (Vi rg i n i a ) removed. Experience in bioarcheology is invalu- P e n i t e n t i a r y. A rather unusual sample consists of able in being able to recognize and evaluate these a large series of commingled bones that were situations. Bioarcheology and forensic anthro p o l - found in a 19th-century well on the grounds of the ogy are closely linked disciplines with shared tech- Medical College of Vi r ginia. The skeletal re m a i n s niques, methodology, and occasionally similar appear to re p r esent bodies that were disinterre d objectives. Most forensic anthropologists have soon after death for use in medical school instru c - educational backgrounds that include arc h e o l o g i- tion at a time when it was illegal to use human cal field experience; indeed, expertise with arc h e o - remains to teach anatomy. The well simply pro- logical survey methods, field mapping, and the vided a convenient and secure place of disposal documentation of ancient burials develops one’s after dissection and student practice with surg i c a l technical capabilities and an appreciation for the p ro c e d u res such as amputation. i m p o r tance of context, provenance, and pro p e r Smithsonian investigations have also re c o r dation. These basics directly apply to medico- involved remains re c o v e r ed from battlefields and legal investigations. In the laboratory, the analysis m i l i t a r y cemeteries. Osteological analysis can help of archeological samples provides greater under- to establish the identities of individual soldiers as standing of intra- and inter- g roup variability and well as obtain information about overall health an appreciation of taphonomic variables that can and nutritional status and causes of death. Such e f fect the pre s e r vation of skeletal remains. The analysis can also yield information about the med- ability to accurately distinguish postmortem frac- ical treatment, primarily surgical intervention, pro- t u r es that occurred long after death from those vided to soldiers that subsequently died. Military

CRM No 10—1996 23 burials re c o v e r ed from several Civil War battle- that the land had been the scene of Civil War bat- fields including Antietam, Gettysburg, the siege of tles and that the locale probably contained mili- P o r t Hudson, Brandy Station, and Glorieta Pass t a r y interments, requested that a survey be have been examined. A skeletal series from a bat- conducted of the approximately two acres still tlefield, which is somewhat rare in bioarc h e o l o g i - owned by the descendent congregation of St. cal re s e a r ch, presents an opportunity to study the James Church. Physical evidence supporting the e f fects of field conditions and physical stress in a historic accounts was viewed as essential data for special subset of the general population in which nominating the battlefield site to the National physical characteristics are relatively consistent Register of Historic Places. It was at this point that and controlled as a result of military induction cri- b i o a r cheologists from the Smithsonian Institution teria. The objectives of these investigations are to w e re asked to contribute to the history and arc h e - re c o r d data on age, sex, race, and other physical ology of Brandy Station. characteristics; antemortem bone and dental After surveying the environs of St. James pathology; and perimortem trauma and possible C h u r ch, subsurface probing identified nearly 50 unmarked burials of which six w e re selected for further examination. The coffins were described and measured, and in o r der to hopefully identify these individuals, were opened to Archeological inves- expose the skeletal remains and tigation (work-in- associated artifacts. The burial progress) of a r tifacts were described and Jamestown’s first colonists at St. inventoried and the skeletal James Fort,Virginia. remains were examined osteolog- Photo by Parvene i c a l l y. Of the six burials, five Hamzavi. w e r e civilian and one was mili- t a r y. The five civilians were buried at a standard depth in wood coffins with identifiable h a rd w a r e. In contrast, Burial Number 21 was laid to rest in a cause of death. Through comparison of such data shallow grave surrounded by a frame made of with military re c o r ds and descriptive inform a t i o n reused yellow pine planks. This improvised coff i n f r om diaries and other archival sources, it is some- lacked both a top and bottom, as well as side han- times possible to identify specific individuals. Of dles. The skeletal remains were those of an adult 31 Confederate soldiers found in a mass grave and white male judged to be about 30-35 years. Coat one adjacent burial site on the 1862 Battlefield of fragments and buttons, a kaolin pipe, and re m - Glorieta Pass, some 20 miles east of Sante Fe, nants of his boots were analyzed. The burial con- t h r ee positive identifications were achieved and text closely matched the mournful scene described seven more were probable (Owsley 1994). by William Miller Owen (1885:106), historian of F u rt h e r, where there are disputes about land the Washington Battalion, when he observed that and its possible development, bioarc h e o l o g i c a l “At night a burial detail perf o r med the sad rites to re s e a rch can help establish the historical signifi- b u r y our dead comrades by the flickering light of a cance of the pro p e rt y, as was demonstrated at blazing fire of logs and rails, having made ru d e Brandy Station, Vi r ginia (Owsley, et al., 1 9 9 2 ) . c o f fins of the pews of St. James Church which, This area of Culpeper County was the site of two meaning no sacrilege, were appropriated for that m i l i t a r y engagements: the art i l l e r y duel of the p u r p o s e . ” Battle of the Rappahannock on August 23, 1862, Comparison of the osteological data fro m and the cavalry battle of June 9, 1863. During the Burial Number 21 with Confederate Army re c o rd s earlier battle, the Washington Art i l l e ry, a crack p rovided statistics that helped narrow the identity Confederate unit, was positioned on the Culpeper of the soldier to two possible candidates of similar side of the Rappahannock River and in a cro s s f i r e age. Both were Irish born with former occupations lost eight soldiers. Reports following the incident as laborers before the war. One of the major stated that the dead were buried at nearby St. accomplishments of this investigation was to James Church. A real estate developer had pur- demonstrate that, both archeologically and histori- chased the land that surrounds the ruins of St. c a l l y, the site of St. James Church meets the crite- James Church. Civic and church groups, aware ria for listing on the National Register of Historic

24 CRM No 10—1996 Places. Excavation of the Brandy Station graves Owsley, D. W., R. W. Mann, R. E. Chapman, E. Moore also yielded data on late 19th-century burial prac- and W. A. Cox tices that, with the results of other bioarc h e o l o g i - 1993 Positive identification in a case of intentional cal studies, can enhance understanding of extreme fragmentation. Journal of Forensic Sciences American social history of the past century. 38(4): 985–996. ______Ubelaker, D. H. R e f e re n c e s 1989 Positive identification of American Indian Owen, W. M. skeletal remains from radiograph comparison. 1885 In Camp and Battle with the Washington Journal of Forensic Sciences 35(2): 466–472. Artillery. Ticknor and Co., Boston. Ubelaker, D. H., H. E. Berryman, T. P. Sutton, and C. Owsley, D. W. E. Ray 1993 Identification of the fragmentary, burned 1991 Differentiation of hydrocephalic calf and human remains of two U.S. journalists seven years after clavaria. Journal of Forensic Sciences 36(3): their disappearance in Guatemala. Journal of 801–812. Forensic Sciences 38(6): 1372-1382. ______1994 Bioarchaeology on a Battlefield: the Abortive Dr. Douglas W. Owsley is Forensic Anthropologist Confederate Campaign in New Mexico. Museum of and Curator, National Museum of Natural History, New Mexico Office of Archaeological Studies, Smithsonian Institution. Archaeology Notes 142, Sante Fe, New Mexico. Owsley, D. W., J. K. Krakker, M. Jacobs, R. W. Mann and C. B. Hall 1992 The History and Archaeology of St. James Episcopal Church, Brandy Station, Virginia (Site No. 44CU90). Bookcrafters, Fredericksburg, Virginia, pp. 1–83.

