Classification Code NP Computer Applications 124 Telecommunication; adar, Radio and Television 114 Computer Software, Data Handling and Applications 87 Information Science 81 Impact of Technology on Society 75 Education 58 Telephone Systems and Related Technologies; Line Communications 54 Optical Communication 53 Data Processing and Image Processing 48 Industrial Economics 48
Sasaki, Hirofumi, James, Jeffrey, Yahara, topics of the DD, (c) frameworks/perspectives Mitsutoshi, and Fujimoto, Kuniaki are authors of the DD, and (d) suggested solutions for the from top in the list of the DD publications. DD (See table 8). Among 340 papers produced from the key 5) Distribution by Subject Category word“digital divide”search in EV2 database, Table 7 shows that“Computer Applications,” the researcher categorized papers based on Telecommunication; Radar, Radio and four main trends. the quite numbers of Television,”“Computer Software, Data papers are excluded in this categorized Handling and Applications,”“Information process because some papers belonged in Science,”“Impact of Technology on Society,” multiple trends and the paper belonged in and“Education”are the most frequently used only one unique trends. classification code appearing in the DD As seen in Table 8, the total numbers of publications. papers showed regional evidences both in domestic settings and global settings was 43. 2. Research Trends and Forecasts In the domestic setting, the relative number of studies (12) have been conducted in Asia Papers produced from the key word“digital compared with other areas. And, the number divide”search in EV2 database were reviewed of studies for comparing the DD in cross- and analyzed based on their main topics, countries (global settings) was only nine approaches, and suggested solutions for the because the DD in global settings might be DD. Categorizing these papers identified a difficulty to collect data and to define scope number of research themes/trends:(a) of study. In addition, the number of studies regional evidence (Geography), (b) specific has focused on comparison between urban
and rural regardless of within or outside industry also have been popular topics of the countries, which led the researcher sub- DD to many researchers. In terms of the categorized urban/rural in this study. perspectives, some papers shared common As seen in Table 8, the trends of papers perspectives and adopted the similar showed specific topics of the DD were frameworks for the DD studies as indicated education (20), e-government (12), medical in Table 6. The socio-economic perspective industry (6), others including politics (4), has been adopted by numerous researchers entertainment (2), and Information security (11) to study DD. The behavioral perspective (3). The number of DD studies in the was the second popular approach to multiple education context was higher than other researchers (7). Other popular frameworks or areas because education has been highly paid theories for the DD studies were individual attention to by numerous researchers. technology diffusion/acceptance model (7), However, e-government and medical ethnography approach (3), and organizational
Research TrendsAsia 12 North/South America 7 Domestic Settings Africa 7 Regional Evidences Europe 8 Global Settings 9 Urban/Rural 13 Education 20 E-government 12 Digital Divide in Specific Medical Industry 6 Topics Politics 4 Others Entertainment 2 Information Security 3 Socio-economic 11 Behavioral 7 Individual technology Perspectives 7 Diffusion/acceptance Model Frameworks Ethnography Approach 3 Organizational Adoption 3 Wireless/Mobile 13 Public Policies 7 Sharing/borrowing 6 Solutions Cooperation 5 Others Human Computer Interaction (HCI) 4 Robotics 2
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adoption (3). This indicated that individual other areas, such as HCI, cooperation, and technology diffusion/acceptance model has robotics. been frequently used in studying the DD. In the next section, the seminal studies The DD solutions suggested by the studies and their key findings are discussed based were wireless and mobile (13), public policies on the above categorized trends. (7), sharing/borrowing (6), and others including cooperation (5), HCI (4), and robotics 1) Regional Evidence in the DD (2). Wireless and mobile including satellite Despite the efforts devoted to the analysis technology was suggested by numerous of the DD over the last years, the regional studies as the most powerful solutions for evidence on this issue is still scarce (Vicente & the DD issues. In addition, some studies L pez, 2011). As a result, this study attempts emphasized the cooperation to solve the DD to show the taxonomy of the regional evidence problems. For instance, information and of the DD found in the EV2 database from financial cooperation between content owners, 2000 to 2011. users, and advertisers was important (Kabulov, et al., 2010), emphasizing the cooperation of (1) Regional Evidence in Asia ICT standardization (Canazza, 2009), and Many scholars in numerous Asian countries cooperation of the telecommunications sector have actively used populations within their to reduce the DD (Azam, 2008). countries to explain the DD issues. Physical Through above discussion of research impairment has been considered as a factor trends, in the context of regional evidences in the DD studies. Yeh and colleagues (2008), (geographical evidences), more studies in the who developed the alternative input device global settings will be needed for the balance and an adapted web platform, conducted of domestic settings. In the case of specific testing of people in Taiwan who both did and topics of the DD, further studies need to a did not have physical impairments. Chung little more focus on medical industry, politics, and colleagues (2010) conducted another DD entertainment, and information security areas. study in the Taiwan region in order to In terms of perspectives and frameworks, it is describe the current status of the DD in desired that behavioral perspectives, and Taiwan for government policy makers ethnography and organization approaches will (Chung, et al., 2010). Their study found that be more adopted for the DD studies in the the cause of the DD in Taiwan was mainly a future. In the case of suggested solutions for lack of willingness and ability to learn among the DD issues, many studies have suggested those with lower educational backgrounds wireless and mobile solutions. However, and/or elderly individuals, which was more attentions should be paid to the areas significantly different from the causes of the of public policies, sharing/borrowing, and DD that had been previously mentioned, such as
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the expense of computer equipment and order to show the immense impact that Internet access fees, poor connectivity and availability of information and communication bandwidth, or a lack of availability of computer technologies could have on rural economies access in public places. The other study also and societies there. Further, Rao’s (2005) study investigated the impact of DD factors on highlighted India in the context of the DD by perceived motivation to utilize technology to looking at India’s infrastructural bottleneck learn English in Taiwan (Chuang, et al., that includes electricity, IT penetration, 2009). In this study four DD-related factors teledensity, and Internet industry, and its were determined: (a) perceived computer and enabling policies to transform India into a Internet skills, (b) school-related Internet knowledge society. The article also discussed use, (c) computer and Internet resources various technology options for connectivity, outside the home, and (d) gaming/leisure use terrestrial wireless, satellite, and wireline, of the Internet. by presenting snap shots of selected and A DD study in the Thailand region addressed successful projects that made an impact in and reviewed the strategies of the DD mainly helping to bridge DD in India. Jing’s (2007) by focusing on ICT accessibility for the poor, study compared an overview of the DD on a the disabled, and the elderly (Punyabukkana, global basis with the specific aspects of the et al., 2008). Fahmi (2002) conducted a study DD in construction of Guizhou Province, regarding the challenges and struggles of the China. Indonesian Digital Library Network as a result of the DD. Razak and colleagues (2010) (2) Regional Evidence in North and South presented findings from a study they America conducted on the effectiveness of the training White and Lester (2001) proposed to use a programs offered at the telecenter, which medium that is culturally relevant to inner- included training for policymakers and city youth—i.e., hip-hop music—to increase telecenter managers in Malaysia. Still, information technology awareness and another study (Aziz, 2009) discussed the acceptance, fostering the use of resources researcher’s ongoing experience in building that offer wealth-creation in an Internet- a community portal for underserved children based economy in the USA. Another study in Malaysia. (Ben ez, 2006) explored some dimensions of the Lalmas and colleagues (2007) investigated a DD among Salvadoran immigrants in the DD issue in an Indian village regarding the Washington DC metropolitan area. This current availability of information technology study concluded that the limited accessibility access. Likewise, Mohanty (2008) critically to the Internet and ICTs among Salvadoran examined the existing problems and immigrants, particularly in terms of generation, possibilities of digital development in India in need to be considered to design and implement
