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An Abstract of the Thesis Of AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Kathleen M. Ronan for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Food Science and Technology presented on June 4. 1981 Title: THE EFFECTS OF PROCESSING ON SODIUM-POTASSIUM AND CALCIUM- PHOSPHORUS RATIOS IN FOODS . S 'I Abstract approved: ~ ^ ~~ Dr. pf Jane Wyatt The objective of this study was to determine the effects of processing on sodium - potassium and calcium - phosphorus ratios in tuna canned in oil and in water, peanut butter, white and whole wheat flours. Mineral levels were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry in food samples at various stages in the production of these finished products. The average sodium - potassium ratios of the tuna samples were: 1.37 raw, 1.24 precooked, 1.87 canned in oil and 1.61 canned in water. Processing did not significantly effect sodium and potassium ratios in canned tuna. The average calcium - phosphorus ratios of the tuna samples were: 0.034 raw, 0.024 precooked, 0.034 canned in oil and 0.065 canned in water. The ratio of the canned in water meat was significantly effected by processing. The average sodium - potassium ratios of the peanut samples were: 0.034 raw, 0.043 roasted, 0.031 blanched and 0.781 peanut butter. The ratio of peanut butter was significantly greater than the ratios of the other peanut samples. The average calcium - phosphorus ratios of the peanut samples were: 0.148 raw, 0.121 roasted, 0.141 blanched and 0.128 peanut butter. These ratios were not significantly effected by processing. The average sodium - potassium ratio was 0.16 in white flours, 0.84 in whole wheat flour and 0.89 in the kernel. The average calcium - phosphorus ratio was 0.14 in white flours, 0.07 in whole wheat flour and 0.07 in the kernel. The ratios of the kernel and whole wheat flour were not significantly different. Processing significantly effected the ratios of the white flour. The preferred concentration of sodium chloride and a 1:1 sodium - potassium chloride mixture in white and whole wheat breads was also studied. Bread samples were made with 1.0%, 0.75% and 0.5% levels of both salt treatments. They were evaluated by an untrained flavor panel for overall desirability with a nine point hedonic scale. The judges preferred a sodium chloride white bread with a 7.0 sodium - potassium ratio, and a sodium chloride whole wheat bread with a 3.29 ratio. These ratios were both lower than those found in commercial products. White and whole wheat breads made with 0.75% sodium chloride were as accept- able as breads made with 1.0% 1:1 sodium - potassium chloride mixture. The sodium - potassium ratio of the salt mixture white bread was 1.20 and the ratio of the whole wheat bread was 0.91. The addition of salt to finished products for flavor had an effect on the sodium - potassium ratio of the foods studied. Also, reducing the amount of added salt to commercial breads and replacing some sodium chloride with potassium chloride were acceptable means of lowering the sodium - potassium ratios of white and whole wheat breads. The Effects of Processing on Sodium - Potassium and Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in Foods by Kathleen M. Ronan A THESIS submitted to Oregon State University in partial fullfiliment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science June 1982 APPROVED: Associat^Professor offtood Science and Technology in charge of major Head of Department ofjTFo'ocT Science and Technology Dean of Gradu/tfe Scho ^T Date thesis is presented June 4, 1981 Typed by Jill Nowac for Kathleen Ronan ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Wyatt for her guidance throughout this project. I also wish to thank Betsi Timm for her analytical work as well as her encouragement and support. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION 1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5 The Effects of Unit Operations on the Mineral Content of Food 5 Peanut Processing and its Effects on Minerals 8 Tuna Processing and its Effects on Minerals 10 Milling of Grain and its Effects on Minerals 12 Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in Foods 15 Role of Sodium and Potassium in Body Metabolism 17 Sodium Requirement in Humans 18 Dietary Sodium and Hypertension 19 Dietary Potassium and Hypertension 21 Salt Substitutes and Potassium Chloride 22 Use of Sodium Chloride - Potassium Chloride Mixtures in Food 26 The Role of Salt in Breadmaking 29 MATERIALS AND METHODS 31 Peanuts 31 Tuna Fish 31 Flour 32 Sample Preparation 32 Moisture Determination 33 Fat Determination 33 Dry Ashing Procedure 33 Sodium, Potassium and Calcium Determinations 34 Phosphorus Determination 34 Preliminary Bread Study 35 Bread Preparation 36 Mineral Analyses 36 Flavor Panel Evaluation 37 Statistical Analysis of Flour, Tuna and Peanuts 37 Statistical Analysis of Bread Flavor Panel Evaluation 38 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 39 The Effects of Processing on Sodium - Potassium and Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in Tuna Fish 39 Moisture and Fat Content of Tuna Samples 39 Sodium in Raw Tuna 39 Potassium in Raw Tuna 41 The Effect of