Douglas H. U b e l a ke r Fo rensic A n t h ro p o l ogy and the FBI

he inclusion of forensic anthro p o l - In 1939, the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin ogy in criminal investigations published Wilton Kro g m a n ’s article on human involving the Federal Bureau of identification, a publication that raised aware n e s s Cadaver dog Investigation can be traced back to in the law enforcement community of the potential trained to detect the earlyT development of American physical contribution of forensic anthropology to medico- decomposing legal investigation. human remains. a n t h ro p o l o g y. Czech-born Ales Hrdlicka (1869- Photo by the 1943) is widely recognized as the founder of The relationship between the FBI and the author. American physical anthro p o l o g y. Hrdlicka spent Smithsonian Institution with re g a r d to fore n s i c most of his career at the Smithsonian Institution, a n t h ropology solidified when Hrd l i c k a ’s student, located near the FBI headquarters in and his Smithsonian replacement, T.D. Stewart , Washington, DC. Although Hrdlicka is not known began consulting for the FBI in 1942. Stewart not for his work on the forensic applications of physi- only analyzed skeletons for the FBI and others for cal anthro p o l o g y, he gradually assembled the the next 20 years, but added to the national col- comparative collections and established the lections and, even more import a n t l y, published methodology that made this endeavor possible regularly on forensic anthropology topics (Stewart ( S t e w a r t 1982). Smithsonian re c o r ds show that 1979). During this period, the involvement of H r dlicka had some contact with FBI off i c i a l s , physical anthropologists in forensic science gre w advising them on cases within his expert i s e . s t e a d i l y.

CRM No 10—1996 25 Places. Excavation of the Brandy Station graves Owsley, D. W., R. W. Mann, R. E. Chapman, E. Moore also yielded data on late 19th-century burial prac- and W. A. Cox tices that, with the results of other bioarc h e o l o g i - 1993 Positive identification in a case of intentional cal studies, can enhance understanding of extreme fragmentation. Journal of Forensic Sciences American social history of the past century. 38(4): 985–996. ______Ubelaker, D. H. R e f e re n c e s 1989 Positive identification of American Indian Owen, W. M. skeletal remains from radiograph comparison. 1885 In Camp and Battle with the Washington Journal of Forensic Sciences 35(2): 466–472. Artillery. Ticknor and Co., Boston. Ubelaker, D. H., H. E. Berryman, T. P. Sutton, and C. Owsley, D. W. E. Ray 1993 Identification of the fragmentary, burned 1991 Differentiation of hydrocephalic calf and human remains of two U.S. journalists seven years after clavaria. Journal of Forensic Sciences 36(3): their disappearance in Guatemala. Journal of 801–812. Forensic Sciences 38(6): 1372-1382. ______1994 Bioarchaeology on a Battlefield: the Abortive Dr. Douglas W. Owsley is Forensic Anthropologist Confederate Campaign in New Mexico. Museum of and Curator, National Museum of Natural History, New Mexico Office of Archaeological Studies, Smithsonian Institution. Archaeology Notes 142, Sante Fe, New Mexico. Owsley, D. W., J. K. Krakker, M. Jacobs, R. W. Mann and C. B. Hall 1992 The History and Archaeology of St. James Episcopal Church, Brandy Station, Virginia (Site No. 44CU90). Bookcrafters, Fredericksburg, Virginia, pp. 1–83.

Douglas H. U b e l a ke r Fo rensic A n t h ro p o l ogy and the FBI

CRM No 10—1996 25 In 1962, J. Lawrence Angel (1915–1986) woman lunged at him, he stabbed her once in the joined the Smithsonian staff and assumed re s p o n - chest and she died. Suspecting that no one would sibility for consultation with the FBI (Ubelaker believe that his act had been in self-defense 1990). Angel continued assisting the FBI until because of his previous re c o r d of assault, he took 1977 when he decided to take a sabbatical and I the body to an abandoned farm y a r d and hid the took over the work. During this period, he remains in some brush. According to his story, two re p o rted on approximately 368 forensic cases, days later he re t u r ned and buried the remains in a many for the FBI. The latter half of Angel’s 15 shallow grave that he dug with a shovel that he years of FBI service also witnessed import a n t found there . o rganizational advancements in the field of fore n - His casual confession made its way to the sic anthro p o l o g y. Key developments include the prison warden who notified the police. The inmate f o r mation of the Physical Anthropology section of was able to take the police to the general are a the American Academy of Forensic Sciences in w h e re the burial had supposedly taken place, but 1972 and the certification program of the he could not remember the exact site. The police American Board of Forensic Anthropology in 1978. notified the local medical examiner and together Angel also initiated a training program in fore n s i c they decided to ask the FBI and the Smithsonian a n t h r opology at the Smithsonian that pro v i d e d Institution for assistance. Topographic analysis educational exposure for forensic pathologists and revealed four locations of possible burial within others with re g a r d to his analytical methodologies. the general area: two slight depressions in the F r om 1977 until the present, I have contin- g r ound surface, an area of unusual plant gro w t h , ued the Smithsonian tradition of assisting the FBI and a slight mound of earth. The FBI conducted a with those cases relating to forensic anthro p o l o g y. detailed analysis of the area using a combination I have re p o r ted on approximately 595 cases, most of metal detectors, ground penetrating radar, and of them submitted through the FBI laboratory. p r oton magnetometers. The remote sensing deter- Together with Smithsonian colleague Douglas mined that the two slight depressions appeared to O w s l e y, we provide anthropological input into re p r esent old collapsed drainfields. The slight medico-legal problems relating to our expert i s e . mound of earth showed evidence of subsurf a c e Smithsonian training is available through individ- disturbance, as did the area of unusual plant ual internships, lecture programs, and an annual g r owth. course that, in recent years, we alternate hosting A team of cadaver dogs, specifically trained at the Smithsonian and in Europe. Additional lec- to smell human remains, were brought on site. The t u r es on forensic anthropology are sometimes dogs delivered no strong signals, but their handler available at the FBI’s training center in Quantico, thought they gave some weak signs of intere s t Vi rg i n i a . near the mound and the area of plant growth. When FBI agents or other law enforc e m e n t A decision was made to archeologically test o f ficials bring their boxes of osteological re m a i n s the two areas of greatest interest, the mound of to us at the Smithsonian, they recognize that we e a r th and the area of plant growth. The area was have the expertise and the necessary comparative mapped and a standard grid was laid out over the collections to help resolve identification pro b l e m s . a r ea of plant growth. The excavation team care- The Smithsonian’s process begins with documen- fully removed the soil with trowels and brushes, a tation of the chain of evidence and then may pro- layer at a time. Eventually they discovered that the ceed to determining if the remains are human, age shape of the original pit and its contents did not at death, sex, living stature, time since death, what re p resent a burial, but rather the remnants of a happened to the remains after death but before f o r mer outhouse. d i s c o v e ry (taphonomic change), any observ a t i o n s The excavation process was repeated in the that might contribute to identification and finally, a r ea of the earthen mound. Excavation re v e a l e d an assessment of evidence for foul play. At times, soil patterns suggesting an oval-shaped pit had the Smithsonian’s forensic anthropologists also been dug measuring about six feet in length. In utilize their archeological skills to assist law the bottom of the pit, the archeologists found an e n f o r cement in the on-site re c o v e r y of evidence. a r ticulated skeleton. To best illustrate how forensic anthro p o l o g y After thorough documentation of the pit and can contribute to the investigative process, the fol- its contents, the evidence was removed and lowing fictitious forensic case is presented. In a p r ocessed. Small remnants of clothing were re c o g- state prison, an inmate tells another inmate that nized and studied by the appropriate specialist. 10 years earlier, he had left a bar with a young The remains themselves were sent to FBI head- woman. During an ensuing argument, the woman q u a r ters in Washington, DC. where personnel in pulled a knife on him. The inmate re p o r ted that, the Hairs and Fibers Unit carefully screened them in defense, he pulled his own knife. When the for trace evidence. Finally, the osteological