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communication and technology policies. Qureshi and favorite spot to test DD issues. Agbeja and Trumbly-Lamsam (2008) investigated how Salawu (2007) studied the digital gap information and communication technology between Sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of was communicated in Native American the world. Kim (2010) suggested a model communities, using a framing analysis of tribal based on Internet penetration percent (IPP) newspapers to develop key concepts and and capital GDP in the context of Africa. relationships that explain how the DD takes Another study regarding the DD in Africa place. (Ch neau-Loquay, 2007) presented multiple M nard and Proulx (2007) discussed an approaches in focusing on the opportunities engineering exercise that a providing wireless of new technologies for Africa, based on case high-speed Internet access to as few as 25 studies. Cunningham’s work (2004) discussed subscribers located in rural areas in Canada in two DD issues: (a) technology divide between order to lead commercial success in other rural Africa and the rest of the world and how to areas throughout the world. Mariscal’s work bridge it, and (b) the characteristics of (2005) focused on DD issues in Mexico. Her study integrated strategies for the new world collected from the various recommendations for economy. Fuchs and Horak (2008: 99-116) telecommunications policies and developed took a look at the global DD concerning Africa frameworks to examine the case of Mexico in and analyzed the situation using specific considering the social capital concept. A examples (Ghana, South Africa). Mutula’s study by B ez and Kocaoglu (2007) applied (2005) study provided a proposal on how e- the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) as a governance could be used to narrow the DD methodology to provide appropriate information within libraries in Africa. Roycroft and about which technology will have the greatest Anantho (2003) identified the factors impact on bridging the gap of the DD based on a affecting Internet subscription in African case study of Costa Ricans. nations, such as English as the official Bogle and Irving’s (2008) study outlined the language, the monopoly of the ISP market forms of distance education and other structure, the overall economic development, emerging challenges faced by certain regions and the amount of international bandwidth. in the Caribbean as the formal education system is transformed, as well as opportunities (4) Regional Evidence in Europe of capitalizing with offshore marketing and Cooke and Greenwood (2008) reported the blended learning to address issues in the DD of findings of research into the extent and the these Caribbean regions. impact of restricted access by specific groups to ICT-based communications in UK and (3) Regional Evidence in Africa higher education institutions.Various aspects The African region has been another of digitization programs to reduce the DD in
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relation to the UK’s army were discussed by found that the size of the residence district Pengelley (2005). impacted on the condition of asymmetric Bayrakci’s (2009) study aimed to determine digital subscriber line (ADSL) expansion. and identify possible policy actions, Minguez’s (2006) study presented a comparative structures, and applications to achieve a fully analysis of the effect that new technologies inclusive information society in Turkey. have had on the social structure and on unequal Vandenbroeck and colleagues (2007) conducted access by gender in Southern European a study to assess to what degree technology countries, particularly in Spain. Its findings may be integrated into family day care (FDC) suggested that inequalities were more providers’experience, cultures, and beliefs significant in the group of women with low based on a case study of family day care educational levels than those who were not providers in Flanders, Belgium. Another study integrated into the labor market because of (Feij o, et al., 2006) examined the role of the family-based culture that characterizes wireless technologies in the development of Southern European countries, where women broadband in Europe and presented a progress have historically been confined to the private model for broadband and a case study of the environment of the family, thus limiting their wireless communications market of Latvia, opportunity for integration into the labor which entered the European Union (EU) in market and exposure to new technologies. May 2004. Vodoz and colleagues’(2007) study was (5) Regional Evidence in Global Settings conducted in the context of farmers and Beyond studying the local settings within workers in Switzerland, and the findings of countries, inter-countries or a group of this study suggested that the priority for countries have been used to better understand reducing inequalities of access to ICT DD issues in a global setting. Many scholars resources is no longer the provision of high- use global or international lenses to look at performance ICT infrastructures for peripheral DD issues. regions, but rather the implementation of For example, Cullen’s work (2003) examined continuing education and social action policies a number of these issues at the national level within the urban centers. in the USA, UK, Canada, and New Zealand, An analysis was made in a community of looking for the evidence of the DD, assessing Madrid by G mez-Barroso and P rez-Mart nez factors that contribute to it, and evaluating (2007) to test the adequate broadband strategies that can help reduce it based on infrastructure based on the size of a municipality, socio-economic factors, geographical factors, which was measured by number of inhabitants, educational, attitudinal, and generational households, telephone lines, or economic activity factors. Cullen also explored whether the units. The analysis of this Madrid community presence of physical disabilities was a factor
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of the DD. foster indigenous rural innovation systems Kosuge’s work (2006) described Japan’s devoted to finding relevant and cost- Asia Broadband Program to reduce the DD effective applications of the Internet.” problems in the Asia Pacific region, especially Chircu and Mahajan (2009) showed that Japan, Singapore, and China, by building the the DD appeared different from what was space infrastructure for the development of previously thought for the fastest-growing an ICT society. Wong’s (2002) study examined developing countries—Brazil, Russia, India, possible determinants, such as whether Asian and China (BRIC)—based on 2006 data, while countries have been slow to adopt ICT in mobile technology depth that was number of comparison to non-Asian countries. This was subscriptions as percentage of population done by providing an empirical evidence on was lower in BRIC. the basis of their current level of development Boje and Dragulanescu (2003) provided a (GDP/per capita) and competitiveness (world comparative study of different kinds of the competitiveness index). DD between emerging democracies (or new James (2011) focused on the use of mobile market-oriented economies) from Eastern phones based on settings during the period Europe, as well as differences between them from 2000 to 2006. His findings ranked some and developed countries (e.g., Western Europe, countries based on their performance of the USA), due to the scarce attention paid to use of mobile phones based on their income how to solve the Eastern European digital levels. Pick and Azari (2007) analyzed the disparity. Their study measured the DD influence of education and the workforce, as across the regions of 27 European member well as economic and policy factors, on ICT states, and within each country, and usage, expenditure, and infrastructure in 67 explained the observed regional disparities. countries. Their findings indicate the Vicente and L pez’s (2011) study used a importance of R&D capacity, foreign direct multivariate framework to analyze the DD in investment, government prioritization of 15 European countries to identify factors ICT, and math/science education on the DD. related to the DD (Vicente & L pez, 2006). James (2005) also emphasized the (6) Regional Evidence in Urban/Rural importance of new measures of the Internet Examining and collecting data of the DD in poor countries where individual ownership studies in rural areas within countries seem to of Internet access was very limited among the be a common strategy by numerous scholars population. As James noted in the abstract to because of the obvious difference of technology his article, “We suggest that foreign aid infrastructure between metropolitan and donors and national governments pay less rural areas impacting the DD. Kim and others attention to providing individual access (2011) studied the Korean government’s rural facilities … and focus instead on ways to broadband policies to overcome the limited
