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TFLACSO-2020DCPR.Pdf www.flacsoandes.edu.ec Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, FLACSO Ecuador Departamento de Estudios Internacionales y Comunicación Convocatoria 2017 - 2019 Tesis para obtener el título de maestría de investigación en Relaciones Internacionales con mención en Seguridad y Derechos Humanos Retórica de alianzas y discordias: El enfrentamiento entre Estados Unidos y Rusia en el marco del conflicto sirio desde la óptica de la Geopolítica Crítica (período 2013-2018) Daniela Carolina Pazmiño Rosas Asesor: Lester Cabrera Toledo Lectores: Fredy Rivera Vélez y Raúl Salgado Espinoza Quito, marzo de 2020 www.flacsoandes.edu.ec Dedicatoria A mis padres, César y Aracely, pues sin su infinito amor, apoyo y guía a lo largo de mi vida, no hubiese podido lograr las metas que me he propuesto. Nunca terminaré de darles las gracias por proporcionarme la formación personal y profesional necesaria que me permite acercarme cada vez más a mis sueños. 母と父、愛してる! II www.flacsoandes.edu.ec Tabla de contenidos Resumen ………………………………………………………………………... VII Agradecimientos ………………………………………………………….......... IX Introducción ……………………………………………………………………. 1 Del conflicto interno a la intervención: ¿Qué sucede en Siria? ……........ 1 Metodología……………………………………………………………… 7 Capítulo 1 ………………………………………………………………………. 11 Alianzas y discordias: Perspectivas teóricas …………………………………. 11 1. Introducción ………………………………………………………………. 11 2. Realismo ………………………………………………………………….. 12 3. Liberalismo ……………………………………………………………….. 17 4. Constructivismo …………………………………………………………... 24 5. Geopolítica Crítica ……………………………………………………….. 30 6. Conclusiones ……………………………………………………………... 37 Capítulo 2 ………………………………………………………………………. 39 Intervención internacional en Siria: Escenarios e implicaciones geopolíticas de una Proxy War ………………………………………………………………. 39 1. Introducción ………………………………………………………………. 39 2. Internacionalización del conflicto sirio …………………………………... 40 3. La importancia de Siria en el escenario geopolítico regional ……………. 49 4. Intervención humanitaria internacional como agravante a la crisis siria … 64 5. Conclusiones ……………………………………………………………... 70 Capítulo 3 ………………………………………………………………………. 74 La retórica de la intervención en Siria: ¿Cómo se construye la distinción amigo-enemigo / aliado-contrincante en el discurso de las potencias? ……... 74 1. Introducción ………………………………………………………………. 74 2. La Organización de Naciones Unidas: La instrumentalización política del guardián de la paz mundial ……………………………………………….. 75 3. Estados Unidos y Rusia: Cuando las potencias se disputan la hegemonía en Medio Oriente ………………………………………………………… 81 3.1. Breve reseña histórica de una enemistad íntima …………………… 81 3.2. Uso de armas químicas en Siria: La construcción del rival y el III www.flacsoandes.edu.ec enemigo …………………………………………………………….. 87 3.3. Hegemonía disfrazada de humanitarismo ………………………….. 94 4. Conclusiones ……………………………………………………………... 102 Capítulo 4 ………………………………………………………………………. 105 Siria como el centro neurálgico de alianzas y divergencias regionales: El discurso de Irán e Israel y su incidencia en la edificación y curso de sus relaciones en el marco del conflicto sirio ……………………………………... 105 1. Introducción………………………………………………………………. 105 2. Israel, Irán y la amenaza existencial ……………………………………… 106 2.1. De la amistad a la agresión ………………………………………… 106 2.2. La lucha contra el terrorismo ………………………………………. 111 2.3. El programa nuclear iraní …………………………………………... 115 2.4. Cuestiones identitarias ……………………………………………... 118 2.5. La intervención en el conflicto sirio ……………………………….. 122 3. El enclave estratégico: Postura de Siria ante la intervención internacional ……………………………………………………………………………. 128 4. Conclusiones …………………………………………………………….. 134 Conclusiones generales ……………………………………………………… 137 Lista de siglas y acrónimos ………………………………………………….. 144 Lista de referencias ………………………………………………………….. 145 IV www.flacsoandes.edu.ec Lista de ilustraciones y tablas Mapas 2.1. Blancos del bombardeo de abril de 2018, efectuado por el P3………………………………………………………………………… 48 2.2. Límites territoriales de la República Árabe Siria………………………... 50 2.3. Ubicación geográfica de la Base Naval de Tartus ………………………. 52 2.4. Ruta por la que la flota rusa debería transitar para abrirse paso al Mediterráneo de no contar con una base en Tartus – Siria ……………... 53 2.5. Ubicación geográfica de la Base Aérea de Khmeimim …………………. 54 2.6. Oleoductos que atraviesan el subsuelo sirio …………………………….. 