26 CRM No 10—1996 remains were boxed up and a FBI agent carr i e d person was not re p r esented by the re c o v e re d them across Pennsylvania and Constitution re m a i n s . Avenues to the Smithsonian’s National Museum of To assist the investigation, Smithsonian Natural History. In the Anthropology Depart m e n t , a n t h ropologists collaborated with FBI artists to they were logged in. Analysis began with a care f u l p r oduce a facial re p r oduction (Ubelaker and i n v e n t o r y. A nearly complete human skeleton was O’Donnell 1992). Eraser-type markers were placed p r esent along with several animal bones. The on the skull to indicate the depth of the soft tissue. bones were well-pre s e r ved, although some showed Using a special computer at the FBI, the skull evidence of carn i v o r e chewing. Appare n t l y, dogs image was digitized and gradually the soft part s had discovered the body during the two days w e r e re c r eated until the anthropologists and art i s t s between death and burial. a g r eed that a reasonable likeness had been The size of the bones and the state of dental achieved. The facial image was printed out and f o r mation and eruption indicated that the person sent to media in the area. Two days later, a re p resented was not a juvenile. Observable epi- woman called police indicating that she had seen physes on the long bones were united, but the epi- the image on television and it looked a lot like her physis on the iliac crest of the pelvis showed cousin whom she had not seen in 10 years. The evidence of recent union. This and other indica- woman would have been 23 years old, about five tors suggested the individual was likely between feet six inches tall, and of European ancestry. The 20 and 25 years old at the time of death (Ubelaker woman added that her cousin had been in a terr i - 1989). Female sex was suggested by the appear- ble car accident about 13 years ago and had bro- ance of the pelvis, skull, and other bones. ken bones in her face and chest. Various features of the face indicated a likely U n f o rt u n a t e l y, police were unable to locate E u ropean ancestry (socially classified as “White”). the woman’s medical or dental re c o rds but they Such ancestry was also indicated by a mathemati- did find several photographs taken of her short l y cal computation utilizing measurements of the b e f o r e she disappeared. Using much of the same skull. The pro c e d u r es for this calculation had been FBI equipment utilized in the facial re p ro d u c t i o n developed through an analysis of measure m e n t s p ro c e d u r e, Smithsonian anthropologists and FBI re c o rded from identified forensic cases, which are a r tists compared the image of the re c o v e r ed skull s t o r ed in a computerized databank (Jantz and with the photographic evidence (Ubelaker, et al., M o o re Jansen 1988). 1992). Both images were properly sized and ori- M e a s u r ements of the re c o v e r ed long bones ented and then digitized. When the two superim- suggested a living stature of about 5'-6", using for- posed images appeared simultaneously on the mulae developed for White females. computer monitor, each anatomical detail on the The remains were completely skeletonized photograph aligned and matched the corre s p o n d - although well-pre s e r ved and were otherwise con- ing landmark on the skull. The match was impre s - sistent with a time since death of about 10 years. sive. The Smithsonian’s anthropologist concluded The teeth displayed numerous fillings. In that it was highly probable that the photograph addition, there was evidence of antemortem bone and the skull originated from the same individual, f r a c t u r es in several ribs and the bones of the face. although the computerized comparison did not These fractures were completely healed and allow a positive identification to be made. showed evidence of advanced bone response, sug- Medical and dental re c o r ds of the missing gesting they had occurred at least two years before woman could not be found. However, the family d e a t h . re m e m b e r ed that she had kept her baby teeth Evidence for perimortem (at or about the when they had fallen out. DNA comparative analy- time of death) trauma consisted of incisions in sis of those baby teeth and the bone samples con- four of the upper ribs on the anterior right side. f i r med that the re c o v e r ed remains were those of The alterations clearly re p r esented sharp forc e the missing person. trauma and placement of the ribs in anatomical E v e n t u a l l y, the case went to trial. Te s t i m o n y o rder indicated that at least four separate inser- was needed from the Smithsonian anthro p o l o g i s t tions of a knife or knife-like instrument had taken not only to re p o r t on the re c o v e r y, analysis, and p l a c e . identification of the remains, but also on the evi- The police strongly suspected that the dence for trauma. The finding of evidence for mul- remains were those of a girl who had been missing tiple sharp force trauma contradicted the f r om the area for about 10 years. She was about confession that a single knife wound had been 5'-6" tall and of European ancestry. However, her inflicted. Rigorous cross-examination by the age was known to be 12 years and she had no defense attorney attempted to suggest that the medical history of broken bones. The a n t h r opologist had confused evidence of carn i v o r e S m i t h s o n i a n ’s analysis suggested that the missing chewing with that of sharp force trauma. The jury