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use of interesting and useful services based constraints after a Village Access Project on high-speed Internet in rural areas. Yang (VAP) had been executed over a period of and others (2010) produced a study that four years. focused on discovering the factors (age, One study examined the current status of income, education, region, and gender) information literacy among students in affecting digital inequality, and they tested primary schools in rural and urban areas in their findings in the remote rural areas of Taiwan using influential factors, such as the South Korea. Hossain (2010) targeted local environment, information settings, and persons with disabilities in rural Bangladesh individual backgrounds, as variables for the areas and discussed the importance of adjustment of government policies in Taiwan information and communication technology (Chang & Tsou, 2006). Another study by Patel (ICT) development and accessibility for and others (2006) described“iShakti,”which persons with disabilities. was a real-world, Intelligent, Interactive and Various factors related to the DD that Adaptive Web application, was deployed alienate people from enjoying the benefits of across 1000 rural kiosks in India to reduce ICT in developing countries, especially in the DD problems in daily lives. Bangladesh, were identified by Rahman and Wijers (2010) identified and illustrated key colleagues (2006). Another study was determinants of the DD in the context of conducted by Sun and others (2010) in five information technology development as a urban and rural areas of China regarding the case study of Cambodia. Cullen’s (2003) internet DD. They proposed a policy that study reviewed recent research concerning would serve to encourage the supply and the DD in urban Maori and Pacific Island demand based on increasing government communities in New Zealand and noted information supplies and information factors that alienate people from enjoying demands of rural areas. Chen and colleagues the benefits of information technology and (2009) also studied rural China’s DD issues participation in the knowledge economy. from a social structure perspective, Ferro and others (2005) presented a especially in terms of the DD existing in comparative study on the DD between a rural different types of village structures, such as and main metropolitan area, and showed traditional villages versus industrialized how barriers to technology access and usage villages. Xia and Lu (2008) carried out a may vary in terms of both nature and review of possible deficiencies in the rural intensity of areas. Schleife (2010) conducted areas of China and explored a sustainable an interesting study by focusing on regional institutional arrangement for universal versus individual determinants of the DD. service obligations (USOs) based on the The results indicated that it was the different identification of unique institutional composition of individual characteristics
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between rural and urban populations that to facilitate virtual languages for reducing accounts for the regional DD. At an the DD problems. Another study by Salajan individual level, the findings underlined the and others (2010) examined students’and importance of network effects. faculties’ perceptions regarding the development of digital learning technologies 2) Main Topics in the DD in the curriculum between the native and immigrant of the digital at the University of (1) Education Toronto. Rye (2008) investigated how the A study that took place in Malaysia (Razak, uneven distribution of Internet connection et al., 2010) conducted research on the influences students’participation in higher effectiveness of the training programs education. offered at a telecenter, which included Tien and Fu (2008) looked at two dimensions training for policymakers and telecenter of the DD—computer use and computer managers. Keats and Beebe (2004) addressed knowledge—and identified the correlations digital divide issues in a partially online between the DD and their impact on college masters program in Africa. student learning. The application of Payton (2003) addressed the need to technology in enhancing multicultural and increase efforts to eliminate the DD— multilingual aspects of education at South including increasing minority participation East European University for reducing the in academically gifted programs and DD problems was described by Abazi et al. improving minority performance—based on (2008). the stated perspectives on DD of 41 African- A study by Hohlfeld and colleagues (2008) American teenagers attending high schools provided evidences of the existence of the and middle schools in the USA. DD among Florida’s K-12 schools by looking Bo and Changxian (2010) highlighted that at whether low socio-economic status (SES) educational informatization was the key to schools provide students with equitable bridge the DD and achieve knowledge- supports for achieving information sharing among universities in China. Haler communication technology (ICT) literacy. and Jackson’s (2010) study presented an Another study (Gonz lez, et al., 2006) suggested overview of DD issues associated with the an economic approach to the DD issues by global disparity in availability and cost of focusing on improving cost-effectiveness in bandwidth, and they provided examples and physics teaching laboratory resources to discussions of its relevance to global use of enable students to use expensive laboratory open educational resources. equipment that is not usually accessible to Eamer (2010) suggested the use of students. videoconferencing technology in classrooms Hoole and Hoole (2002) addressed the
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challenge for educators, particularly college teachers all over the world to adapt engineering educators in Third-World MIT courses to their local needs. Doyle found countries, many of which were highly selective, that local learning uses the digital classroom male-dominated, comparatively expensive, and to generate new contents that will empower unconcerned with environmental standards to students with their own blogs and class overcome and address these problems. They wikis, which will ultimately help in crossing determined that a solution would necessitate the DD. the introduction of cheaper ways of Comparisons of engineering education in delivering education and attracting India and some Latin American countries were disfranchised groups to academic programs. made to enhance and improve engineering Wolk’s (2004) study examined and measured education—specifically, to consider their the effect of English language dominance on discipline within the context of regional the DD by focusing on the relationships economic growth (Parmentier, et al., 2006). The between the English language and Internet utilization of new information technologies usage patterns based on two groups based on self-directed learning communities (developed and developing countries) and (SDLC) to bridge the DD was discussed by further subdivided into two groups (English Clark (2003). Another study (Johnson, et al., speaking and non-English speaking). 2006) reported on the successful prototyping Chuang et al. (2009) discussed factors that and evaluation of a low bandwidth, an easy- may be critical in the development of e- to-use tool for distance learning, in order to learning for young Taiwan English learners. address the DD in education. Huang and Russell (2006) explored the relationship between technology accessibility (2) E-government and academic achievement, and addressed A case study regarding mainland China and the fact that the DD exists in technology Macao investigated relationships between the accessibility and cuts through various use of e-government services and theDD and socioeconomic factors in public schools. suggested that a reason for not using the Fourie and Bothma (2006) argued that the services was the lack of computer/Internet DD concerns more than just ICT access and skills (Li, 2008). information skills. They highlighted that A study by Sipior et al. (2011) applied the individual commitment, group work, and technology acceptance model to explore the intellectual and academic support from the DD and transformational government (t- institution might contribute to bringing people government) in the United States. B langer to higher levels of knowledge generation and and Carter’s (2006) study explored the communication. Doyle (2006) discussed the potential effects of the DD on e-government fact that MIT’s OpenCourse project allowed and indicated that income, education, age,