Precooking on Sodium, Potassium, Calcium and Phosphorus levels in Tuna 44 Sodium, Potassium, Calcium and Phosphorus Levels in Tuna Canned in Oil 45 Sodium, Potassium, Calcium and Phosphorus Levels in Tuna Canned in Water 45 Sodium - Potassium and Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in Canned Tuna 47 Summary of the Effects of Processing on Tuna 49 Page RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (continued) The Effects of Processing on Sodium - Potassium and Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in Peanuts 51 Moisture and Fat Content of Peanut Samples 52 Mineral Levels in Raw Peanuts 52 Effect of Roasting on Mineral Levels in Peanuts 52 Effect of Blanching on Mineral Levels in Peanuts 56 The Mineral Content of Peanut Butter 56 The Sodium - Potassium and Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in Peanut Butter 57 Summary of the Effects of Processing on Peanut Butter 59 The Effects of Processing on Sodium - Potassium and Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in Wheat Products 61 Moisture and Fat Content of Wheat Products 61 Mineral Composition of Bran 63 Mineral Composition of Wheat Germ 63 Mineral Composition of the Whole Wheat Kernel 65 Mineral Composition of Flours 66 The Sodium - Potassium and Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in Flours 68 Composition of High Selenium Wheat 69 Summary of the Effects of Processing on the Sodium - Potassium and Calcium - Phosphorus Ratios in White and Whole Wheat Flour 72 Overall Desirability of White and Whole Wheat Breads Made with Sodium Chloride or a 1:1 Sodium - Potassium Chloride Mixture 75 Difference Test 78 The Sodium and Potassium Content of White and Whole Wheat Breads 78 The Sodium - Potassium Ratios of White and Whole Wheat Breads 80 Conclusions from the Overall Desirability Flavor Tests 80 Conclusions from the Triangle Tests 81 SUMMARY 84 BIBLIOGRAPHY 86 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Mean sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus levels in tuna fish as effected by processing. 50 2. Mean sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus levels in peanuts as effected by processing. 60 3. Mean, sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus levels in wheat products as effected by processing. 73 4. Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) levels in white and whole wheat breads. 82 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Moisture and fat content of tuna fish during processing. 40 2. The Sodium, Potassium, Calcium and Phosphorus content of tuna fish during processing. 42 3. Percent retention of minerals in precooked, canned in oil and canned in water tuna fish. 43 4. The sodium - potassium and calcium - phosphorus ratios of tuna fish during processing. 48 5. Moisture and fat content of peanuts during processing. 53 6. Sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus levels in peanuts during processing. 54 7. Percent retention of minerals in blanched peanuts and peanut butter. 55 8. Sodium - potassium and calcium - phosphorus ratios of peanuts during processing. 58 9. Sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus levels in wheat as effected by processing. 62 10. Sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus levels in wheat as effected by processing. 64 11. Percent retention of sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus in flour. 67 12. Sodium - potassium and calcium - phosphorus ratios in wheat as effected by processing. 70 13. Sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus levels in high selenium wheat. 71 14. Overall desirability of experimental white and whole wheat breads. 76 15. Sodium, potassium and sodium - potassium ratios of white and whole wheat breads. 79 THE EFFECTS OF PROCESSING ON SODIUM-POTASSIUM AND CALCIUM- PHOSPHORUS RATIOS IN FOODS INTRODUCTION The major purpose of processing foods is to free man from total dependence on geography and climate in providing for his nutritional needs and wants (Harris and von Loesecke, 1960). Consumers, being generally removed from agriculture, have little understanding of what is involved in creating food products. The advent of nutritional labeling has helped to make them both aware and concerned about the nutrient content of processed foods. This awareness emphasizes the importance of obtaining information concerning losses or increases in nutrients due to processing to provide optimal nutritional quality in the processed product (Meredith and Dull, 1979). The effect of pro- cessing on the nutritional value of some foods and some nutrients has been well researched. It is important however to update and add to this information due to the changes in varieties of plants and growing conditions, changes in the methods of processing, improved methods of assay and the lack of information concerning several nutrients (Bender, 1978). Processing in general is expected to affect all classes of nutrients Yet vitamins are by far the most widely studied group. Ascorbic acid, thiamine and vitamin A have received most of the research effort as they are used as indices of retention when evaluating processing technology (Lund, 1979).
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