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THE MEANING OF THE MODAL FRAMEWORK IN THE SINGING OF RELIGIOUS HYMNS BY CHRISTIAN ARABS IN ISRAEL
Dahliah Cohen, Jerusalem
By the term "modal framework" we mean the accepted framework in which a certain musical repertoire is organized, as for instance, the Maqdmdt in Arab music or the Raga in Indian. Modal frameworks are currently considered to be melodic types1, but no exact deifnition exists of these melodic types. Even the various theories2 do not present a precise determination of the modal framework and this is even more markedly lacking in performance practice.3 There are many factors that may be considered in attempting a deifnition of this framework. They can be divided into four areas. A. Elements of musical structure, which may include: 1. The scale (a) In the conventional meaning. (b) Considered in its system of intonation; that is, the precise pitch of tones and the exact relations between them. (The intonation is occasionally com plicated but it is important in characterizing most nonWesternized music.)
J See, for example, the entries "Melodytype" or "Echos", in Willy Apel, Harvard Die tionaryofMusic, London, (1955), pp. 225, 438. 2 For example, the theory of Maqamat as it was most systematically formulated by the learned theoretician Safi alDin in the thirteenth century suggests that the maqamat is not only a scale but is rather a framework determined by both the melody and the rhythm. (He calls this framework (ariqa that is, "the way"). However, he considers the scale and the rhythm separately and the connection between them is not clear (see H. G. Farmer, "The Music of Islam", in The New Oxford History of Music, Vol. I (Oxford 1957), pp. 462465 and idem, The Sources of Arabian Music (Leiden, 1965, pp. XIHXXII and 48). Contemporary Arab theoreticians are adopting modern Western terminology and methods even though they, in some ways, continue the tradition of the Middle Ages (see Baron R. d'Erlanger, La musique Arabe, Paris 1949, Vol. V, pp. VIIVIII). An exact deifnition of the term maqam will not, however, be found in their work. The term maqam is used as a label for several different things: a system of intonation, a tetrachord and a mode in the Western sense. (For details see the chapter on maqamat in the present writer's work The Liturgical Hymns of the Christian Orthodox and Greek Catholic Arabs in Israel, 1967, pp. 173178). 3 Most of the scholars who have dealt with musical practice in the Middle East (Villoteau, Jeannin, Parisot, Thibaut, Rebours, Idelsohn, Lachman, Stephan and GersonKiwi) speak of the modal framework as deifned by melodic motifs. They do not, however, deal with the other musical components, or take into account the problem of performance or differentiate between theory and practice. Catalog TOC <
24 Dcdiah Cohen
2. The range (a) The interval of the ambitus, by which we mean the largest interval en compassing the melody. (b) The tessitura that is, the relative pitch of the ambitus or the extent of the melody in relation to the finalis and central notes. (c) The absolute range of the ambitus (diapason). 3. Rhythm and meter 4. The tempo (a) Changes of tempo and their extent. (b) The absolute extent. 5. The central notes 6. Characteristic intervals 7. Recitation tones 8. The melodic structure 9. The musical motifs 10. Variations and improvisations 11. Other elements such as vibrato and intensity. B. The medium of performance such as solo, choir, their combinations, or singing with instrumental accompaniment. C. The role of the text (in vocal music): The content; the form; the rijwe; the various meters of the text and the mutual relation of all these wi* the musical components; the amount of melisma. D. Extramusical factors : holidays, service hours and various social functions.
Up to now only partof these elements have been examined, and deifnitions enabling accurate comparison have not been reached4. Within the musical area only four elements have been examined: the conventional scale; the tessitura; the central notes; the musical motifs. The elements that do not change from mode to mode (even if they are highly characteristic of the music examined) have no part in deifnition, while the elements that change with the mode help deifne its framework. Thus, the framework of the music in a certain culture may be deifned by all the elements mentioned above or perhaps by only some of them. There may also be an interdependence between the elements, so that the nature of one will inlfuence another. For instance:a change in tempo may inlfuence the amount of melisma>' the existence of certain intervals may determine the motifs used; of each
4 For example, much has been said about the melisma of a song, but not in consideration of quantity. Thus under the heading of "melismatic song" we ifnd songs with slight melisma and others with heavy melisma. And we certainly do not know what part *e melisma Plays in the characterization of the melodies of the performer. Catalog TOC <
Significance of the Modal Framework 25
element may exist independently. The elements deifning the framework may be known to the performer and used according to welldeifned rules, or he may be unaware, or very vaguely aware, of them. The situation will probably differ in various cultures, in different geographical areas and in different historical periods. The factors stated above may also be inlfuenced by a speciifc musical tradi tion, oral or wirtten, or a blend of both.If the music exists in written f0rm> the method of notation is important. Similarly, the existence of any kind Of music theory contributes to the style and the rules which govern the performed music. It is clear that some of the elements mentioned may be deifned only through an examination of the performance practice.