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and frequency of Internet use significantly the web-based PHR much more easily and impact the use of e-government services. Fass efficiently, compared to the elderly and low- (2006) investigated information integration income group. Another study by Rully and and security concerns of national and local e- others (2005) was conducted regarding the use of services, e-voting, and a local e-Gov system. broadband wireless LAN for the implementation Semantic web-based improvements were of telemedicine applications in rural hospitals, proposed as a solution. based on experiments on video transmission, The effects of demographic variables X-ray image transmission, and exchange of identified in the DD literatures on the usage electronic medical documents. With regards to of e-government services have been the“haves”and “have-nots”of PHR, Kim et discussed by B langer and Carter (2009). al. (2005) developed and customized a web- Four types of services were suggested by based patient-centered electronic PHR called Becker and others (2008) for developing the the Personal Health Information Management E-Inclusion-Gap Model, which addresses System (PHIMS), and then evaluated the gaps between service-specific uses. They system. Related to the telemedicine system, were: (a) Internet usage, (b) E-Commerce Masucci et al. (2006) found that underserved usage, (c) E-Government for Information, populations who lack computer experience or and (d) E-Government for Transaction. skills and are at increased risk for Pimenidis et al. (2009) reviewed successful cardiovascular disease (CVD) can be educated implementations of secure and trusted e- to use an Internet telemedicine system to government services available on mobile communicate their health status to their networks for providing services to people health care providers. A study by Houston and living in rural and remote areas. Huang and others (2006) assessed the feasibility of Fang (2010) also analyzed e-government “bridging the DD”by training community efforts to reduce the DD in construction health advisors (CHAs) from low-income areas of Taiwan. communities to use high-quality Internet- based health information in the context of (3) Medical Industry health outreach activities to low-income, low- Specific contexts, like medical settings, have literacy African-American populations in the been useful to scholars who study the DD issues. deep south of the United States. For designing For instance, Kim and Kim (2010) revealed that strategies to overcome the DD among deaf the use of the web-based Personal Health signer users, Fajardo and colleagues (2008) Record (PHR) by the low-income elderly was suggested that knowledge about how limited due to their poor technical skills and low interaction between cognitive and systems physical/cognitive abilities. On the other hand, factors can be used to increase Web the younger and more affluent populations used information knowledge among people who are
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deaf signers. experience with information security practices. Fass (2006) investigated information integration (4) Others and security concerns of national and local e- Some scholars have conducted studies in services, e-voting, and a local e-government political settings. For example, a study by system, and proposed semantic web-based Shirazi and others (2009) investigated the improvements as a solution. relationship between the global expansion of ICT and the level of democracy within 3) Frameworks and Perspectives in the DD nations by analyzing archival data on 133 Because the Internet and ICT have been countries from 1995 to 2003. Two important highly adopted in the industrialized part of the findings from their study were as follows: (a) world, the focus has shifted away from the there is a growing DD in democratic freedoms classical DD, which explained the divide among countries; and (b) in spite of rapid between those who do and do not have access ICT expansion in some countries, Internet to the Internet, to a more explorative focus on filtering is having a significant impact on social divides (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006). democratic freedoms. Another study (Blanger Thus, a variety of frameworks and perspectives & Carter, 2010) explored the impact of the DD regarding the DD are found in publications on Internet voting (I-voting) and proposed a registered in the current EV database. model of I-voting, which determined that age, income, education, and frequency of Internet (1) Socio-economic Perspectives use had an impact on I-voting utilization. Bristow (2009) found that the influence on the Scholars have also paid attention to the DD DD was significantly more socio-economic and in the entertainment setting. Seshagiri and demographic, as well as rather more behavioral Blom (2010) described media use practices and habitual, in terms of technology usage, that were observed among consumers in profiles, and characteristics. India and highlighted affordable digital The social cognitive model of the DD found media design opportunities based on their in the social cognitive theory and computer key findings that the notion of digital media self-efficacy literature was conceptualized acts as a contributor to bridging the DD. and tested with more than 4,000 students in A few publications over the last eleven years Singapore by Wei and colleagues (2011). They have studied the DD from an information developed a model having three levels: (1) the security perspective. Albrechtsen and Hovden digital access divide (the inequality of access (2009) studied surveys and in-depth interviews to information technology in homes and with information security managers and noted schools), (2) the digital capability divide (the that users indicate that a DD exists between inequality of the capability to exploit IT), these groups in terms of their views on and and (3) the digital outcome divide (the
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inequality of outcomes—e.g., learning and A gender-based approach was also often productivity—of exploiting IT). The self- used for the DD study. Minguez (2006) used efficacy of the Internet was also considered one of the social factors of the DD, which was by Lam and Lee (2005) as an important factor the gender perspective in Southern European in their study examining the influences of countries, particularly in Spain. Another the two mediating factors—Internet self- study by Cyprian (2010) investigated for the efficacy and outcome expectations—on comparison of the ICT literacy levels of boy elderly persons’intentions to adopt new and girl students in Nigeria, and made technology (i.e., the Internet). recommendations to narrow the DD. Prieger A study by Bristow (2009) classified users and Hu (2008) examined the gap in broadband as digital natives (always on) and digital access to the Internet between minority groups immigrants (on demand); according to terms and white households with geographically first identified by Prensky (2001a, 2001b), fine data from broadband subscriptions. They “natives”are young people born after 1982 also examined quality of service and that have grown up with technology to such competition as components of the DD, in an extent that it has become integrated into addition to income and demographics. A their lives;“immigrants,”on the other hand, study by Kvasny and others (2007) examined were not born into the technological age but gendered perspectives on the DD, motivations have embraced it even under duress. for engaging in information technology (IT) Azari and Pick (2002) also analyzed the education, and expectations regarding IT socioeconomic influences on technological workforce participation in Kenya. Their levels in 164 counties in the United States findings imply that IT education and regarding the DD, and found that factors workforce entry require a complex mix of that were important in correlating among digital technologies, organizational capacity several technology sectors were the building, gender equity, and IT policy professional, scientific, and technical remedies because women were particularly services workforce, other services workforce, concerned about gender discrimination in the household income, federal grant funds, workplace. college education, and ethnicity. A study by Yuguchi (2008) presented an economic Genus and Nor (2005) considered a social analysis of Japan’s attempt to address the shaping approach to analyze innovation in geographical DD problem for broadband and ICTs in order to assess the prospects for mobile telephone services. To justify return improvements in the DD between developed of investment (ROI) of universal broadband and developing countries and for stimulating in rural or poor areas, Marine and Albrand economic development through the (2006) identified a key factor, the availability promotion of e-business. of technologies that can provide access at
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affordable cost, and they highlighted an ready the nations of the world were to exploit economic approach based on trials that focus the potential of new information and on providing applications and international communication technologies. cooperation. Another study by Adams (2010), Wilbon’s (2003) work also used a behavioral based on human capital theory and labor approach to highlight the importance of the role market theory, used an economic approach of technology environment to narrow the DD by to investigate the discrepancy between suggesting that personality composition— salaries offered among adjunct lecturers particularly motivation, self-esteem, learning utilizing traditional methods of instructional styles, and cognitive thinking—influences a delivery versus those employing online person’s academic performance and the instructional delivery methods. decision to pursue IT education and careers.
