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Terrorism Anxiety and Attitudes Toward Muslims Diala Hawi1, Danny Osborne2, Joseph Bulbulia2, & Chris G

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Terrorism Anxiety and Attitudes Toward Muslims Diala Hawi1, Danny Osborne2, Joseph Bulbulia2, & Chris G Terrorism anxiety and attitudes towards Muslims Terrorism Anxiety and Attitudes toward Muslims Diala Hawi1, Danny Osborne2, Joseph Bulbulia2, & Chris G. Sibley2 1 Doha Institute for Graduate Studies, Qatar, 2 University of Auckland, New Zealand Many communities in New Zealand were left shaken following the terrorist attack against two Muslim mosques in Christchurch on March 15, 2019. However, historical records and expert assessments warned of a far-right anti-Muslim act of violence for some time. Our study examined people’s reported anxiety about the possibility of a terrorist attack in New Zealand using data from the 2017/2018 New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (N = 17,072). Although anxiety regarding a potential terrorist attack was low, warmth toward Muslims correlated negatively with terrorism anxiety. Numerous other socio-demographic and attitudinal variables (e.g., age, gender, political orientation, nationalism, and aspects of personality) also correlated with terrorism anxiety. Collectively, our results reveal a relatively strong association between terrorism anxiety and attitudes toward Muslims. It remains an open question as to whether this association will endure over time, despite growing evidence of terrorism stemming from the far-right. Keywords: terrorism, terrorism anxiety, Muslim attitudes, Christchurch, New Zealand Introduction supremacy and violence, particularly attack occurring in their country prior to On March 15, 2019, a sole gunman against minority religious and ethnic the terrorism incident in Christchurch? with professed connections to white groups (e.g., Blazak, 2001; Freilich, According to most media reports, New nationalism and supremacy attacked two Chermak, & Caspi, 2009). While Freilich Zealanders were not deeply concerned mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand et al. (2009) acknowledge the threat of about mass shootings or terror attacks (Coaston, 2019; Koziol, 2019). The international terrorist groups such as Al happening in the country (Campbell, terrorist attack (George, Berlinger, Qaeda, their work also draws attention to 2019).1 Indeed, given that New Zealand Whiteman, Kaur, Westcott, & Wagner, the danger and threat that homegrown far- was ranked as the second safest country 2019), which killed 50 Muslims and right groups pose (see also Bonilla‐Silva, in the world and the 114th impacted by injured 50 more, left the city of 2007). In a survey of 37 states in the terrorism (Institute for Economics and Christchurch—and the rest of the United States (US), far-right groups like Peace, 2018), such a sense of security was world—in a state of shock (Savage, Neo-Nazis, skinheads, and militias each understandable. Moreover, the last mass 2019). However, within days of the outnumbered Islamic Jihadist extremists killing in New Zealand occurred 22 years incident, news articles and opinion pieces (Freilich, Chermak, & Simone, 2009). In ago (Leask, 2017). Therefore, we would emerged that described the growing fact, the number of violent attacks or expect that only a small percentage of presence of white supremacy in threats from the far-right in the US had non-Muslim New Zealanders would be Christchurch as early as the 1970s (Ainge increased between 2007 and 2012 (i.e., worried about terrorism occurring in New Roy & McGowan, 2019; Wright, 2019). the time of publication), while Muslim- Zealand. Moreover, this was not the first time the American terrorism declined Second, the present study aims to Muslim community in New Zealand had precipitously over a similar timespan (i.e., identify the group(s) that New Zealanders been attacked over the years (Kabir, between 2001 and 2012; Perliger, 2012). associate with terrorism, and specifically 2016; Shaver, Troughton, Sibley, & Relatedly, fatalities from far-right groups whether attitudes toward Muslims Bulbulia., 2016). Nevertheless, have outnumbered those from Muslim predicts anxiety about terrorist attacks. immediately after this latest attack, extremist groups between 2001 (right Although the March 15 Mosque attacks academics and experts highlighted the after the 9/11 attacks) and 2012 were carried out by a white male who spread of white supremacist and (Kurzman, 2013). Finally, according to publicly expressed support for white nationalist groups that were left FBI reports, more suspected far-right supremacy, and historical records suggest uninvestigated and under the radar while domestic terrorists have been arrested that there is a growing threat of far-right “New Zealand’s security agencies than those “inspired by international terrorism led by whites (at the global investigated and