CRM No 10—1996 27 believed the anthropologist because of his exten- Stewart, T. D. sive re s e a r ch experience and knowledge of such 1979 Essentials of Forensic Anthropology, Especially alterations on the human skeleton and because of as Developed in the United States. Springfield: the clarity of his testimony. Charles C. Thomas. The above theoretical case illustrates the 1982 Background of American Forensic complexity of forensic anthropology involvement Anthropology. Criminal Justice Review 7(1): 4-7. in the investigative process. Forensic anthro p o l o - Ubelaker, D. H. gists contribute not only to the re c o v e r y and 1989 Human Skeletal Remains. Excavation, analysis of relatively complete skeletons, but also Analysis, Interpretation. Second edition. to that of small fragments and multiple individuals Washington: Taraxacum. resulting from mass disasters. In 1996, there were 1990 J. Lawrence Angel and the Development of about 46 board - c e rtified forensic anthro p o l o g i s t s Forensic Anthropology in the United States. in the United States and Canada. Since this exper- In: A Life in Science: Papers in Honor of J. Lawrence tise is available to police departments thro u g h o u t Angel. Edited by J. E. Buikstra, Center for American N o r th America, increasingly cases sent to the FBI- Archeology Scientific Papers 6, pp. 191-200. Smithsonian investigative team are the most diff i - Ubelaker, D. H. and G. O’Donnell cult, involving fragmentation, extensive trauma, or 1992 Computer-Assisted Facial Reproduction. those requiring specialized analysis such as the Journal of Forensic Sciences 37(1): 155-162. facial re p roduction or photographic superimposi- Ubelaker, D. H., E. Bubniak, and G. O’Donnell tion techniques discussed in the example above. 1992 Computer-Assisted Photographic F o r ensic anthropology has become a re c o g - Superimposition. Journal of Forensic Sciences nized, regular contributor to the medical-legal 37( 3): 750-762. investigation of death. The tradition of collabora- ______tion between the FBI and the Smithsonian that Douglas H. Ubelaker, Diplomate, American Board of began over a half-century ago continues pro d u c - Forensic Anthropology, received his Ph.D. in physical tively today. anthropology from the University of Kansas. Since ______1971, he has been employed at the Smithsonian R e f e r ences Institution’s National Museum of Natural History in Jantz, R. L. and P. H. Moore Jansen Washington, DC. Since 1977, he has served as the 1988 A Database for Forensic Anthropology: primary consultant in forensic anthropology for the Structure, Content and Analysis. Report of FBI and has reported on about 600 forensic cases. Investigations 47. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee. Krogman, W. M. 1939 A Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin (8): 3–31.

N ew Publication and trauma, and the social histories of the diverse In Remembrance: Archaeology and Death. human communities occupying North America during the David A. Poirier and Nicholas F. Bellantoni, editors. last three centuries. G r eenwood Publishing Group, Inc., 88 Post Road We s t , The Introduction highlights recent examples of the We s t p o rt, CT 06881; Price: $59.95; cloth; 264 pp; ISBN: way osteological analysis of burials contributes to our 0-89789-419-7; Order Code: H419; Publication Date: knowledge of past histories. Part I examines several 0 1 / 3 0 / 9 7 . socially-disenfranchised groups that are underre p r e- In recent years, federal and state governments have sented in historic re c o r ds. These analyses demonstrate recognized their responsibility for the protection of how archeological and anthropological re s e a r ch can con- unmarked ancient burial grounds that may be thre a t e n e d tribute to a better understanding of cultural conditions by modern land-use activities and natural disasters. The and life ways of important social groups. Part II consists editors of this new book have compiled case studies that of articles that illustrate where past and recent traumas reflect effective answers to removal, analysis, and re b u r - and desecration have affected human burials. Part III ial of human remains by archeologists. Each study pro- re p r esents the only technical section, providing a vides fascinating re s e a rch from the excavation of historic re s o u rce guide on professional standards in conducting cemeteries, which has added considerable knowledge to d o c u m e n t a r y re s e a rch as well as field work in the loca- our understanding of factors relating to health, disease, tion and excavation of historic burials.

28 CRM No 10—1996 Thomas D. Holland and Robert W. M a n n Fo rensic Aviation A rc h e o l ogy Finding and Recovering American MIA Remains

o r ensic anthropologists lend their civilian personnel, including more than 430 skills to identifying homicide victims Americans from the Vietnam Wa r. Many of the for the Federal Bureau of f o r ensic techniques pioneered in these laboratories Investigation, excavating Civil Wa r continue to be the mainstay of forensic anthro p o l - burialsF for the National Park Service, and re c o v - o g y. ering American war casualties for the Depart m e n t In its present—and now perm a n e n t — i n c a r - of the Arm y. Each of these endeavors re q u i r es the nation, the CILHI is the largest skeletal identifica- implementation of scientific principles, including tion laboratory in the world and is recognized as crime-scene investigation, forensic anthro p o l o g y, an intern a t i o n a l l y - r espected leader in human iden- aviation arc h e o l o g y, botany, photography, medi- tification techniques and forensic aviation arc h e o l - cine, ballistics, medicine, and law. By combining o g y. Formally established in 1976, the laboratory ’s an ever-evolving multidisciplinary appro a c h , expanded charter includes both the re c o v e r y and f o r ensic anthropologists at the U.S. Army Central identification of U.S. war dead from all past mili- Identification Laboratory, Hawai`i (CILHI), are t a r y conflicts. These identifications are achieved able to resolve the fate of American MIAs. by traditional methods and techniques, as well as The relationship between anthro p o l o g i s t s m o r e novel approaches including isotopic analysis, and the armed services has been long and pro d u c - scanning electron micro s c o p y, video superimposi- tive. In part i c u l a r, forensic anthropology has pro f - tion, and most re c e n t l y, mitochondrial DNA ited from methods and techniques developed by (mtDNA) analysis. The ejection seat the Army Central Identification Laboratories for A typical CILHI re c o v e r y eff o rt consists of site (clearing) upon the identification of U.S. war casualties. locating and excavating an aircraft crash site or completion of exca- H i s t o r i c a l l y, the Central Identification less fre q u e n t l y, an isolated burial. The mission vation.(Note the Laboratories, under the direction of such notable begins when a re c o v e r y team departs for the host 65º slope). f i g u res as Charles Snow, Mildred Tro t t e r, T. Dale c o u n t r y. With some variation depending on the S t e w a r t, Thomas McKern, and Ellis Kerley, were mission circumstances, a team consists of an t e m p o r a r y, mission-specific organizations form e d a n t h ropologist, who functions as the re c o v e r y after World War II, the Korean Wa r, and the leader; an Army officer and a senior non-commis- Vietnam Wa r. Combined, these labs accounted for sioned off i c e r, who oversee the team’s logistical the identification of thousands of military and needs; a medic; a photographer; a linguist; an e x p l o s i v e - o r dnance technician, to handle the ubiq- uitous unexploded bombs found on old battlefields; and one to six Army graves re g i s t r a t i o n specialists who provide the bulk of the sweat and muscle. If the mission is to recover a crashed aircraft, a team includes an airc r a f t - w reckage analyst to identify key aircraft components and airc re w - related artifacts such as flight-suit material. Sites are excavated using standard arc h e o- logical pro c e d u r es and are similar in many respects to any CRM-governed site, with two exceptions. First, the CILHI teams work in some of the most remote and dangerous locales in the world, from the jungles of Southeast Asia to the mountains of the Himalayan Chain to the ocean waters of the Pacific Islands. In addition, team members function in an official capacity as quasi- diplomatic agents of the United States. The site is