(2) Behavioral Perspectives (3) Frameworks Andrews (2010) adopted a grounded A study by Han et al. (2006) suggested an ethnographic and linguistic analysis to technology diffusion model based on Keith understand blog comment threads where Griffin’s model in the context of the blogging “natives”—bloggers and their agricultural green technology revolution and readers—identify “strangers’“ comments as analyzed users’ different choices in errors. His findings suggested that strangers communication technologies in different lack natives’understanding of the Internet’s stages of informatization and the ratio structure, and their references to online between different users’capital and labor. In literacy elements also differ. Andrews another study that used data from the concluded that DD studies should transition Piedmont region in Italy, two competing to a focus on usage patterns and quality, not views were tested: (a) fundamental social access quantity. differences and opportunities (multi- Huang et al. (2003) examined how differences dimensional divide), and (b) determinant of in willingness to trust influence Internet Internet use (access divide) (Gil-Garcia, et adoption rates across countries. Their findings al., 2006). To answer the claim that revealed that trust had a statistically technology diffusion emerges from the significant influence on levels of the Internet existing social order, Wattal et al. (2011) penetration and success in increasing Internet used data on adoption of multiple adoption rates through policies to promote technologies by individuals in the US over trust levels, so that differences in trust may different time periods, and suggested that produce the DD among nations. Luyt (2006) technology diffusion largely took place along showed how e-readiness indicators participated existing social class lines, and that the in defining the problems of DD policy and how arrival of newer technologies ensured that
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the DD was perpetuated. Razak and others training, and maintenance of the ICT and (2010) studied the technology acceptance and information systems for local communities, development to reduce the DD problems by and reviewed the DD that existed between focusing on the impact of the application of the indigenous and nonindigenous sections the device by measuring users’acceptance of the population. toward the device in order to eliminate Ishii (2005) mentioned that only a few technophobia and the complexity of the studies on the DD were undertaken in technology. organizational settings, and considered the Based on a media ethnography approach, human side of the DD in an organizational the analysis by Ben tez (2006), which setting and investigated whether the DD combined structuration theory with diasporic exists in the workplace by examining media studies, was conducted in areas that multiple dimensions of communication included Internet communications, diasporic satisfaction. A study by Forman (2005) websites, the use of mobile phones and explored determinants of Internet adoption teleconferencing, and the transnational affecting the DD in organizational settings dimensions of the DD. McIver and Prokosch by examining Internet adoption decisions in (2002) conducted studies of DD issues within a very large sample of organizations in the the Wiggin Village and the International finance and services sector. Institute of Rhode Island in the USA. They A multi-channel model of separating suggested an approach that was not captured equilibrium was proposed by Riggins (2004) by access-oriented models. Their study to show how the DD, where high type revealed language and social networks are consumers dominate the online channel and often more important in information- low type consumers dominate the offline seeking behavior than having access to a channel, segments the marketplace to reduce telephone, the Internet, or other types of the cannibalization problem. Qureshi and communication such as newspapers. To Davis (2007) suggested a framework that introduce the European perspective on the described the relationship between the tools DD, a study by Brandtzg and colleagues and benefits of e-commerce and its effect on (2010) was conducted to better understand development to overcome the DD. the DD by identifying the variety of ways in which people in Europe use the Internet 4) Suggested Solutions for the DD based on five user types: Non-Users, Numerous studies have introduced and Sporadic Users, Instrumental Users, suggested solutions regarding various Entertainment Users, and Advanced Users. problems resulting from the DD. In this Mohammad and Lan (2010) proposed a study, sharing or borrowing, local or framework that included the development, national government policies, wireless and
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mobile, and various other solutions are controlling for measures of economic, proposed. political, social, or educational development, there was a greater digital opportunity and (1) Sharing/Borrowing greater overall technology adoption and use A study by Selwood and others (2005) that in countries that have competition for the was conducted in rural primary schools in provision of basic telecommunication Australia identified a number of benefits services and make a higher financial associated with borrowing a notebook program investment in ICT development. for use at home. In this program, the Another study regarding national policies participants’ability to have easy access to ITC related to the DD was about developing a policy in their homes resulted in improved skills and tool for a national strategic framework on increased confidence. James (2011) suggested bridging the DD in Malaysia (Ramachandran, sharing mobile phones in developing countries 2008). Holmes (2003) discussed factors to cease or reduce the DD, and using free affecting national public policies for the DD software such as the GNU/LINUX operating such as economic and social inequity. The system for the advantages that it afforded to links between digital technology and global developing countries to bridge the global DD capitalism were examined in a world summit (2003). Caudill (2010) also highlighted the use of on the Information Society that was held by free software and services to bridge the DD. A the United Nations, 2003. study by Qureshi and others (2007) investigated A study by Feij o, et al., (2006) described how knowledge networking/sharing can the challenges for policymakers who must enable the DD to overcome. Tibben (2007) design the appropriate policies to achieve an also provided a knowledge-based approach as end to the DD, and they highlighted the role an effective means to understand and develop of wireless technologies as one of the main responses to various forms of disadvantages pillars of broadband connectivity extensions. related to access and use of ICTs. Yu, et al., (2005) measured the performance of various government agencies to demonstrate (2) Public Policies the flexibility and usefulness of the adapted Numerous studies have tried to solve the balanced scorecard approach. Horikoshi (2005) problems of the DD by suggesting and also introduced Japan’s policies and measured measuring effective national public policies. the universal design of various Japanese Yates and others (2010) examined the DD by ministries for the e-Japan Strategy formulated analyzing the impact of national policies in by the Japanese government to end the DD in the form of strategic planning, regulation, Japan. and investment in approximately 150 A study by Chang and others (2011) countries. They revealed that when investigated whether a gap in digitalization
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exists among different government agencies, discussed the wireless network project, causing the DD. They generated five “Broadband for All,”that was financed by dimensions (including ICT infrastructure, the European Commission for rural and human resources, external environment, remote areas and showed their efforts to internals of organization, and information). improve the technical aspects of this project, especially, routing and quality of services (3) Wireless and Mobile (QoS). A study by Yarali and others (2007) Mobile and wireless devices have been identified mobile Worldwide Interoperability discussed and suggested as one of solutions for Microwave Access (WiMAX) as a cost- for the DD. Oliver et al. (2010) suggested effective solution to answering the wireless commons to narrow the DD. They challenges posed by the DD, compared to identified key factors for the exponential third-generation (3G) technologies. A study growth and success of the WiFi network, by Rully and others (2005) reported on a which had put some rural areas in Catalonia project carried out by Waseda University, in Spain well above the European average for KDDI Corporation, and the Hatinh broadband penetration. Maddison and community. The aim of this project was to Lorincz (2003) suggested three key enablers study the use of broadband wireless LAN for for these applications of mobile phones to implementation of telemedicine applications successfully eliminate the DD: (a) networks in rural hospitals. Zhang and Wolff (2004) that provide data services readily and also introduced the cost benefits of using cheaply; (b) devices that are easy to use and several emerging technologies and economically priced; (c) applications of architectures, including high gain antennas, practical value and need. dynamically steerable beam-forming Boyera (2007) suggested providing mobile antennas, and multi-hop routing, for smaller e-services in developing countries and remote communities and widely scattered defining the size and capability of a users in order to bridge the DD. lightweight Web browser as a possible A new world space digital sound broadcasting solution to the DD. Bogliolo (2007) discussed (DSB) service via satellite was introduced for the Urbino Wireless Campus (UWiC) project long distance and nationwide service provisions that was implemented by the University of in order to bridge the DD (Butler & Davey, Urbino, in Italy, illustrated its technical, 2001). Boccolini et al. (2008) introduced a novel organizational, and economic aspects, and two-way broadband satellite architecture that presented early results of this project. A was sponsored within the EU research portable wireless based architecture for programs that was able to bring multimedia solving the DD problems was proposed by services to digital-divide end users. De Sousa Fenu and Piras (2008). Bucciol et al. (2007) (2005) suggested wireless technologies as a