55 V www.flacsoandes.edu.ec www.flacsoandes.edu.ec Resumen El conflicto que se desarrolla dentro de las fronteras de la República Árabe Siria es, no sólo uno de los enfrentamientos armados más prolongados presenciados en las últimas décadas, sino una conflagración que mutó de las protestas pacíficas a la pugna interna, llegando a extenderse hacia las zonas circundantes al país árabe. Es precisamente este efecto de transnacionalización, sumado a las ventajas geopolíticas de Siria (a saber, su posición geográfica privilegiada, yacimientos de recursos naturales e influencia en el acontecer político regional), fueron factores que propiciaron la participación de grandes potencias mundiales, como son Estados Unidos y Rusia, y sus respectivos aliados en la zona de Oriente Medio, Israel e Irán, respectivamente. Es así que Siria se ha convertido en el escenario de un enfrentamiento periférico, donde los países antes mencionados se relacionan bajo las dicotomías de amigo-enemigo y aliado- contrincante. Por tal motivo, las alianzas y las discordias no sólo se manifiestan en el campo de batalla, sino que se aprecian en actos políticos como son los discursos pronunciados por los representantes de Estados Unidos y Rusia ante el Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas, en el caso de las potencias, y de los presidentes de Irán e Israel ante el pleno de la Asamblea General del mismo organismo, en lo que respecta a los países aliados. Con base en lo expuesto, esta investigación busca comprender de qué manera las dicotomías amigo-enemigo / aliado-contrincante, expresadas a través del discurso en el seno de la Organización de Naciones Unidas, pueden explicar los intereses de Estados Unidos y Rusia, así como de sus aliados, Israel e Irán, para intervenir política y militarmente en el conflicto en la República Árabe Siria. Con el fin de responder a esta interrogante, este trabajo se ubica dentro de la disciplina de la Geopolítica Crítica, pero se caracteriza por tener un sustento teórico incluyente, el cual incorpora premisas realistas, liberales y constructivistas, por cuanto se considera que el conjunto de estas teorías permiten ofrecer una mejor explicación a distintos aspectos del conflicto sirio. Dada esta premisa, el método de investigación seleccionado fue el estudio de caso y la técnica elegida fue el análisis crítico del discurso, considerando el rol que éste desempeña dentro del campo de la Geopolítica Crítica; motivo por el cual se escogieron seis discursos representativos de los líderes y representantes políticos de los países objeto de estudio proclamados en el período 2013-2018. VII www.flacsoandes.edu.ec La investigación permitió concluir que Siria es considerada un enclave relevante para el apuntalamiento del poder de las potencias en Medio Oriente y, por lo tanto, la intervención de Estados Unidos y Rusia, aunque escudada bajo premisas de humanitarismo y defensa de la soberanía, en realidad está motivada por intereses geopolíticos, como son la obtención de ventajas militares en terreno del país árabe y la expansión de sus respectivas esferas de influencia. En lo que respecta a los proxies, Irán e Israel, estos países conciben a Siria como una palestra más de su histórico enfrentamiento, por lo que su participación en el conflicto responde a una estrategia de impedir el avance militar del enemigo, toda vez que demuestran su apoyo a las potencias con las que guardan afinidad política e ideológica. A partir de estos resultados, es posible aseverar que prácticas como la Responsabilidad de Proteger (R2P), pueden ser consideradas como retórica hegemónica, pues se llevan a cabo sin tener en cuenta una intención de paliar el sufrimiento humano, sino que son instrumentalizadas a favor de los intereses de las grandes potencias, es decir, evocan un discurso neocolonialista. VIII www.flacsoandes.edu.ec Agradecimientos A toda mi familia, por darme su amor incondicional, confiar en mí y brindarme su apoyo en todos mis proyectos de vida. A Enrique, mi compañero de vida, por su amor y aliento en todo momento, gracias por ser mi fan #1. A mi Asesor, Dr. Lester Cabrera, maestro y amigo, pues gracias a su confianza, dedicación, consejos y enseñanzas culmino exitosamente esta importante etapa de mi vida académica. みなさんありがとうございま IX www.flacsoandes.edu.ec Introducción Del conflicto interno a la intervención: ¿Qué sucede en Siria? La Primavera Árabe, fenómeno producido en 2011, fue una oleada de manifestaciones y proclamas emancipatorias en las que los pueblos de Medio Oriente clamaron por reformas políticas y sociales a los gobiernos autoritarios de la región. Si bien la chispa revolucionaria de este episodio propició el derrocamiento de gobiernos como los de Zine El Abidine Ben Ali en Túnez, y de Hosni Mubarak en Egipto, en el camino que condujo a dichas cesaciones, hubo derramamiento de sangre. Por otro lado, y en el caso de países como Libia, Yemen y Siria, la Primavera Árabe mutó en un escenario donde la conflictividad y violencia han propiciado crisis humanitarias y políticas (Ricalde 2016). El conflicto que germinó, y que actualmente se sigue librando en la República Árabe Siria es alimentado, en
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