CRM No 10—1996 29 else was forw a r ded for analysis at the Life Sciences Equipment Laboratory, its adjunct Life Sciences Artifact Section, and additional support laboratories at the San Antonio Air Logistics C e n t e r, Kelly Air Force Base, Texas, for detailed a n a l y s i s . In an unusual twist, one of the pilot’s chil- d r en paid her own way to Vietnam and visited the crash site. She interviewed a villager who allegedly found the pilot’s helmet, and with a little persua- sion, she obtained the helmet. She knew it was her father’s helmet because she found his name written inside it (the FBI later authenticated that the name had not recently been written). Although no sophisticated equipment was needed to see the name, the survey team had overlooked this piece of evidence. That the survey team had missed such compelling evidence prompted further action g o v e r ned by a foreign country (often a country, by the Joint Task Force and the CILHI, and as a such as North Korea, that is on relatively poor result, the CILHI was directed to deploy a full t e r ms with the United States government) as are s e a r ch and re c o v e r y team with more specialists, the U.S. team members. A recent re c o v e r y in west- including an anthropologist, to the site. The completed In the meantime, the laboratories at Kelly 12x16 meter e rn Iraq, for example, was conducted under the investigation area watchful eyes (and at times guns) of the Iraqi Air Force Base had completed their extensive (grave) in an old Republican Guard. Second, since the identification analysis of the pilot’s equipment and airc r a f t bomb crater.The of human remains is a forensic issue, the re c o v e r y w r eckage and formulated an opinion based on pin-flags mark the site must be treated similar to a crime scene; that re p r oducible evidence. According to the laborato- locations where the ries, the life-support equipment was torn , recovery team is, there must be a proper chain-of-custody for any found human re c o v e r ed remains and artifacts from the time they s t r etched, and burned in a manner consistent with remains and pilot- leave the ground to their receipt at the CILHI. being in an aircrash. Their pre l i m i n a r y re p o r t related equipment. The following example highlights how stan- stated that the pilot was in the airplane when it d a r d archeological pro c e d u r es, combined with c r a s h e d . experience and common sense, have led to the In April and May 1995, a 12-man CILHI re c o v e r y and identification of American MIA re c o v e r y team arrived at the crash site to complete remains. what the earlier survey team had begun. Its objec- Excavation of Site in V i e t n a m tives were threefold: identify the airplane; re c o v e r One of the CILHI’s more complex cases any associated human remains; and recover evi- involved the 1972 loss of a U.S. A-7D Corsair air- dence to confirm or refute the Life Sciences craft shot down in a remote area of Nort h Equipment Laboratory ’s pre l i m i n a r y determ i n a t i o n Vietnam. As there were no American eyewitnesses that the pilot was in the airplane when it crashed. to the incident, no one could “prove” whether the The first order of business was to re - i n t e r - pilot had ejected from the aircraft or remained in it view the witnesses. The pilot, according to the when it crashed. man who had found the helmet, had ejected fro m In 1994, a pre l i m i n a r y survey team com- the airplane before it crashed. The Vi e t n a m e s e posed of U.S. personnel under the direction of the later found the dead pilot, seated in his ejection Joint Task Force-Full Accounting (an umbre l l a seat, hanging in a tree a few hundred meters fro m o r ganization charged with accounting for all U.S. the crash site. They removed his body, disposed of war casualties from the Vietnam War) and their the ejection seat, and buried his remains in an old Vietnamese counterparts interviewed several bomb crater down the mountain side. Vietnamese informants who claimed that they had Based on this information, the re c o v e r y team found and buried the body of a U.S. pilot in 1972. excavated the grave in the bomb crater, enlarg i n g The survey team located the purported grave of the project area to 12x16 meters to account for the pilot in an old bomb crater and excavated a any disturbance or scattering of remains thro u g h 1x2 meter test pit that yielded pieces of flight suit, cultivation. The team also excavated the are a life support equipment (e.g. oxygen hose), and a w h e r e villagers claimed to have found the ejection few human bone fragments. The team, lacking an seat and lastly, the crash site itself. All three are a s a n t h ropologist, closed the site. The human w e re dug to culturally sterile soil. Fortunately for remains were sent to the CILHI, and every t h i n g the pilot’s family, the team found more human

30 CRM No 10—1996 bone fragments (within inches of where the surv e y These items had laid in the ground for many team had excavated), the pilot’s dog tag, pieces of months, not weeks. In fact, a more precise age for his flight suit, and life-support equipment from the the rootlets (i.e., the time it took the rootlets to bomb crater. Although the ejection seat site g r ow to their present lengths based on their yielded no material evidence, the re c o v e r y team species) could later be determined by a botanist. found a piece of the aircraft fuselage near the S i m i l a r l y, a few months later the Life Sciences crash site stenciled with A7D 223, indicating the Equipment Laboratory analyzed the soil adhering a i rcraft type and serial number. By the time the to the dog tag and the back of the serialized alu- team closed its field investigations, there was minum fuselage to determine whether these items nothing else to be found. All cultural material— had originated from the same site. The possibility evidence, in legal terms—had been re c o v e r ed. The existed that the Vietnamese had retained these evidence was then used to re c o n s t ruct the circ u m - items in some warehouse and salted the site stances of the shootdown. b e f o re the re c o v e r y team arrived. Soil analysis P re l i m i n a ry field analysis of the material evi- using EDX (Energy Dispersive X-ray) proved that dence from the burial suggested that the pilot had the items originated from the same area on the actually ejected before the plane crashed. The Life m o u n t a i n . Sciences Equipment Laboratory ’s “evidence” of When it was all said and done, the re c o v e r y tearing, burning, and stretching could be explained team had gathered significant evidence support i n g in another way. Specifically, witnesses told the the Vietnamese witness’ statement that the pilot re c o v e r y team that the bomb crater had been ejected from the airplane before it crashed. c l e a r ed, burned, and cultivated for many years. F u rt h e r, a little cultural curiosity on the part of the Thus, the interpretation off e r ed by the Life a n t h r opologist yielded information overlooked by Sciences Equipment Laboratory might be incorre c t . the initial survey team—namely, that the bomb The tearing and burning could easily have re s u l t e d crater had been cleared, burned, and cultivated. f r om activities related to cultivation. The initial With this information, the Life Sciences s u rvey team didn’t have this information, and the Equipment Laboratory reversed their pre l i m i n a r y Life Sciences Equipment Laboratory ’s scientists’ hypothesis that the pilot was in the airplane when train of thought didn’t entertain such cultural it crashed. The final re p o r t reflected this opinion. activities as slash-and-burn cultivation. CILHI had resolved the contradictory questions by Anticipating the possibility that the findings conducting a thorough “crime scene” investigation, of the Life Sciences Equipment Laboratory might and excavation of the grave, ejection seat, and be incorrect, the re c o v e r y team’s anthro p o l o g i s t crash sites. was careful to document everything found at the The pilot’s remains were later identified grave site. Specifically, he instructed team mem- using traditional anthropological techniques and bers to notify him the moment they found bones, mtDNA analysis. Aviation arc h e o l o g y, combined teeth, flight-suit material, or a dog tag. Each of with forensic anthro p o l o g y, botany, chemistry, and these items was photographed exactly as it was p h o t o g r a p h y, had been used to solve the mystery found and the anthropologist personally re m o v e d of a 23-year-old MIA death. them from the ground. The dirt from the dog tag ______and the piece of serialized fuselage were re m o v e d Thomas D. Holland is the Scientific Director at the and placed in separate Ziploc bags for furt h e r U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, analysis, if so desired. Although the anthro p o l o g i s t Hawai`i, and a Diplomate of the American Board of d i d n ’t know exactly what tests the soil might be Forensic Anthropology. He obtained his PhD from subjected to, he was careful to pre s e r ve each piece the University of Missouri-Columbia in 1991, and of evidence. served as a Curator at the Museum of Anthropology, As the case evolved, one piece of evidence University of Missouri, before joining the CILHI in that proved critical was the photodocumentation 1992. of live, unbroken rootlets growing into the pilot’s bones. This evidence served as legal proof that the Robert W. Mann is the Senior Anthropologist at the Vietnamese had not recently “salted” remains in CILHI. He attended the University of Tennessee, the bomb crater. As a matter of fact, before the Knoxville, and worked nearly five years at the excavation was completed, the team anthro p o l o- Smithsonian Institution before joining the U.S. Army gist was asked (by field radio through the U.S. Central Identification Laboratory, Hawai`i, in 1992. Joint Task Force-Full Accounting office in Hanoi) how he knew the remains had not been re c e n t l y planted at the site. The “proof,” he told them, was the fact that the remains had rootlets gro w i n g t h r ough them, and along the back of the dog tag.