infiltrated the Muslim terror groups” (Barrett, 2019), and most level; Perliger, 2012; Wright, 2019), it is community, animal rights groups and far-right extremist suspects have been unclear whether New Zealanders could environmental organisations” (Ainge Roy White men (Gruenewald, 2011). have imagined a white terrorist in their & McGowan, 2019). The purpose of this study is to address midst.2 Despite the growing evidence to Outside of New Zealand, research has two questions: First, to what extent did the contrary, past research on media and also found connections between white New Zealanders worry about a terrorist prejudice would suggest that most people 1 However, this may not be the case for against further attacks repeatedly over the years al., 2016), the possibility of a white terrorist is Muslims, who have suffered a number of attacks (Ainge Roy & McGowan, 2019). objectively more plausible. But this is not to say against their community and mosques for over 2 Given that most group-based violence in New that the public’s perceptions reflect this two decades (Kabir, 2016) and have warned Zealand has been targeted against (rather than likelihood. perpetrated by) Muslims (Kabir, 2016, Shaver et New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 80 Terrorism anxiety and attitudes towards Muslims would picture a terrorist with a Muslim one study, individuals who viewed relevant measures for the analysis. The (rather than a New Zealand European) Muslims more negatively, particularly mean age of the sample was 51.27 (SD = background (Kabir, 2006; Pedersen, when it came to “warmth” stereotypes 13.73), where 63.4% of the sample were Watt, & Griffiths, 2007; Shaver, Sibley, (e.g., violence and trustworthiness), were women (36.6% were men), 81.6% Osborne, & Bulbulia, 2017). more likely to support the “War on identified as primarily New Zealand Although far-right white supremacist Terror” (Sides & Gross, 2013). Similarly, European, 11.6% identified as primarily violence (i.e., terrorism) is on the rise, the German participants implicitly perceived Māori, 2.7% identified as primarily public and state-level reaction has Muslims to be more aggressive and Pacific Islander, and 4.1% identified as seemingly failed to take notice (Bouie, supportive of terrorism than Christians primarily Asian. In addition, 63.9% of the 2019). Unfortunately, media coverage has (Fischer, Greitemeyer, & Kastenmüller, sample did not identify with any religion similarly downplayed the threat of 2007). Another study that examined data or spiritual group, 31.5% identified as terrorism from far-right white nationalists from five major Western countries Christian, while the rest identified with (Aly, 2007). One study found that similarly found that participants other religious or spiritual groups, “attacks by Muslims received perceived Muslims as violent and including 0.2% who identified as Muslim. significantly more coverage than attacks supportive of terrorist groups (Ciftci, by non-Muslims” (Kearns, Betus, & 2012; Shaver et al., 2017). Materials Lemieux, 2019, p.10). Another study on Based on the recent reports and Feeling Thermometer New Zealand mainstream newspapers evidence on New Zealand, we predicted To measure our focal predictor, found that hard news tended to portray that only a small portion of New Zealand participants were asked to indicate how Muslims as “dangerous others” (Kabir & participants would be highly worried over warm they felt toward a number of groups Bourk, 2012). Indeed, the media – in its a terrorist attack occurring in their using a “feeling/affective thermometer” various types – has perpetuated, if not country in 2017/2018 (when our data was for each group. The groups included here created, a stereotypical link between collected). Despite the hypothesized low were Muslims, Indians, Chinese, Arabs and/or Muslims and terrorism levels of concern over a terrorist attack Immigrants (in general), Refugees, (Karim, 2003; Saleem & Anderson, 2013; though, lower warmth toward Muslims Pacific Islanders, Asians, Māori, and New Shaheen, 2009). Moreover, previous should still predict terrorism anxiety Zealand Europeans. Responses were research from the New Zealand Attitudes among our sample. Finally, to rated on a scale ranging from 1 (“feel and Values Study has found a link demonstrate the robustness of our results, LEAST WARM toward this group”) to 7 between media exposure and anti-Muslim we also include a number of demographic (“feel MOST WARM toward this attitudes in New Zealand (Shaver et al., and attitudinal covariates. group”). 2017). Covariates To what extent, then, do attitudes METHOD To better identify the specific role of toward Muslims predict fear of terrorist Sampling Procedure warmth toward Muslims in predicting attacks in New Zealand? According to Data for this study came from Time 9 Terrorism anxiety, our statistical model various studies across the world, the
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