The Material Examined The writer has attempted to discover the signiifcanceof the modal framework in religious hymns as sung by the GreekOrthodox and GreekCatholic Arabs in Israel. Until the schism that took place in the nineteenth century these tW0 sects were undivided in the Orthodox Church. The two groups still use the same religious irte, in which the hymn singing tradition is a fusion of the local oral tradition and the written neoByzantine traditions whose principal centres are in Athens, the Lebanon and the Old City of Jerusalem. Today a number of differences have arisen between the two sects, but their basic customs and religious beliefs are still almost identical. At the time of the study, the Greek Catholic community numbered over 20,000 souls while the Orthodox contained 15,0006. Mostof them are concentrated in the northern districtof Israel (Galilee), where they have lived for hundredsof years. Since the establishment of the state of Israel great changes have taken place in the Arab community in general and in the Arab village in particular, but the eco nomic and social basis has not disintegrated. Despite changes in the society, religion has maintained a central position in the community, evenifits role has been weakened. The tradition formulated
The term "neoByzantine" or "Modern Greek" is used by most scholars to describe the music and theory of the Greek Otrhodox church after the reform of Chrysanthos at the begLtmmg of the nineteenth century. (For the different names given by scholars to the various stages of Byzantine music, see H. J. W. TiUyard, Handbookof the Middle Byzantine Musical Notation, Copenhagen 1935, pp. 1718). * Most of this study was carried out in 1965, and thus does not deal with all the changes that have since occurred in this group. It is clear that all the information that will be presented deals only with that partof the group living in the Stateof Israel. But, in the light ofa general survey carried out among the section that lived underthe jurisdiction of the Jordan govern ment, it seems that there is not any additional material (except that found in the Old City of Jerusalem, which is a special case) that is likely to fundamentally modify the conclusions arrived at in this work. Catalog TOC <
26 Daliah Cohen
over hundreds of years has been preserved to diffeirng deSrees in various places and in distinct age groups. The changes occur in diverse ways: throuSh disintegration and neglect, only the aged attending services; by curtailment of the length of the service; by the addition of foreign, nonsecular matenal in the contemporary Eastern style propagated in EgyP1 and the Lebanon; by the insertionof foreign material jn "oldfashioned" Western style, Partly under the inlfuence of Israel culture but mainly due to the inlfuence exercised b? the important centres of the Eastern liturgy (such as Athens and Jerusalem) where at one time there was a tendency towards Westernization (although there is now again a tendency to return to the origins). The changes are encountered in the two Christian communities, but disPlay different patterns. The Orthodox Church has manifested an inability t0 with stand change, resulting in neglect and dispersion. GreekCatholic effotrs.to strengthen their Church have brought in new elements. Thus the 1ocal tradlt1on is subjected to various inlfuences that provoke a lackof unity in the performance of the liturgy, but many common traits remain nevertheless in *e sacred music tradition.7 The musical material chosen for this study, the singing of the hymns in the neoByzantine irte, is characteristic of Oriental liturgy.8 In the singing of hymns, as in most of the folk music of this 8rouP and of many other groups in our area, the performers play an important Part in the actual composition. The "same" song appears in many variations when Per ofrmed by different singers (see Example 1 and 2). That is wafy in such music thorough research demands an examination of the musical mateiral m its varying performances. Hymn singing, which is a typeof folk singing' serves our purpose very well from the point of view of the problem we have set our selves: the identiifcation and deifnition of the qualities characteristic of the style and the signiifcanceof the modal framework in the singingof the various performers. The hymns are theoretically organized into eight modes9: Tne
A discussionof the various inlfuences upon performance is given in Cohen, 0P. cit■ pp ל
102109. . 8 While in the Western rite the text is chosen primarily rfom the Psalms> 1n the Eastem rite a special manifold activity developed in the composition of hvmns in different meters and forms according to speciifc patterns. In its anonymity this activity resembles the creat1on of icons. The hymn types in the Byzantine liturgy were known by distinctive names such as troparion, sticherion, canon. The hymn canon was determined in the eleventh centu17 Today the most widely used form is the troparion. However, the A*5*8 are not pedantlc in their choice of terminology, so for the sake of simplicity the most encompassing term' "hymn1', will be used throughout. 9 The Arabs use the term lafian, instead of "mode" or "echos", t0 refer t0 the modal framework in liturgical music. They use the term maqdm for nonreligious music. Sometimes, as we will see, they confuse the terms. Catalog TOC <
Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 27 Ex. 1
Ief i(jJ>JtJ J J J J J J J J J ^^g'm^al ha jar 11 ™. K" tin wi* .< V■Mi ■■.
g 'hi ^nol ha go. ra ha fa ™a. /ti/l ye. Mi...
a ''1"^1^ ha g 'I■! .nat t}x qar la ■ma hi/ fm ■mm al ya n"* " ך E j).j *i J jij ... ha qa■ ra' Ha to, vna. Kul .^o.\\\jo 101 יי1י ^ a Mn rial ha oar la. .ma hu \\ ■m ■"." olyo.VvO g 'k^noJ ha ga> hu Vm mnal ya. hu d... Example no. 1. Opening of the Resurrection Troparion in larfan I, as sung by nine informants, showing typical variations in performance of a syllabic hymn, transposed to facilitate comparison. Translation: O! the stone with which the Jews sealed the tomb10a . most famous are eight hymns in the eight alhan (plur. of lahan) called the "Resurrection hymns". Their main theme is the resurrection of Jesus, and they are sung during the Mass10 on Sundays, after the "little entry" the entrance of the priest with the "Holy books". The resurrection hymns rotate 10 The Latin term missa the English mass is dissonant when used to describe the Eastern rite, where many names exist for this part of the service, such as "the liturgy", "the holy sacrifice", "the divine sacrament", or simply "the rite". The Christian Arabs use the term missa when conversing with a Westerner. I have adopted this habit and occasionally, for simplicity's sake, I use the term missa. 1oa The Arabic text in transliteration appears under the musical example. Catalog TOC < 28 Daliah Cohen Ex. 2 y^4 m.m.j .t♦ * * ~Vx 1יי**^ " 1* י ~ * ~ 'U*rnmnXXKd'Jd'd t An tu mvl la. i~n bil Ma. si hi ta maA tu ■ m.. . ^1t±__ ^ }H.H.J .... . 1 1 t^s^j=r^\ ^^ _,. __. * jAn iunvlU. £n bil Ha. sT 1)1 l> יי V ia ma. ^ tu |,,JOJ>J>J* { J ■' J; It'll i^^^ mifn ■ tv mul la. . . < rrr^.T m^, ,ב^ h* \0. ■■ Via ., ... £ ^y B1f if,;:, 1 ' 1 ' j1^1,mn rJJ g Bn t!> mul la £■* m. WA Ma. H hi V ta ma A tu m ... 1|_| 1,f;>,h1) D jJ' J 1Jn j I g An tu nul la. din bil Ha si^ to. ma cl tunr $/h, tv mul U JM bil Ma si ki A* to. a ft> wa i tw 1m ... i^SI נ Iji ^ J^ /J J JJ jl /JJ, J J ^^1 An tu nul la. £1, bil Ha. si h V ia n>a Example no. 2 Continued on the next page. Translation: You that have been baptized in the name of the Messiah... Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 29 jl^f(■<''""<." J 1 ■i rjjjj 1jj j ,1= ijCUj. j 11 m .d ium... B lfn t" "1uL la 4^n bil Ma 07 Ki ia ma dl t{/. .. ■m.■ . \J tf 4 M.M. J ■ 4* .bi I M* t? ho. to 1ת 1^ *1 1"י "♦ י" י ו וו 4jij ■j;n J^ ■ ץ'H , . "■". J■ " ;1 .II U il m, bi 1 Ma tT ha' .*"* יי 1)י * . WM.J ■■ ■*J ■) ■■?* =I?;>Q ^ ^JX' 11 ia ma cl k\t Tn. . J . "■J^J. " ♦ o J.ft y u "u I.■ di.'" bll Ma sl Ijn* י" ) ...1זו "4 01 1 0"י ^^ Example no. 2 Opening of the wellknown melismatic Troparion of the Baptism, also in laftan I, as sung by nine informants from different places. {A, B, C, D and E are by Catholic Arabs from Sefar'am,F by a Catholic Arab from Acre,Gand/T by Orthodox Arabs from Sahnln). The example also shows the phrase as rendered three times by A (A1, A1 and AJJ and twice by C (C1 and C2). Catalog TOC < 30 Daliah Cohen in accordance with the "octoechos" every week of the cycle presents another resurrection hymn in a different mode. There are a few other hymns which are vairations of the eight resurrection hymns and follow their melodic patterns. (Usually different performances of the same hymn by different in formants are more varied than the performance of different hymns in the same lahan by the same informant). To most of the Christian Arabs, the "resurrec tion hymns" serve as a sort of guide in recognizing the lahan. Actually, not more than five or six different hymns are sung in each lahan. Theoretically, some of the hymns change during the year and melodic variation is possible in certain hymns. But in practice the hymns and the lahan do not change, and the speciifc choice of the unchanging hymns can be very instructive. Gathering the material The material gathered for the experimental work was assembled both from notated music and from live performance, for a separation between the two would have removed the research from contact with actuality. Most of the information on the group and its local tradition, and much data on each per former, was acquired by means of a questionnaire which was composed atfer visits to many villages and interviews with different types of people. The questionnaire was given to priests, precentors, membersof the choir and "ordi nary people" who attend church. It is clear that the replies to the questionnaire do not always exactly correspond to the facts; however, important information was gathered from the replies. After a study of the questionnaires a choice was made of the informants whose singing was to be studied. An attempt was made to include in the study informants of all types: Orthodox and Catholic; people from the city and the village; the old and the young; those acquainted with modern Arabic music and those not; graduates of seminaries and "isolated" individuals who in the main had received their tradition orally. The singing of a total of 38 informants was recorded, and the hymns as recorded by these informants formed the material of our examination. The informants were asked to sing the hymns known to them in each lahan.11 Each hymn was sung by each informant a number of times. Thus, it was possible to compare different melodies in the same lahan; melodies of different alhdn; melodies on different occasions; the same melody as sung by different informants and the same melody as sung a number of times by the same informant. " All ofthem without exception sang the "Resurrection Hymns" from the Sunday service. Mostof them sang the famous troparion of the principal Holy Days, Easter and Christmas, and others sang the troparion of other days such as "Holy Week" or the "Transifguration", the Festival of the Cross, or the Feast of Mary. Catalog TOC < Significance of the Modal Framework 31 A total of 230 melodies were recorded. In addition, 12 Masses were also recorded on different Sundays at seven different churches. Most of the musical material was transcribed into conventional music notation, in great detail. The hymns as sung by the different informants in a single voice were passed through the melograph in order to obtain the curve of the melody according to pitch. The various musical characteristics were derived from these two kinds of transcription. This information together with the information gathered on each informant, formed the basic research material from which we deduced the rules underlying the formation of the melodies: how the melodies are organized into modes; the role played by the ■ occasion of performance and the dependence of all these on the type of in formant and his environment. The Mode as it Appears to the Performer In order to clarify what position the term mode (or lahan) occupies in the awareness of the Arabs whose singing was studied, the following questions were included in the questionnaire: (i) Do you know the modes? (ii) Can you identify them when you hear them? (iii) Can you explain what is meant by the termlahan7 (/v) Is there any peirodicity in singing the alhdni (v) Which alhdn are used most frequently and why? (vi) Which alhdn do you like most, and which are most favoured by your community? From the answers received it was found that an awareness of the alhan is widespread in the Israel groups, and is quite deeply rooted. Almost each of the informants questioned was able to identify the lahan of a melody and to give examples in each of them. The identity of the lahan was not always "correct" but what is important is the fact that the informants connected most melodies either consciously or perceptively in some way to the term lahan. The most simple connection was to the Holy Days: during Easter, the Fifth lahan is used; for the Baptismal days the First mode is used; for certain feasts the Fourth. Another connection, more common and exact, exists between the eight "Resurrection hymns" and the eight alhan. The hymns occur in a cycle of eight weeks, one hymn each week. This periodicity in the alhan exists also for other hymns : those sung after the "small entry5', and some Psalms that are sung in the morning by some congregations before the Mass. Aside from these no other hymnal periodicity occurs. In most of the songs sung during the Mass there is a preference for one of the alhdn, usually the Second. The attitude towards the alhdn is not one of indifference. Lahan can be, as the informants say, "loved", "gladdening", "beautiful", "diiffcult" and other adjectives. Alhdn can be common, sung at every opportunity, and they can be abandonned. One of the informants said in a conversation: "The Seventh Catalog TOC < 32 Daliah Cohen lahan is most seirous and I don't like it. The Fourth lahan is solemn (festive). The ones I like best are the First and Eighth lahan (in which he sang the Cherubikon hymns) and the melodiesof the Holy Week". Only three informants said that all the alhan are equal in their beauty and equally liked. Attitudes to the alhan are established very much according to the Holy Days, and to a certain extent by their resemblance to certain folk songs. From the questionnaires it was found that the most favoured alhan are the First, which resembles the maqam baydt and is used in the Baptismal days (see Example 1, 2); and the Fifth, whose scale resembles the minor scale and is used for Easter. The Eighth and the Fourth follow in preference. The alhan which were pointed out as the most common or popular are almost identical to those that are "liked". It is interesting to point out that in Sefar'am and I'blin (where modern