CRM No 10—1996 31 Melissa Connor A r cheologists assist in locating clandestine grave sites, direct the excavation of the sites, and and Douglas Scott a r e responsible for site and evidence documentation, and mapping. The excavation team usually A rc h e o l ogists and includes at least one archeologist, several fore n s i c a n t h r opologists, and a backhoe and operator. the United Nations Many of the forensic anthropologists also have an a r cheological background. The general location of Tribunals the graves had been previously determined by UN investigators and the sites verified by UN ot only are archeologists assisting Senior Forensic Anthropologist William Haglund. the Croatian government in locat- The general methodology starts with the Ning missing people (see Owsley, e t a r cheologists assisting the team in locating al., page 33), but archeologists are also assisting g r ound features consistent with a mass grave. with medico-legal investigations of the United Next, test trenches are excavated with a combina- Nations International Criminal Tribunal for the tion of the backhoe and hand tools until human f o r mer Yugoslavia (ICTY). Because these excava- remains are located. When remains are located, tions are on-going homicide investigations, they the grave is treated as a feature. The edges of the cannot be described in the detail presented in grave are determined, usually using the backhoe the Owsley, et al., a r ticle. The work we have to trench around the edge of the bodies. The top done for the ICTY and the International Tr i b u n a l of the mass of bodies is uncovered, to the point for Rwanda (ITR) is in support of criminal inves- possible without allowing the fleshed remains to tigations relating to extra-judicial executions d ry out. This overall view is then photographed that have occurred in these countries during and mapped and body removal begins. One per- civil unrest. The ICTY and ITR are intern a t i o n - son works as photographer and documenter, pho- ally sanctioned judicial bodies investigating tographing each body and filling out a form alleged genocide and war crimes in form e r re c o r ding basic data. The body, or at least the Yugoslavia and Rwanda. The Tribunals are gath- crania, are mapped, with the method varying as ering evidence to indict and prosecute alleged to the site, although the pre f e r red method is using perpetrators. Archeologists and arc h e o l o g i c a l a total station transit and electronic mapping (we site documentation techniques are a significant use the Sokkia total station, Sokkia Map, and p a r t of these international criminal investiga- AutoDesk AutoCad programs). When documenta- t i o n s . tion is complete, the body is placed into a body T h r ough the Physicians for Human Rights bag and removed from the grave into a re f r i g e r - (PHR), an organization that completes fore n s i c ated storage unit. These units are later trans- investigations for the UN, the archeologists work p o r ted to the morgues for a formal medico-legal with other PHR scientists and the UN fore n s i c a u t o p s y. specialists, as well as lawyers and investigators The skills archeologists bring to a medico- f r om the Hague. During 1996, arc h e o l o g i s t s legal investigation are critical in documenting assisted in site documentation and grave how a clandestine grave was dug, the method of exhumations throughout the Sre b r enica area of body disposal carried out, and in documenting Bosnia and in the Croatian/Serb transition zone physical evidence associated with the event, such near Vu k o v a r, as well as in the African country of as the locations of expended cartridge cases and Rwanda. This year, over 1,300 bodies were bullets. The evidence collected and documented exhumed for the UN investigations. Arc h e o l o g i s t s by the archeologists, along with the testimony of f r om the United States involved in this eff o r t f o r ensic anthropologists and forensic patholo- include Rebecca Saunders, Louisiana State gists, will be used by the courts in the pro s e c u - U n i v e r s i t y, and Patrick Meyers, as well as thre e tions of those accused of genocide and war a r cheologists from the National Park Serv i c e ’s crimes. Applied arc h e o l o g y / a n t h ro p o l o g y, in the Midwest Archeological Center—Douglas Scott, f o r m of archeological documentation methods, is Melissa Connor, and Ralph Hart l e y. The NPS becoming integral to forensic investigations on a r cheologists were requested to assist in the this international stage. investigations in Rwanda and in Croatia because ______of their skills in computerized site documentation Melissa Connor and Douglas Scott are archeologists and mapping as well as photographic documenta- with the Midwest Archeological Center, National t i o n . Park Service, Lincoln, NE.

32 CRM No 10—1996 Douglas W. O w s l e y, D a vor Strinov i c , Mario Slaus, Dana D. Kollmann and Malcolm L. R i c h a rd s o n R e c ove r y and Identification of Civilian Victims of War In Cro a t i a