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solution for the DD due to their greater alternative input device and an adapted web flexibility and ability to be deployed rapidly. In platform have been developed for physically addition, De Sousa suggested that satellites impaired persons as one solution to the DD appeared to be good technology candidates if (Yeh, et al., 2008). Dietz and Noerr (2004) satellites can complement the well-established introduced one-stop search engines as a terrestrial systems to deliver universal means to bridge the DD. broadband access. However, reducing the DD is Razak (2009) suggested the E-Rakan a new challenge for international cooperation. University Portal as a way to help bridge the Neumann (2006) examined the extent to which knowledge gap and the DD between the public international law supports the reduction communities on campus. Nesbitt and Thomas of the DD with regard to the use of satellite (2010) focused on the use of Twitter to send telecommunications based on international updates and messages to older adults and telecommunications law, on space law, and on their younger relatives based on the results international economic law. from preliminary focus groups. They Internet kiosks have also been suggested recommended the proper design of systems as one of the solutions for rural populations. for facilitating family communication. Bowonder and Boddu (2005) proposed a new wireless option, an ICT platform that was (4) Others extended to cover a large number of villages, Blythe and Monk (2005) suggested the as an example of a successful public-private application and adaptation of human computer partnership. Another study (Pee, et al., 2010) interaction (HCI) techniques to narrow the examined the factors influencing individuals’ DD. Using robotics allows teachers and intentions and behaviors to use public students to achieve the best cognitive Internet kiosks in Mauritius, and this study practices based on the approach of the ideal also suggested using public Internet kiosks. pedagogic model, such as the language must Panchanathan’s (2002) study illustrated be translated to a simple vocabulary to allow the power of ubiquitous media and its ability students to achieve their learning goals to respond to the needs of a population or a (Gomes, et al., 2010). consumer that did not have an access to A new scheme of information and financial visual media. Eamer (2010) explored cooperation between content owners, users, relationships between language teaching, and advertisers was offered by Kabulov et al. social justice, and online networking, and (2010) to reduce the DD. Canazza (2009) suggested that virtual classrooms and video described global efforts to bridge the DD by conferencing could overcome challenges of emphasizing the role of ICT standardization. time and distance for language speakers and The role of the telecommunications sector learners in disparate locations. An has also been emphasized as a means to
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bridge the DD (Azam, 2008). DD projects include education, engineering- government, medical industry, and others in Ⅳ. Results and Discussions various geographical and organizational settings. 1. Results Various frameworks and perspectives of the DD have been suggested. Socio-economic Based on an historical analysis of the views of the DD included self-efficacy, race, digital divide (DD) in this study, some age, nationality, gender, cost, and other interesting findings were identified. From behavioral characteristics focused on the distribution by year of publication of development of the DD policies and strategies available findings on the subject, it can be to end or reduce the DD issues. Researchers in inferred that interest in and popularity of the DD disciplines have seriously considered DD studies have steadily increased since not only the improvement of the DD policies 2000. It was also interesting to note that the by government efforts but also an increase majority of document types in DD are journal in sharing or borrowing programs through articles. Since English is considered to be the non-government efforts. An extensive global language, it was not surprising to find number of the DD publications regarding that publications of scientific research and wireless and mobile technologies have been nearly all international publications from listed herein, and they seem to be very business transactions, meetings, and important to solutions of the DD due to their conferences were written in English. widespread characteristics. To increase Surprisingly, we found nine publications effectiveness in solving the DD, many written in Chinese, and two publications improvements, such as WiFi networks (Oliver, written in Japanese. The U.S. and Italy rank et al., 2010: Yarali, et al., 2007), new broadband as the top two countries delivering studies satellite architecture (Boccolini, et al., 2008), by individual scholars in DD disciplines. and international law supports for satellite Information technology, Internet, and telecommunications (Neumann, 2006) have economic and social effects are the three been proposed. most frequently used key words or phrases appearing in DD publications reviewed in 2. Discussions this study. The historical analysis also revealed that an increasing number of various Traditional views of the DD have focused kinds of regional evidence have been suggested on the dichotomous gap between groups, i.e., and tested to improve the understanding of the whether they had access to computing complicated DD issues. Scholars, institutions, facilities, including the Internet. However, and local/national governments employing more recent studies have focused on
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exploring social divides resulting from the DD able to learn that a solution for those areas will that involve socio-economic and behavioral require a complex mix of digital technologies, differences (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006). This organizational capacity-building, and strategy notion is supported by Vicente and L pez (2011), remedies. When controlling for economic, who argue that various regional evidence of social, behavioral, and other perspectives, the DD focusing on the social divide is still there is greater digital opportunity and ICT scarce. Moreover, there seems to have been development in various geographical regions very little research that provides or specific societies where there is competition comprehensive explanations for the overall to provide a variety of solutions, such as basic DD (Yates, et al., 2010). Most of the recent telecommunications services including wireless the DD studies tended to be either largely and mobile, and higher financial investment descriptive, qualitative case studies, or in technology development. From the specific quantitative analyses that have revealed a policy efforts examined in this study, it is narrow concept of ICTs. While a few studies clear that promoting investment and have attempted to provide comprehensive competition in the telecommunications sector explanations for the global DD, all have been and improving ICT standardization, including hindered by a shortage of recent data for a support from international law, will have the large number of cases. highest impact on bridging the DD. Thus, this study contributes to the literature It is hoped that the comprehensive review on overviews of the DD that was motivated of the DD research trends introduced in this by the current lack of comprehensive views study will generate new directions for future of the DD research disciplines, by proposing research and provide some guidelines for various kinds of regional evidence, topics, additional attempts to produce a greater and solutions from articles on the DD number of publications and expand research published over the last ten years. This study in new areas of interest and concern related finds that strong regional evidence has been to the digital divide. In addition, many presented around the world, especially in suggestions have been made for closing the Taiwan, India, Africa, USA, and some global DD, and it has been demonstrated that European regions. In addition, numerous such solutions will require more fundamental comparison studies focusing on urban versus changes in society that cannot be achieved rural areas have been conducted to increase by technology alone. understanding of the phenomenon of the DD. Another finding of this study reveals that by carefully looking at the DD issues in education, e-government, and specific settings like medical, political, and entertainment, we are
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UN, and the Computing Profession.” email.”Journal of Technical Writing and Computer, 36(12): 142-143. Communication, 35(4): 385-402. Hoole, Dushyanthi & Hoole, S. Ratnajeevan H. ITU (2003). “ITU Digital Access Index: World’s (2002). “Green chemistry for chemical First Global ICT Ranking.”International engineers in the third world: Interplay Telecommunication Union, http://www.itu.int/ between the environment, the digital newsarchive/press_releases/2003/30.html. divide and democratization.”2002 ASEE (Retrieved on July 2, 2011). Annual Conference and Exposition: Vive James, Jeffrey (2005).“The global digital divide L’ingenieur. in the Internet: Developed countries Horikoshi, Tomokazu (2005).“Japanese government constructs and Third World realities.” measures for promoting universal design Journal of Information Science, 31(2): 114- (correction of digital divide).”Fujitsu 123. Scientific and Technical Journal, 41(1): 26- James, Jeffrey (2011).“Sharing mobile phones in 30. developing countries: Implications for the Hossain, Mahjabeen K. (2010). “ICT for persons digital divide.”Technological Forecasting with disabilities: Bridging the digital and Social Change, 78(4): 729-735. divide in Bangladesh.”12th International Jing, Linbo (2007). “Bridging the digital divide Conference on Computers Helping People creating digital dividend - The investigation with Special Needs, ICCHP 2010. in Guizhou Province and the analysis of Houston, Thomas K. & Robinson, Kimberly & GZNW.”Data Science Journal, 6(SUPPL.): Berner, Eta & Panjamapirom, Anantachai & 941-961. Fouad, Mona & Partridge, Edward (2006). Johnson, Russell & Kemp, Ray & Kemp, “Bridging the digital divide: Feasibility of Elizabeth & Blakey, Peter (2006). “The training community health advisors to use learning computer: A low bandwidth tool the Internet for health outreach.”39th for bridging the digital divide in distance Annual Hawaii International Conference on education.” 4th IEEE International System Sciences, HICSS 2006. Workshop on Technology for Education in Huang, H. & Keser, C. & Leland, J. & Shachat, J. Developing Countries, TEDC 2006. (2003). “Trust, the internet, and the Judge, Sharon & Puckett, Kathleen & Bell, Sherry digital divide.”IBM Systems Journal, Mee (2006). “Closing the digital divide: 42(3): 507-518. Update from the early childhood Huang, I-Mei & Fang, Kwoting (2010).“Reducing longitudinal study.”Journal of Educational the digital divide of the electronic Research, 52-60. government of the 921 reconstruction Kabulov, B. T. & Tashpulatova, N. B. & Ikramova, areas in Taiwan.”Portland International G. (2010).“Digital divide and paid content Center for Management of Engineering on the internet.” 4th International and Technology - Technology Management Conference on Application of Information and for Global Economic Growth, PICMET 2010. Communication Technologies, AICT2010. Huang, Jie & Russell, Susan (2006).“The digital Keats, Derek W. & Beebe, Maria A. (2004). divide and academic achievement.” “Addressing digital divide issues in a Electronic Library, 24(2): 160-173. partially online masters programme in Ishii, Kumi (2005). “The human side of the Africa: The NetTel@Africa experience.” digital divide: Media experience as the IEEE International Conference on border of communication satisfaction with Advanced Learning Technologies.