music has a strong inlfuence) the Sixth lahan, which resembles the maqam higaz, was included among the "liked" and "popular" ones. We may say at this point that not one of the informants remarked on the popularity of the Second lahan, though our ifndings show that it is the most widespread, especially in isolated places. Most of the congregational responses are in this lahan (as we understand the term lahan) and occasionally it uncon sciously takes the place of another lahan. This is a lahan without a "name5'. While almost all the informants declared that they knew the alhan, only a few could more or less explain what they understood by the term. Most of them did not even try to touch such an "abstract, complicated" question. The explanationsof how to identify a lahan were in part consistent with each other, and adequately relfected the speaker. Here are some expressions used by the informants in answering the question of how to identify a lahan. Informants Connected to Some Degree with Centres of Learning Answers: 1. The scale, special ornaments, motifs. No connection with a tempo, in every lahan there are slow and fast hymns. 2. The scale, the rhythm, the chromaticisms, and especially the sense of hearing. 3. Every lahan has its own motif. 4. The scale and rhythm. 5. The pitch and the tones. Informants Who Know the Maqamat A lahan is like a maqam. According to the maqam and the scale. On the ton re maqam baydt and Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 33 the First lahan. On the tone do maqdm Rast and the Eighth lahan. c minor is identical to the maqdm Nahawand and the Fifth lahan. The Sixth lahan is like the maqdm higaz. Isolated Informants The different characters. The different melodies. The Mode as it Appears to the Investigator A. The Importanceof the Modes and their Position in the Different Holy Days On this point the answers of the performers as outlined above relfect the situation quite reliably. On certain Holy Days the most important songs are limited to certain modes, but we ifnd songs in each of the modes that are not limited to a certain Holy Day12. And most important, in opposition to the neo Byzantine theory13 according to which all the alhdn are equal in value (the equality being expressed especially in the organization and crystallization of the hymns in the eight equal modes the "Octoechos"), in practice there is no such equality in the actual performance of the "Octoechos". The actual number of alhdn changes with the different informants and a preference exists for cetrain alhdn. This preference is relfected by the varying attitudes of the per formers and by the frequencyof occurrenceof eachofthe modes. For example: the Sixth Maw (which contains the "higdz" tetrachord14,isvery rare, especially in isolated villages, but common where modern Eastern music is admired, as for example in Sefar'am; the Eighth lahan, written as a major scale in mostof the practical books15, is very popular in those places which are subject n We cannot go into the interesting details connected with the tradition of the Holy Days because this would take us too far beyond our subject. 13 The theory called neoByzantine is that which is accepted today in all the important centres of learning. At the beginning of the nineteenth century a crystallization of theories related to Orthodox music was reached in the form of broad detailed theories dealing with the actual musical material in contrast to the mediaeval Byzantine theories which consisted mainlyof speculationsnot based on the musicitself. Chrysanthus summarized these "modern" theories in 1832. A numberof modiifcations were later incorporated, but the essential theory did not change. For details of this theory see J. B. Rebours, Traiti de Psaltique, Thiorie et Pratique, Paris 1906; Henry Julius Wetenhall Tillyard, JSyzan/Zne Afw/irav//Hymnography (London 1923), pp. 6068; and A. Raes, Introductio in Liturgiam Orientalem (Rome 1947), pp. 251261. 14 The hi§az tetrachord as written in conventional Western notation contains the following successive intervals: i, H, i (the unit is the well tempered tone). 15 The music used today in the important centres has in the main been transcribed into conventional Western notation. Even though the notation is far from complete in describing the Oriental melody, it is possible to learn much from current practice as relfected in the Catalog TOC < 34 Daliah Cohen to strong outside inlfuences, such as Haifa. Mostofthe congregational responses are in this lahan. Also in some places the useofthe Eighth lahan was preferred for speciifc hymns (like the "Cherubikon" hymn). But the absolute pirority of the Second lahan, which resembles the maqam siga, is most marked. This priority is shown both in the large number of songs known to the performers and in the responses of the congregation. In isolated villages the responses were only in the Second lahan.16 Some performers even sang in this lahan hymns usually intoned in other alhdn. Three performers from different places in isolated environments actually sang all the melodies in the alhdn IVVIII as if they were in the Second. It may seem paradoxical that noneof the performers, when asked, pointed out this lahan as the most widespread or most liked. This mode, which is probably their most popular and deeply rooted, appears so natural that it is not even sensed.17 B. The Mediumof Performance This factor does not affect the modal framework in the material examined for two reasons: (i) the material is vocal only, with no instrumental accompani ment. In the maqam framework, on the other hand, the instrument is a deter minant to a varying extent. In the maqam rast, for example, the instrumental playing is more prominent than in the maqam baydt. (ii) There is no common practice as to the performance of hymns and responses.18 Thus, this also does not enter into our consideration of the modal framework. 6. Musical Components The principal concern before us (of which the performers know almost nothing) is the place of the musical components in the modal framework. A general phenomenon characteristic of the songs examined is that most of the anthologies on the importance and frequency of the different alhdn and their deifnition by central tones. For a survey of the vairous anthologies of the music studied, see Cohen, pp. 167172. 16 In practical books the responses were mostly given in the Eighth laban but sometimes in the Second lahan as well. 17 It is interesting to note that a modal framework resembling the lahan described was found singularly important in the liturgical music before the crystallization of the "Octo echos". See E. Werner, The Sacred Bridge (New York 1960), p. 442, and Kenneth Levy, "On the Byzantine Sanctus", Annales Musicologiques (Paris 1963), vol. VI p. 57. 18 The singing may be performed wholly orin part by the congregation ; by a single soloist ; by a group of soloists; by a single choir; by two choirs or any combination of the above. Regardless of the wealth of performance possibilities, we ifnd a custom common to most of the congregations antiphonal singing by two choirs which stand to the left and irght of the congregation. A single soloist or a group of soloists might be added to each of the two choirs. Occasionally the soloists of the choir appear in place of the choir. The soloists and the members of the choir are almost always male. Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 35 musical components cannot be absolutely ifxed. Changes exist from informant to informant in different performances and even in a song that is repeated by the same informant. It seems that these changes are essential and should not be separated from the composition itself, so that it would be incorrect to see them as a negative phenomenon or a mere lack of precision in the per formance resulting from lackof consciousnessofthe musical material. Acknow ledging the positive nature and the eminent role of the changes in this music we examined the quality, quantity and extent of the changes in each one of the musical components and occasionally calculated averages for the sake of comparison. . Some of the musical components can be summed up from the transcription of the music into conventional notation, in simple quantitative form that can be expressed numerically. These components are : the relative and absolute range; the central tones; ifnal, recitative and internal cadence tones; charac teristic intervals; the tempo; the way it changes and its limits. It is also possible to determine the consistency of the use of these components in a repeated song; to see if the song repeated is identical with its ifrst performance, and if not, to deifne the natureof the changes in rhythm, melody and general structure of the melodies. All this detailed information has been examined and summa irzed diagrammatically. By a comparison of the diagrams it was possible to see the similarities and differences presented by each element in its appearances in the eight alhdn, in the singing of each of the informants and in the music for the different Holy Days. Some of the elements were diagrammatically arranged according to their dependence upon the eight alhdn. Other information derived from the transcriptions that sheds light on other characteristicsof the material cannot be summed up in numbers. This informa tion relates to elements such as the musical motifs characteristic of the alhdn and the rendition of the informants, the consistency of the motifs, how they are connected, their quality, their connection to a single lahan or their ap pearance in a number of alhdn (that is, identical motifs occurring in different alhdn), the connection between the motif and its intonation. These last elements were isolated and summarized on the basis of various motifs in our material. Various motifs from all performances were chosen and transcribed into Western notation the concluding motifs, motifs for internal cadences, the opening motif and other characteristic motifs. All the motifs in each one of the eight alfjdn were collected according to the order of their appearance in the melody and arranged in tables. The manner of textual usage and its relation to the melody were investigated by examining the structure of the text of the hymns, the relationship between the musical sentences and the poetical phrases, the meters and the melismas. The melisma was isolated by the method of counting the number of notes and the number of syllables in Catalog TOC < 36 Daliah Cohen the melody as a whole (done for the whole melody) and in partsof the melody (counted separately for each sentence of the hymn). The quantity of melisma was diagrammatically analysed. Information on the intonation, the sizeof the intervals, the numberof changes and the natureof their interrelationships was reached on the basisofthe graphs obtained by the melograph. The summary of all the musical elements (those discovered from the usual transcription and the written text and those inferred from the graphs) was carried out along two lines of approach. On the one hand, each element was separately summarized and its meaning for the alhdn, the Holy Days and the informants was determined, and on the other, all the elements were summed up from the point of view of all the decisive factors of the performance taken together: the point of view of the informants, and the alhdn. From our sum mary of the different elements' dependence on the alhdn, we have tried to circumscribe the meaning and definition of the alhdn in this music. THE MAIN FINDINGS The Placeof the Music Components in theModal Framework A. The Melismatic Quality Although a syllabic treatment exists in most of the hymns, neumatic (quasi melismatic) formulae may be found. The appearance of the melismatic tones is not intended to create a defined meter in the musical phrases. On the contrary, the addition of tones often disrupts the symmetry which exists in the textual phrases19. The degree of melisma differs greatly in different performances. In order to be able to compare and gauge the melismas we defined them quantitatively in the following way. The degree of melismatic quantity was deifned as the ratio between the excessof the numberof tones over the number of syllables to the number of syllables in the phrase of song studied. For convenience this ratio will be expressed as a percentage20. It was found that the degree of melismatic quantity ranged between 10 and 50 percent and that it varied according to the lahan, the occasion of performance, the position of the phrase in the song and the informant21. 19 For example see Cohen, op. cit. p. 36 and the music example No. 3, p. 121. M For instance, if the textual phrase contains 10 syllables while the musical phrase contains 15 tones, the degree of melismatical quality is 50 per cent. 21 The dependence of the degree of melisma on the informant is illustrated in the music examples Nos. 4 and 5, in Cohen, pp. 122, 124. Dependence on the occasion is illustrated in comparing the music examples Nos. 1 and 2 ibid., pp. 118, 120. In this article we will deal in detail only with the dependence of the degree of melisma on the laytm. Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 37 The degree of melisma in different hymns in each of the eight modes in seventeen different performances (of the same melodies) was studied. The results are summarized in diagram form (Figure no. 1). In studying the diagram we find that the degree of melisma in the first lafian is well denned, varying between 10 and 30 per cent. The highest degree of melisma is found in the songs of the Second lahan that is, for most of the informants the highest degree of melisma occurs in this mode. For most of the informants the lowest "I I IIM I 0i 11 in iv v vi vn vm Modes Fig. 1 Degree of melismatic quality (D.M.Q.) and its dependence on the alh&n (modes) and the informants. The D.M.Q. is deifned here as(n~ s). *OP where n is the number s of notes in the melody and s the number of syllables. The points on the axis of each mode show the D.M.Q. obtained from different performances of the same Troparion. Each line connects the points corresponding to one informant and thus shows signiifcant lfuctuations from laiyan to lahian. The D.M.Q. of the troparia for the holy days (not shown in this ifg.) have much larger values, e.g. for Easter most values lie in the range 40^100^ for the baptismal days40/£240a/oand in exceptional cases values up to340/£ are found. Catalog TOC < 38 Daliah Cohen o MODE VII , uo" QOQ O £ * a oooooooooooooo0 o<3 ?Is01r5 2 8 siifj 88 //// 8 8 8 mode vi ■ell I OOOOOO Q _ .§g2 § OO0OOO 0O00 00 0oS"' O aI* 3 >,^.3 o .o>a c u) J MODE V 1|.|? uj § . o o Z^/S o .9 OOOQ O'"au 3 z .CO... 00000 ■" " I* 3?i .9 . . .OOOO OoI ^ S1 Z Q Il>| ^ 0888 MODE IV 11"! S 88888R ,i ^ 00000000SI .g ^ t, ^ >.§; o o t|3| O 8I .BH § pcoooo o MODE in~§5 2 uj0o0o o ' lwut§0.g. s mOQOOOO O .f£3 S ^ oooooooo 15".c § 5s| .sכ. ון|§ 8 2 880 lit OOQ QSoJ2 1? 