n hour after leaving Zagreb and The goal is to aid the development of fore n s i c traveling south toward the curre n t a n t h ropology in Croatia by demonstrating tech- b o r der between Croatia and niques and instrumentation employed in the dis- Bosnia, we were overwhelmed by c o v e ry, excavation, and examination of human the devastationA caused by the conflict that began remains. Depending on the pre s e rvation and com- The aftermath of in August 1991. The Croatian military had pleteness of the remains, forensic anthro p o l o g i s t s war; destroyed regained this terr i t o r y from Serbian forces in can supply information on age at death, sex, race, homes in the town of Glina. August 1995. Small villages consist almost entire l y s t a t u r e, time elapsed since death, dental and osteo- of ruins of former homes; partially destroyed walls logical pathology, perimortem trauma (injuries of concrete and terra cotta blocks are the re m - o c c u r ring at the time of death), and cause of death. nants of sturdy houses that are generations old. In some instances, skeletal attributes also pro v i d e Roofless and without doors or windows, the clues to lifestyle, occupation, habitual patterns of houses bear the scars of war created by ro c k e t s a c t i v i t y, and other sociobehavioral characteristics. and art i l l e ry. Also visible are the pockmarks fro m The primary objective in Croatia was to estab- g renade fragments and automatic weapons. lish the identification of the deceased and to deter- F i res consumed all the combustible parts of mine the cause of death. The forensic team also the homes, including the furn i t u r e and other com- re c o r ded cranial and postcranial skeletal measure- Photos by Dana D. Kollman. f o r ts and keepsakes. In the early spring of 1996, ments for an osteometric data bank being devel- the fields of these farming communities re m a i n oped for this region, which will aid future personal untilled because they are still seeded with land identifications by providing important comparative mines. Although a few residents are beginning to data. This initiative is patterned after the fore n s i c re t u r n and rebuild, most are still absent, having a n t h r opological data bank that has been developed fled to places of safety. Other villagers are absent for North America by the Department of because they lost their lives during acts of bru t a l i t y A n t h r opology of the University of Te n n e s s e e , when they would not desert their homes. Knoxville. These were our first impressions as part of a Prior to assembling the joint team, Cro a t i a n joint Croatian-United States forensic investigation g o v e r nment investigators interviewed friends, re l a - team during its initial visit to the area around the tives, and neighbors of persons that are missing. small town of Glina to search for burials, systemati- Files have been created on those re p o rted killed or cally recover the remains, determine the cause of missing, including detailed physical descriptions, Residents set fire to death, and identify the victims. The thre e - p e r s o n photographs, and data about the time and circ u m - their agricultural fields in order to team re p r esenting the Smithsonian Institution was stances of their death or disappearance. The inves- detonate land headed by a forensic anthropologist (Dr. Douglas tigators were thorough in collecting evidence and mines. Owsley), accompanied by an archeologist and a when the government teams visited areas of criminalist on loan from the Baltimore County re p o r ted atrocities, they successfully located the Police Depart m e n t ’s Crime Laboratory. The a f t e r math of many multiple or mass burials. C roatian contingent was led by forensic pathologist The roads leading from the village of Glina to D r. Davor Strinovic, these scenes of tragedy were single-lane dirt tracks D e p a rtment of Fore n s i c that were deeply rutted and eroded. They are rare l y Medicine and used, as the former inhabitants are gone and the Criminology at the roads have received no maintenance. In most University of Zagre b , a r eas, formerly cultivated fields on both sides of and physical anthro p o l - these roads were delineated with plastic tape warn- ogist Mario Slaus of the ing of the danger of mines. Many of these fields Zavod du Arh e o l o g i j u w e re on fire; their owners hoping that the heat at Zagreb. The re c o v e r y would explode mines and release or expose trip- e ff o rt was sponsored by w i r ed booby-traps. Several abandoned bunkers and the Cro a t i a n - A m e r i c a n rifle pits held commanding positions along the ru d e Joint Science Board . roads. The bunkers were constructed of sand-filled

CRM No 10—1996 33 ammunition boxes bodies and their coverings and clothing. A pre c i s e with roofs of logs or method of control was employed that included the planks covered with assignment of identifying numbers and pro v e - sod. nances to the remains of these victims. The bodies During the w e r e carefully removed from their temporary graves fieldwork, the many for transport to Zagreb. The soil around and liaison matters were beneath the individuals was thoroughly checked for e x p e r tly dealt with additional evidence. by a military com- Our first investigation was of a burial mander and a high- re p o r ted to contain five victims. The pit was deep, level civilian having been dug through several stratigraphic lay- g o v e r nment off i c i a l ; ers of heavy clay soils. It appeared to have been both, along with excavated mechanically, probably with a backhoe. their personnel, The grave contained the bodies of four men in vari- w e re dedicated to the task of investigating all such ous positions and the skeleton of a dog. Several burials in Croatia. The crews were escorted to and possessed identifying cards and papers, and one Probing a sus- p rotected at every location by Croatian police. m a n ’s trouser pocket contained a large sum of pected burial site M i l i t a r y personnel successfully led the vehicle con- m o n e y. One individual had the end of a length of to determine the voy over unmined roads and paths past areas cor- chain attached to his ankles, possibly used to drag location and out- line of the grave. doned with razor wire. Upon arrival at a re p o rt e d the body to the burial place. All had been shot. The decomposed burial site, a military explosive ordnance disposal Near the burials was a one-man bunker pro t e c t e d bodies of four team first cleared the work area for mines. While with banked earth and a look-out or sniper’s perc h males, who were the forensic team was occupied with their tasks, in a tree. The men re p o rtedly had been killed in the shot in the adja- these specialists continually broadened their searc h adjacent house, and an examination of a gro u n d - cent house, were recovered. a r ea and, in addition to finding and collecting floor room disclosed the pockmarks left by weapons mines, also gathered live but unexploded gre n a d e s , f i r e on the concrete walls. On the floor were numer- rockets, and mortar and art i l l e r y shells. Loud explo- ous 7.62 mm shell casings that can be fired from an sions attested to their success in locating and dis- SKS or AK-47 automatic weapon. posing of these remnants of war that are re t a rd i n g While the first multiple grave was being exca- the re t u rn of former inhabitants to the area and vated, a second crew was dispatched to the their pursuit of a peaceful livelihood. re p o r ted site of another burial about a half mile The first clues to soil disturbances were visual a w a y. This second site was accessible only by foot s u rface anomalies such as depressions, unusual over a cleared path through the mined fields. soil concentrations, changes in vegetation, or the Located at the base of a gentle slope along the edge p r esence of sub-surface soils. There are a variety of of a swampy field, the grave was evident by a boot remote-sensing techniques that can be used for val- that pro t r uded up through the soil and by a cloth- idating surface features or for detection of soil dis- c o v e red object that later proved to be the knee of turbances when such clues are not present. These another victim. The grave was a shallow burial tools range from the simple to the complex and sparsely covered by soil. Three individuals were include probes, resistivity meters, magnetometers, found covered by a plastic sheet. Two were re p o rt e d and sophisticated ground-penetrating radar devices. to be brothers and the third a cousin. They had Considering that our areas of investigation were been shot and some body parts were missing. Local remote, and often in rugged terrain accessible only people re p o r ted that the men had decided not to by foot and with no available electrical power, the abandon their farm and home by fleeing and highly portable and effective stainless steel pro b e s h o r tly thereafter were gunned down in a field and was the obvious choice for our field studies. The left there. Unfort u n a t e l y, feral pigs attacked the investigator determines the amount of resistance to bodies before villagers could safely re t u r n and the probe in undisturbed soil. When inserted in the attend to their dead relatives and neighbors. less compacted soils resulting from previous exca- A p p r oximately a week later, the decomposing and vations, the ease of entry is apparent. Disturbed p a r tly scavenged bodies were transported into the soil stratigraphy was verified by examining a soil woods and quickly buried. coring sample. A third site was investigated and contained Once a burial was delineated, the upper soils the remains of a woman. Her death was caused by w e re removed by supervised military personnel gunshot wounds and had resulted from her re f u s a l with shovels. The pyrotechnic specialists re g u l a r l y to leave her home. She was buried in front of her checked for booby-traps. After exposure, the house which had been vandalized with graffiti that remains were photographed and detailed notes s e r ved to identify the perpetrators. Having died taken and drawings made of the positions of the during December, this woman and all of the men in