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Kim, Chaiho (2010). “A study of internet Lam, Jolie & Lee, Matthew (2005).“Bridging the penetration percents of Africa using digital digital divide - The roles of internet self- divide models.”Portland International efficacy towards learning computer and Center for Management of Engineering the internet among elderly in Hong Kong, and Technology - Technology Management China.”38th Annual Hawaii International for Global Economic Growth, PICMET 2010. Conference on System Sciences. Kim, E. & Mayani, A. & Modi, S. & Soh, C. & & Li, Lue (2008).“E-Governance and digital divide Kim, Y. (2005). “Evaluation of patient- - A case study of Mainland China and centered electronic health record to Macao SAR.”2nd International Conference overcome digital divide.”2005 27th Annual on Theory and Practice of Electronic International Conference of the Governance, ICEGOV 2008. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Luyt, Brendan (2006). “Defining the digital Society, IEEE-EMBS 2005. divide: The role of e-readiness indicators.” Kim, Eung-Hun & Kim, Yongmin (2010).“Digital Aslib Proceedings: New Information divide: Use of electronic Personal Health Perspectives, 58(4): 276-291. Record by different population groups.” Maddison, Simon & Lorincz, G bor (2003). 2010 32nd Annual International “ Bridging the digital divide.” IEE Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Computing and Control Engineering, 14(1): Medicine and Biology Society, EMBC 2010. 26-31. Kim, Hyongsoon & Kang, Sang-Ug & Ryu, Marine, S. & Albrand, T. (2006). “Universal Kwang-Taek & Lee, Eunyoung (2011). broadband access in emerging economies: “Rural BcN projects for solving digital A key factor to bridge the digital divide.” divide.”13th International Conference on Alcatel Telecommunications Review, 3: Advanced Communication Technology: 256-260. Smart Service Innovation through Mobile Mariscal, Judith (2005). “Digital divide in a Interactivity, ICACT 2011. developing country.”Telecommunications Kosuge, Toshio (2005).“Asia Broadband plan and Policy, 29(5-6): 409-428. its implication for bridging Digital Divide.” Masucci, Michele M. & Homko, Carol & 48th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Santamore, William P. & Berger, Philip & Space. McConnell, Timothy R. & Shirk, Gail & Kvasny, Lynette & Payton, Fay Cobb & Mbarika, Menapace, Francis & Bove, Alfred A. Victor W. & Amadi, Atieno & Meso, Peter (2006). “Cardiovascular disease prevention (2007). “Gendered perspectives on the for underserved patients using the internet: digital divide, IT education, and workforce Bridging the digital divide.”Telemedicine participation in Kenya.”IEEE Transactions Journal and e-Health, 12(1): 58-65. on Education, 51(2): 256-261. McIver, Jr. William J. & Prokosch, Arthur P. Lalmas, Mounia & Bhat, Ramnath & Frank, (2002). “Towards a critical approach to Maxine & Frohlich, David & Jones, Matt examining the digital divide.”International (2007). “Bridging the digital divide: Symposium on Technology and Society, 2002 Understanding information access International Symposium on Technology practices in an indian village community.” and Society (ISTAS 2002). 30th Annual International ACM SIGIR M nard, Francois D. & Proulx, Robert (2007). Conference on Research and Development “Overcoming the digital divide in rural in Information Retrieval, SIGIR 2007. areas: Serving broadband profitably to as
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few as 25 subscribers.”2nd International Parmentier, Mary Jane & Mogilisetti, Haritha & Conference on Access Networks and Kishore, N. K. Sundararajan, Uma Devi & Workshops, AccessNets 2007. Mehta, Krutarth & Sundararajan, Minguez, Almudena Moreno (2006). “New Rajeswari (2006). “Engineering education, technologies as social fact: Gender and development, and the digital divide: Basis for digital divide in Spain in compared a comparison of India and Latin America.” perspective.”1st International Symposium 113th Annual ASEE Conference and Exposition. on Women and ICT: Creating Global Patel, S. & Bataveljic, O. & Lisboa, P. J. & Transformation, CWIT 2005. Hawkins, C. & Rajan, R. (2006).“iShakti - Mohammad, Mohammad & Lan, Yi-Chen (2010). Crossing the digital divide in rural India.” “The dynamic business process development 2006 IEEE/WIC/ACM International framework to bridge the digital divide Conference on Web Intelligence, WI 2006. among the aboriginal community in Payton, Fay Cobb (2003).“Rethinking the digital Australia.”2010 2nd IEEE International divide.”Communications of the ACM, Conference on Information Management 46(6): 89-91. and Engineering, ICIME 2010. Pee, L. G. & Kankanhalli, A. & On Show, V. C. Mohanty, Pratap C. (2008).“Bridging digital divide: Y. (2010).“Bridging the digital divide: Use The role of ICT for rural development in of public internet kiosks in Mauritius.” India.” International Symposium on Journal of Global Information Management, Information Technology 2008, ITSim. 18(1): 15-38. Mutula, Stephen M. (2005).“Bridging the digital Pengelley, Rupert (2005). “Bird in the hand: divide through e-governance: A proposal Bowman bridges the digital divide for for Africa’s libraries and information British Army.” Jane’s International centres.”Electronic Library, 23(5): 591-602. Defense Review, AUG. Nesbitt, Joseph & Thomas, Annmarie (2010). Peter, J. & Valkenburg, P. M. (2006).“Adolescents’ “Bridging the digital divide one tweet at a exposure to sexually explicit material on the time: Twitter-enabled devices for family Internet.”Communication Research, 33(2): communication.” 28th Annual CHI 178-204. Conference on Human Factors in Pick, James B. & Azari, Rasool (2007).“Worldwide Computing Systems, CHI 2010. digital divide: Influences of education, Neumann, Julia (2006).“Satellite telecommunications workforce, economic, and policy factors on as a tool for bridging the digital divide - information technology.”2007 ACM SIGMIS Public international law implications.” Computer Personnel Research Conference: AIAA 57th International Astronautical The Global Information Technology Congress, IAC 2006. Workforce, SIGMIS-CPR 2007. Oliver, Miquel & Zuidweg, Johan & Batikas, Michail Pimenidis, Elias & Sideridis, Alexander B. & (2010). “Wireless commons against the Antonopoulou, Eleni (2009). “Mobile digital divide.”2010 IEEE Internationl devices and services: Bridging the digital Symposium on Technology and Society: Social divide in rural areas.”International Implications of Emerging Technologies, Journal of Electronic Security and Digital ISTAS 2010. Forensics, 2(4): 424-434. Panchanathan, Sethuraman (2002). “Ubiquitous Prensky, M. (2001a). “Digital natives, digital multimedia: Bridging the digital divide.” immigrants.”On the Horizon, 9(5): 1-6. IEEE Distributed Systems Online, 3(1). Prensky, M. (2001b). “Digital natives, digital