008 8 8 8 mode 11 l|l| OOOQOO O>"" o oooooooooo.ae. o 8MI ~~^^~""~~^~__ _ 8 f!*| f//x/ י 8a§80 mode:. , ?8S88888^o fff/J J=(M.M) 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 39 degree ofmelisma occurred in the Sixth or Seventh lahan. It is wotrh mentioning that "rules" exist for the place of the melisaratic tones in the song regardless of the speciifc mode.22 B. The Tempo A beat is usually felt in the hymn singing and occasionally it is even constant so that one senses a deifnite metrical rhythm (even though the beats are hardly ever organized into simple meters). However, the beat usually changes, and sometimes the number of changes in a short period of time is so great that one has the impression of recitative singing. It was found that the changes in tempo depend upon the structure of the melody and on the informants, but not on the lahan.2* The changes divide rather equally between the various melodies and alhdn. With an awareness of the important place occupied by the tempo changes, we deifned the tempo as the average count of pulses per minute in the song. It was found that in most of the songs studied the average tempo varied between 80120 mm, and this ifgure was found to be dependent on the lahan, the occasion, the degree of melisma, and hardly at all on the informant. The dependence on the lahan is summarized in a diagram (Figure no. 2). We see that the average tempo, and its modiifcations in the different performan ces, are similar in the Second, Third and Fourth alhdn. The tempo of the melodies in the First lahan is usually slower than in the melodies of the three above alhdn, and the tempo of the melodies in the Fifth lahan is faster. Melodies of the Sixth lahan are the slowest and thoseof the Seventh are the fastest. C. The Range 1. The Ambitus and the Tessitura By ambitus we mean the largest interval24 encompassing the melody. The relative pitch of the ambitus, i.e. the tessitura, may change and in fact otfen does change in different performances. For example, two performances of the same song (with d as the central tone) may exist, the ambitus of the one being resi and the ambitus of the second sisol. In both performances the ambitus is a Sixth, but in the ifrst performance the tessitura is higher. We 22 For details see Cohen op. cit. p. 65. 23On the natureandextentofthe changes in tempoandtheir dependence on the informants and the structure of the melody see ibid., pp. 6769. M The concept "interval" will be used inthis paragraph to indicate only the ordinal number of the tones regardless of their exact size: thus by"Third" we simply mean the interval between one tone and the third tone from it, while its size may vary between 1.72.3 equal tempered whole tones. An exact description of the intonation will be found further on in this article. Catalog TOC < 40 Daliah Cohen Mode VIII m 1 uj . 5 3 Mode VII ou. Mode vi כ1: , 11 יי י י י ח "י 2 _ , TR0PARI0N 3 FOR EASTER Li lLl ~ n Mode V י י ■ 1 1 : I ~ Mode IV I 1 4I I I UJ 5 Mode HI י י י * י י י0 u b 1 £ 1 Mode II | 1 ItI I z ■ Fig. 3 Ambitus and tessitura of the ~ I ' Mode \ melodies in the eight alban (modes). r ^ i 1 ____ These are indicated by horizontal lines. Ko £ 'f£^^uia k ■* The most common finalis in each of the RELATIVE PITCH alfian (modes) is indicated by the points. Catalog TOC < Significance oj the Modal Framework 41 found that the ambitus of the melodies studied do not exceed a Ninth, and that to a certain degree the ambitus and the tessitura are dependent on the informants and the alhan, The dependence on the Man is summarized in a diagram (Figure n0. 3). We ifnd that the ambitus of the Second and Fifth alhdn are the narrowest, hardly exceeding a Seventh, and moreover the greater part of the melodies in these alhan do not exceed a Fifth. In the Third lahan we ifnd a high degree of uniformity both for the ambitus and for the tessitura. The ambitus of the melodies in this lahan are the widest, an Octave or a Ninth. Most of the melodies in the First lahan, as in the Seventh and Eighth, have as their ambitus a Seventh or an Octave. This is also the case in the Seventh and Eighth lahan evenif differences exist in the relative rangeof the ambitus _ the tessitura. In the Sixth lahan the ambitus of most of the melodies is a Seventh. There are, however, melodies with different intervals of ambitus, and the changes in the tessitura are great. 2. The Absolute Range (Diapason) The absolute range of all the melodies studied lies between g e'. In order to compare the absolute pitchofthe melodies, the absolute pitchofthe relative re25 was found and a compairson of the pitch was made on two levels: The melodies sung by the same informant were compared in order to ascertain whether any relationship exists between the pitches of the various alhan; all ofthe melodies in the same lahan as sung by allofthe informants were compared in order to determine whether the absolute pitch of a melody plays a role in determining its lahan. The absolute pitchof the re changed up to a Third oraFourth inthe singing of the informants in different alhan. With part of the informants the changes were expressed in that the central tones ofdifferent a/Aan were sung on the same absolute pitch; thus for example the absolute pitch of mi in the melodies of the Second lafian was identical with the absolute pitch of re in the melodies of the First lahan. Among other informants there was a constant changeof the absolute pitch of the alfian so that there was no simple relation between their "scales". Altogether (with the exception of two Greek priests one of them used a tuning fork) no informant was found who sang in such a way that the pitches of the different alhdn were determined by one simple scale. 2 The choice of names for transcirbing the tones may be made according to a number of premises. In the present study the names of tones were chosen in order to parallel the names used in theory, thusthe ifnalis of the First lafian was designated re, etc. For details and discussion of the problem see Cohen, pp. 5455. Catalog TOC < 42 Daliah Cohen K\ Mode VIII f ' ^ Mode VII S ^*"^\Mode VI §/ \A ^ I ' Mode V I A K / I : / O \^_y Mode IV CO or HI £ ^\y ^^ Mode III j"/ \ Fig.4 The actual pitch of the £J/ \ relative re in the eight alhan T / 1 (modes). None of the informants Y I Mode I derived the different modes from * > _ one and the same scale. The J)V)QoaiiziSl2<^ absolute range of the perfor * ■* mances can be obtained from ABSOLUTE pjJQ^ combination of ifgures 3 and 4. Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 43 The absolute pitch of the eight alhdn is summairzed in a diagram (Figure no. 4). One sees that the First lahan is sung in a well deifned absolute range, where the differences between the various renditions do not exceed a major Third. The re of the Second lahan changed drastically. Part of the informants sang the re higher than that in the First, and others sang it lower. But since the relative range of the melodies of the Second lahan is higher than that of the First lahan, we understand that the melodies of the Second are sung at a higher absolute pitch. The re of the Third lahan was lower than that of the Second with most of the informants. The re of the Fourth lahan was as well deifned as that of the First. The re of the Fifth lahan was the lowest with all the informants. The absolute range of this lahan, however, was the highest. A comparison of the Fifth and Second lahan, both with a small ambitus and two central tones separated by a Third (as we will see later, the central tones of the Fifth lahan are a and c, and of the Second lahan e and g), shows that the laof the Fifth lahan is higher than the miofthe Second, but always less than a fourth higher. The absolute pitch of the d in the Seventh lahan is very similar in its range and changes of pitch to that of the First lahan. Further research must be done before exact conclusions on the role of absolute pitch can be reached. For, in contrast to other music components, in the analysis of absolute pitch and also tempo we can take only one measurement26 from each melody. Nevertheless, even the examinations described above indicate that the absolute pitch does play a role in determining the lahan. D. Central Tones In every melody we ifnd at least two central tones, one in the role of "tonic" which usually serves as the ifnalis, and the other, reminiscent of the "tuba", which forms the axis about which the characteristic musical motifs revolve. It serves as a mediant and occasionally as the ifnal tone. Characteristic musical motifs connect the two central tones. These motifs often expand and blur the singularityof the central tones so that it is even dififcult to decide which they are. In every lahan the central tones usually produce a characteristic interval. After our many examinationsof the vairous music components we see that the central tones are among all the informants the most stable factors in determining the lahan. It is worth mentioning that although the intervals between the central tones hardly change (in all the renditions of melodies in the ifrst lahan, 2* In the measurement of intervals, for example, we receive for each song a number of occurrences of each interval. On the other hand the absolute pitch of the song even if it is repeated gives us but one measurement (except for the changes of absolute pitch that occur during the singing, that is in itself a phenomenon worth studying(. Catalog TOC < 44 Daliah Cohen for example, the interval between the central tones was a Fourth, while in the Second "lahan" the interval was a Third), the size of other intervals varies to a large degree (see n. 24). The Central Tones Other tones that The lahan the "tonic" the "dominant" rarely serve as "mediants" the 1st re sol fa the 2nd sol mi; sol si the 3rd fa la do; re the 4th sol; mi mi; sol do the 5th type 1 la do the 5th type 2 la re the 6th type 1 re sol the 6th type 2 mi sol re the 7th fa sol re; si the 8th type 1 like the 7th the 8th type 2 do sol mi A summary of the principal ambiti, the central tones, and the basic motif patterns is given (Example no. 3). E. Characteristic Intervals Seconds of all sizes are usually most important in the melodies studied. Thirds are, however, also common in all the types of songs. Foutrhs appear only in speciifc places in the melodies. In cetrain melodies the ascending Foutrh serves to introduce the musical phrase while the descending Fourth is limited to speciifc motifs in certain types of melodies. The Fifth appears only in ascent. Sometimes, the onetime appearance of an interval is enough to determine the lahan; and sometimes the frequency of occurrence of a certain interval determines it. At any rate, there is no doubt as to their signiifcance in mode determination. In the First Lahan The ascending Fourth which opens the musical phrase is characteristic. The initial resol appeared in all the melodies in all the renditions. The Fourth soldo appeared in half the melodies. The Fifth rela appeared in 20 per cent of the melodies. The Thirds refa; misol; fala are found in less than half the melodies. The Third lado appeared in 25 per cent of the melodies. Catalog TOC < Significance of the Modal Framework 45 If ^ _. . 1 P*d* jf * 1J,,, I■■ ■■■>1 . ^ ^ If ■ ^^=^= Hod; H I IfI,"■ " " '" !I '"i."''' " *!■*it*■ H^Lan Vari z tmj X Hodff ZI ^^ LM ■II ! .1 ^^ "' . Example J Summa irzes the most typical ^ .!..> ,. /..,* י ^י ^ ^יי>, 11n ^f !||a ' 1..T.^ ' pitch arrangements of the melodies and the , central tones in the eight 17*.,^,. * 1 ■ '*i ■ '■ T ^ alrfan (modes). Catalog TOC < 46 Daliah Cohen In the Second Lahan The Thirds stand out. In all the melodies the Thirds misol; solsi; fala were found. TheFourth/aj/ is found in about 35 per cent of the melodies; the Fourth soldo in about 15 per cent. In the Third Lahan The Thirds /lf/a; solsi; lado; misol are common. The Fourth dofa is often found opening the musical phrases. In the Fourth Lahan The intervals are like those of the Second lahan but the Fifth dosol is also found. In the Fifth Lahan In type 1 the Fifth rela and the Fourth lare are found. In type 2 the Third sire, the ascending Fourth soldo and the descending Fourth rela are frequent. In the Seventh Lahan The Fourths are prominent. In allthe melodies theFourth /05/ is present. The Fourth soldo appeared in about 35 per cent. The descending Fourth solre, which appears only in a certain context, was found in about 50 per cent of the melodies. The Thirds fala and solsi were also found. In the Eighth Lahan In type 1 the intervals of the ifrst type are as those of the Seventh lahan. In type 2 the opening Fifth dosol is characteristic. The Thirds domi and misol are found and to a lesser degree theThirds /a/a and solsi. Thus we see that: The Fifth is characteristic of the Eighth lahan type 2 (dosol) and of the Fifth lahan type 1 (rela). The Fourth is characteristic of the First lahan (resoi, soldo), the Sixth lahan (resol) and the Seventh (fasi; dofa; solre). The Thirds are primarily characteristic of the Second and Fourth lahan (mi sol; solsi). In the Third lahan Thirds and Fourths are found in equala mounts. A summary of the main intervals characteristic of the various alhdn is given in Fig. no. 5. F. Recitation Tones A recitation tone is a tone repeated for a number of consecutive syllables.27 In almost all the melodies studied there is recitation on at least one tone. The amount of repetition on a single tone may be lesser or greater. The recita tion is usually sung on a central tone (the "dominant" or the "tonic"), or This deifnition is an expansion of the definition of the Recitation tone in Gregoiran י2 Chant as given by Apel, p. .612 Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 47 The Intervals The Alhdn Fourths Thirds Fifths As an ascending As an internal interval opening interval thephrases I 1A 3C 1C ID II 1C ID 3A HI 1 A 4B Va 1A 1A Vb l(t)B 1A 1U)B VII 1 A 1(|)B 2C 1C VIII 2C 1A 2D Fig. no. 5 Summarizing of the characteristic intervals in various "alhan". The numbers designate the amount of "transpositions" of each interval (the amount of the different Thirds, Fourths and Fifths) appeairng in each laftan. The letters designate the frequency of occurrence of the different intervals. A occurence of the speciifc interval in 75%100% of the melodies in the examinated lahan. B occuring in up to75 X of the melodies, C up to SOZand D up to 25"0/. The arrow marks ( / or / ) mean that the characteristic interval appears only in one direction. on an adjacent tone (a Second away) above a central tone, or alternatively between the two. The size of the Second between the two recitation tones (if there are two) is not denned. It usually changes during the singing in such a way that a variable tension is created between the two recitation tones. The Recitation Tones in the Eight alhan In the First lahan There is no extensive repetition on one tone. There is, however, a characte ristic short repetition on the tone 