34 CRM No 10—1996 the other burials wore multiple layers of heavy win- building, segments of the clay-tiled roof, and curv e d ter clothing, i.e., long underw e a r, several pairs of pieces of whitewash that at first glance re s e m b l e d long pants, skirts, an apron, shirts, vests, sweaters, b u r ned bone fragments. The lower level consisted a scarf or shawl, and heavy coats. of fine ash particles among which were scattere d The first day of fieldwork culminated with the kitchen implements and a large concentration of investigation of a purported slaying and burial of a small human bone fragments that had been cal- woman on her farm. She was said to have been cined from extreme heat. The commingled bone buried in front of a brick and tile milk house. fragments were from two adult females, one signifi- P r obing identified a potential burial shaft and dili- cantly older than the other. Among the bone frag- gent digging in the early evening began to expose a ments were several metal dental crowns, one of rectangular pit. It was extraordinarily deep, but the gold, and personal articles including metal eyeglass bottom was eventually reached. To our surprise and frames, a chain that once held wooden ro s a r y emotional relief, we did not find the remains of the beads and the metal fasteners of a coin purse. missing woman but instead the complete skeleton The neighbors believed that the family had of a cow. been killed by knives or axes, as no gun shots were Subsequent plans called for exploring a deep h e a rd. However, expended shell casings and spent well re p o r ted to contain the remains of a large fam- bullets from a 7.62 mm assault weapon and two ily and for also investigating the burned re m n a n t s d i ff e rent caliber pistols, a 9 mm and a 32 auto- of the nearby house. Croatian government off i c i a l s matic, were re c o v e r ed. excavated the well prior to the arrival of the full While excavation of the kitchen ashes was f o r ensic team. Excavation of the well re q u i re d u n d e rw a y, Croat team members investigated a heavy equipment before the bottom was re a c h e d . rumor which circulated among the neighbors. It The information obtained from local residents was was said that the matron of the house had buried a inaccurate; the well contained no bodies. chest containing family heirlooms and keepsakes Unlike most houses that are made of concre t e under the floor. Using probes, two buried objects and terra cotta block in this part of Croatia, this w e r e found; a wooden chest and a glazed steel box house had been a small, wooden stru c t u re with a containing national costumes, laces, shawls, pic- clay tile roof and packed clay floors, except for a t u r es and family papers and documents that were c o n c r ete floor in the kitchen. The house was considerably damaged by moisture. Examinations b u r ned in late 1991 and remained untouched since w e re conducted in the morgue and laboratory facili- that time. The larg e r, charred pieces of the burn e d ties in the Anatomy Department of the Medical s t ru c t u r e and the non-combustible furn i s h i n g s , School of the University of Zagreb. Various states appliances, and equipment were carefully re m o v e d of deterioration among the remains reflected diff e r - to expose the underlying debris. The floor of the ences with respect to the acidity of the soil, burial e n t i re stru c t u r e was then closely inspected for depth, and length of time since interment. Many human remains. Small, calcined fragments of consisted of bones having small segments of soft human bone were found among the ashes in the and connective tissue still covered by clothing. kitchen. Two clusters of small animal bones were A d i p o c e re was present in some remains; and in located in other rooms of the house. These bones several cases, the tissues had almost totally saponi- w e r e identified as belonging to an immature pig; a fied on the skeleton and as such, they re s e m b l e d The metal hinge of neighbor re p o r ted that the family had been butcher- f i g u r es constructed of plaster of paris. a purse, coins, eye- ing a pig on the day of the attack. The kitchen was The autopsies and forensic examinations glasses, and a rosary chain and isolated for special treatment. The remaining ro o m s w e r e conducted jointly by the pathologist and beads found in w e r e carefully cleaned with flat-blade shovels; no f o r ensic anthropologist who continuously dictated association with other osteological evidence was found. notes to a nearby member of the team equipped calcined bone frag- The kitchen was then sectioned into quad- with a notebook computer. A vast amount of infor- ments. rants for purposes of control and the exact position- mation about each individual was re c o r ded re l a t i n g ing of pert i n e n t to clothing, age, sex, stature, antemortem injuries a rt i f a c t s . and diseases, perimortem trauma, and postmort e m Excavation of damage when present. Important observations were the quadrants re c o r ded by the ever- p r esent camera of a full-time was accom- p h o t o g r a p h e r. Portable photographic studio equip- plished in two ment had been brought from the Smithsonian levels. The Institution in order to photograph all bones that upper level con- showed trauma and other burial artifacts. Also pho- tained larg e tographed were bones that revealed diseases, c h a r red frag- mended bones, surgically implanted devices, and ments of the those showing past health problems.

CRM No 10—1996 35 The remains of each individual were care f u l l y Z a g r eb to discuss the findings of each investigation examined by plotting the position of bullet entrance with the forensic team. Friends and relatives attend- and exit holes in their clothing or damage to the ing these conferences were shown photographs of bones. Each of the multiple garments was described clothing and personal items and relatives often re c- and cataloged as it was removed and the contents of ognized apparel belonging to a missing individual g a r ment pockets were inventoried. As outer layers based on the garm e n t ’s color, style, or pattern. w e r e removed, the continuity of bullet holes was ver- T h r ough this collaborative eff o r t, a tre m e n d o u s ified in lower garments and finally matched with amount of work in the field and laboratory was entrance and exit wounds in the body or with pro j e c - accomplished. Croatians and Americans worked t i l e - f r a c t u r ed bones. side-by-side, sharing their expertise and knowledge Time-consuming attention was given to the to complete these unpleasant but necessary tasks. analysis of the bone fragments of the women burn e d All were re w a r ded by knowing that the results of in the house, as they were the most difficult fro m their work provided the relatives of the missing vil- which to extract data for identification. The two sets lagers with important facts concerning the fate of of fragmented remains could be effectively sorted on their loved ones as well as providing data to the the basis of bone size and ro b u s t i c i t y, osteoporo t i c C r oatian government concerning the circ u m s t a n c e s changes in the older woman, and perceptible diff e r - s u r rounding the deaths of some of its citizens. ences in the color of the calcined pieces of bone of S u p p o r t from the United States-Cro a t i a n each woman. The re w a r ds were significant: by deter- Science and Technology Program, the Smithsonian mining their ages, health conditions, past diseases, I n s t i t u t i o n ’s Department of Anthropology and its dental work (the gold crown), and the metal framed O f fice of International Relations, and the University eyeglasses, the identities of the two women could be of Zagreb School of Medicine made this re c o v e r y e s t a b l i s h e d . and forensic investigation possible. The identities of others were ascertained by ______matching forensic data with information collected by Dr. Douglas W. Owsley, Forensic Anthropologist and o f ficials during earlier interviews. In North America, Curator, National Museum of Natural History, personal identification is often confirmed by the Smithsonian Institution. comparing and matching of detailed bone and dental Dr. Davor Strinovic, MD, Forensic Pathologist, f e a t u res seen in antemortem radiographs with those University of Zagreb, School of Medicine, p r esent in the skeleton or dentition being examined. Department of Forensic Medicine and Criminology. In Croatia and Bosnia, however, even when such re c o r ds originally existed, medical facilities were Mario Slaus, Zavod za Arheologiju, HAZU, Zagreb. often targeted and destroyed. As a consequence, Dana D. Kollmann, Criminalist, Forensic Investigation identification criteria depend heavily on descriptive Division, Baltimore County Police Department. i n f o r mation provided by friends and relatives. As a supplement to the information contained in the ante- Malcolm L. Richardson, Archeologist affiliated with the m o r tem database, when probable identifications Archaeological Society of Virginia. w e re indicated, family members were brought to

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