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immigrants, part II: Do they really think divide: Efforts in India.”Telematics and differently?.”On the Horizon, 9(6): 1-6. Informatics, 22(4): 361-375. Prieger, James E. & Hu, Wei-Min (2008). “The Razak, Norizan Abdul (2009).“E-rakan universiti: broadband digital divide and the nexus of A portal for bridging knowledge and digital race, competition, and quality.”Information divide among the varsity and the Economics and Policy, 20(2): 150-167. community.”2009 2nd IEEE International Punyabukkana, Proaapran & Thanawastien, Conference on Computer Science and Suchai & Jirachiefpattana, Ajin (2008). Information Technology, ICCSIT 2009. “Thailand’s national digital divide strategic Razak, Norizan Abdul. Hassan, Zaharah. Din, framework.”W4A’08: 2008 International Rosseni. & Jusoff, Kamaruzaman. (2010). Cross-Disciplinary Conference on Web “Bridging the digital divide: An analysis of the Accessibility, W4A. training program at Malaysian telecenters.” Qureshi, Sajda & Davis, Alanah (2007).“Overcoming 6th WSEAS International Conference on the digital divide through electronic Applied and Theoretical Mechanics, commerce: Harnessing opportunities in IT MECHANICS’10, International Conference on for development.”40th Annual Hawaii Automotive and Transportation Systems, International Conference on System ICAT’10, International Conference on Arts Sciences 2007, HICSS 2007. and Culture, ICAC 2010. Qureshi, Sajda & Keen, Peter & Kamal, Mehruz (2007). Razak, Norizan Abdul. Nor, Nor Fariza Mohd. “Knowledge networking for development: Abdullah, Mohd Yusof. Malek, Jalaluddin Building bridges across the digital divide.” Abdul. Salman, Ali. & Wai, Yoong Siew. (2010). 40th Annual Hawaii International Conference “A technology towards bridging the digital on System Sciences 2007, HICSS 2007. divide: Applications and acceptance.”9th Qureshi, Sajda & Trumbly-Lamsam, Teresa WSEAS International Conference on (2008).“Transcending the digital divide: A Education and Educational Technology, framing analysis of Information and EDU 2010. Communication Technologies news in Riggins, Frederick J. (2004). “A multi-channel Native American tribal newspapers.”41st model of separating equilibrium in the Annual Hawaii International Conference face of the digital divide.”Proceedings of on System Sciences 2008, HICSS. the Hawaii International Conference on Rahman, Md. Anisur & Nahar, Mahmudun & System Sciences. Islam, Md. Azharul & Akhter, Razina Roycroft, Trevor R. & Anantho, Siriwan (2003). (2006). “The digital divide in developing “Internet subscription in Africa: Policy for countries: With special reference to a dual digital divide.”Telecommunications Bangladesh.”9th International Conference Policy, 27(1-2): 61-74. on Asian Digital Libraries, ICADL 2006. Rully, Achmad & Tan, Tran Nhat & Erkin, Ramachandran, Ramasamy (2008).“A policy tool Davronov & Urano, Yoshiyori & Izumi, on developing a National Strategic Yasuo & Umezawa, Yuki & Anh, Pham Framework on Bridging Digital Divide: A Xuan (2005). “Addressing digital divide: malaysian public policy perspective.”2nd Experiment on tele-medicine applications International Conference on Theory and using broadband wireless system in rural Practice of Electronic Governance, areas.”2005 International Conference on ICEGOV 2008. Wireless and Optical Communications Rao, Siriginidi Subba (2005). “Bridging digital Networks.
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Rushinek, A. & Rushinek, S. (1983).“An evaluation Sun, Zhongwei & Wang, Yang & Lu, Peng (2010). of mini/micro computer systems: an “Research on docking of supply and empirical multivariate analysis.”Data Base, demand of rural informationization and 14(4): 37‐47. ‘internet digital divide’in urban and rural Rye, St le Angen (2008).“Exploring the gap of the areas in China.”4th IFIP International digital divide: Conditions of connectivity Conference on Computer and Computing and higher education participation.” Technologies in Agriculture and the 4th GeoJournal, 71(2-3): 171-184. Symposium on Development of Rural Salajan, Florin D. & Sch nwetter, Dieter J. & Information, CCTA 2010. Cleghorn, Blaine M. (2010). “Student and Tibben, William (2007). “Re-conceptualizing the faculty inter-generational digital divide: digital divide: A knowledge-based approach.” Fact or fiction?”Computers and Education, 40th Annual Hawaii International Conference 55(3): 1393-1403. on System Sciences 2007, HICSS 2007. Schleife, Katrin (2010). “What really matters: Tien, Flora F. & Fu, Tsu-Tan (2008). “The Regional versus individual determinants of correlates of the digital divide and their the digital divide in Germany.”Research impact on college student learning.” Policy, 39(1): 173-185. Computers and Education, 50(1): 421-436. Selwood, Adam & Atkinson, John & Black, Vandenbroeck, Michel & Verschelden, Griet & Rosemary (2005). “Bridging the digital Boonaert, Tom & Haute, Liesbeth Van. divide: An analysis of a notebook borrowing (2007). “Changes in the digital divide: A program at a rural primary school in case from Belgium: Colloquium.”British Australia.”Fourth IASTED International Journal of Educational Technology, 38(4): Conference on Communications, Internet, 742-743. and Information Technology, CIIT 2005. Vicente Cuervo Mar a Rosal a & Ana Jes s L pez Servon, L. J. (2002). “Bridging the digital Men ndez (2006).“A multivariate framework divide.”Blackwell Publishing, 1-29. for the analysis of the digital divide: Seshagiri, Sarita & Blom, Jan (2010). “Using Evidence for the European Union-15.” digital media for entertainment - The Information and Management, 43(6): 756- other side of the digital divide in India.” 766. 43rd Annual Hawaii International Vicente, Mar a Rosal a & L pez, Ana Jes s Conference on System Sciences, HICSS-43. (2011). “Assessing the regional digital Shirazi, Farid & Ngwenyama, Ojelanki & divide across the European Union-27.” Morawczynski, Olga (2010).“ICT expansion Telecommunications Policy, 35(3): 220- and the digital divide in democratic 237. freedoms: An analysis of the impact of ICT Vodoz, Luc & Reinhard, Mark & Pfister Giauque, expansion, education and ICT filtering on Barbara (2007). “The farmer, the worker democracy.”Telematics and Informatics, and the MP: The digital divide and 27(1): 21-31. territorial paradoxes in Switzerland.” Sipior, Janice C. & Ward, Burke T. & Connolly, GeoJournal, 68(1): 83-92. Regina (2011). “The digital divide and t- Wattal, Sunil & Hong, Yili & Mandviwalla, Munir government in the United States: Using & Jain, Abhijit (2011). “Technology the technology acceptance model to diffusion in the society: Analyzing digital understand usage.”European Journal of divide in the context of social class.”44th Information Systems, 20(3): 308-328. Hawaii International Conference on
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