50/ (the "dominant") occuring throughout the entire melody, large and small motifs decorating and becoming involved with the recitation tone. Occasionally there is repetition on the tone fa. In the Second lahan There is recitation on the central tone sol, occasionally on the adjacent la and occasionally on si. Catalog TOC < 43 Daliah Cohen In the Third laljan A characteristic reccuring short recitation exists on the tone la (the "domi nant") and there is also recitation on fa(the tonic), on the adjacent tone sol, and on si. In the Fourth latfan The recitation is similar to that of the Second lahan. Occasionally, however, there is also recitation on the tone do. In the Fifth lahan Type 1 (with the central tone la and do) has only a hint of recitation on the tone do and occasionally also on si. Type 2 (with the central tones re and la) has touches of recitation on la (the dominant). In the Sixth lahan Type 1 (with the central tones sol and re) has recitation on the two central tones and on the la adjacent to sol. Type 2 (with the central tones sol and mi) has recitation on the tone sol. In the Seventh lahan There is recitation on sol (the dominant) and on fa (the tonic). In the Eighth lahan There is recitation mainly on sol (the dominant). G. The Structure of the Melodies and the Musical Motifs Structurally the technique of mosaic conglomeration stands out in the com positional technique. The composition is obtained by a free combinationof a small number of fixed musical motifs which, in the main, occur moer than once in the melody. This technique was, it seems, also characteristic of the development of the liturgical music of the West up to a certain stage2*. This stage seems to have become ifxed and still obtains in at least partofthe melodies that we studied. The various motifs usually end on a central tone. At least part of these motifs may be considered as an ornamentation or development of the "dominant". 28 Many researchers have dealt with the properties of this technique of composition. A. Z. Idelsohn stressed its importance in Jewish music (see his History of Hebrew Music, Tel AvivBerlin 1924, pp. 46, (Hebrew). E. GersonKiwi discussed the signiifcance of this type of musical expression in Jewish, Arab and especially Persian musical culture (see her monograph, The Persian Doctrine of DastgaComposition, Tel Aviv 1963, pp. \Q\Y). H. Avenary emphasized its prominence in the different stages ofthe development of liturgical music (see his monograph, Studies in the Hebrew, Syrian and Greek Liturgical Recitation, Tel Aviv 1963, pp. 4243). Egon Wellesz aiffrmed the importance of this technique in most of the mediaeval Byzantine music and in Eastern liturgical music {A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography, London 1961, pp. 325329(. Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 49 The motifs crystallized into neumatic patterns occur mainly at the end of phrases. Occasionally we ifnd the closing formula in the middle of a phrase but almost always with a rhythmic variation. For example, see the hymn 'Indama (Example no. 4) as sung by the soloist Mr. Wadia Houri from Nazareth. A speciifc collection of motifs is one of the most characteristic components in deifning a group of melodies in a specific lahan. But the order in which the motifs are organized is also important. There are motifs whose place in the various melodies of the lahan is set and deifned. These motifs determine their surroundings, what precedes them and what follows them. In contrast, musical motifs exist whose place in the melody is not deifned and that lend themselves to exchange with other motifs. This matter of nondetermination of place in the melody (within set limits) and freedom in the combination of the musical "mosaic" motifs seems to be fundamental, and was demonstrated to a great degree through the examinations conducted in this research that is, in the examination of the same song as sung by different informants and the same song as sung a number of times by the same informant. The Resurrection Hymn in the Third mode will serve as an example (Example no. 5) of the migration of motifs in the performance of the same song as sung by different informants. In Example 5, II, the principal motifs serving as internal cadences in this hymn and other hymns in the same lahan are symbolized by letters. The motifs usually appear in different variations, thus each letter represents the motif and its variations. A major variation is indicated by the sign ~. The rendition of the same hymn by two informants is given in Example 5, I. All the cadential motifs used by the 19 informants who sang this hymn are summa rized in the table, Example 5, III. From this chart we see that the place of the cadential motif is nearly constant, always occurring after a motif ending on la. When the motifj occurs it is always after themotifh. Motifs ending on la (the reci tation tone), such as motifs b and c for example, do not have ifxed places; they appear as cadence formulas and also in opening, internal and closing phrases. Interestingly the motif h appears both in the First and Seventh lahan, in different contexts. In the First lahan the motif occurs only after amotif ending on sol while in the Seventh lahan it appears only after a motif endingon fa. It is clear that a table including all the motifs, not only the cadence formulas, would present a much more colourful mosaic. We will not be able to discuss all the variants occurring in different per formances,29 but we may say here that irrespectiveofthe many variants between 2' Details of the variants and changes occurring in different renditions by different types of informants are given in Cohen, pp. 8386. Catalog TOC < 50 Daliah Cohen HI*/1 = 92 . | t ^=^ j 1 ,j. I. 1' !■ rm j' T'_x^=h 'W da man ha dar la 'i lal mawt '"L^tt U fa sa tul_> JK la ;,a mut ft "* <{ £n '* matt>lgtkl ma bi bar V I* ' ki taA wa 'in aa ma .a <|am tl >""■ *"* !._< $ na tal> U ^a ra ;a ra HanaVi wa ha |a ml ua til ^la ma wi ytjin aj ^__,jn"'"Ma Ji hit I .'t [ah mu til ha 3a tul "** I ^ M The mam motive q, v " C o■ ^^^לזזו, ו ו י1ן11 יי ןן ו ן י 111111 יו 11 יו ,zzi 111(1 j Example no.4 The Troparion 'indama,as sungbythe cantor Wadi'a ^Jurifrom Nazareth typiifes the construction of the liturgical melodies through the free additive combination of a few motives or melodic patterns (every motive is indicated by a letter and its variation by ~). Translation: 10a When thou didst humble Thyself unto death O, the Living and Immortal God, Then Thou didst destroy Death by the Light of Thy Godhead. And when Thou didst raise the dead from the bowels of earth, All the Heavenly Powers exclaimed: O Christ, Thou art The Giver of Life! Glory be to Thee! Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 51 A M.N.J 110 118 , h , ^ 111jjiiJ ■I'J'J J I 11 I J I 1,1J ^ =* ' וי ודיר; pm^j j.1 j j 1 jj m f JJT/T7* J 1' 1 mjI1j^ 1|> Vl~l^ rJrrr j i jTj'71 11 = Q m.m. i r* rs 1 b ! |(|^ J jj^jr] j,1^D j j j■D j ^^7j^^■ } j 1 t ilium Example no. J, / The Resurrection Troparion in laban III as sung by the Catholic Arab Priest from Sefar'am (A) and the Orthodox Arab Cantor from Nazareth (B). Catalog TOC < 52 Daliah Cohen in 1 1 ,111.1 1, r i///7^^m ן ןו י z/%, r r j/,f ^'1 .1 J .1 IJ IJ I I IJ i I Exampleno. J, //The main internalcadencesofthe "Resurrection Tropairon" in lafunr HI. Aahba.d ■f Behbhjc i C c h $ c aK cabct 5 Dbhbdhja 5 EcHbdhj 5 F ichcdbh5 ^ Or ibhcbhtaS H chb\iicai Ibhbct5 c b JbKbbh * K bhbdbhcb Icha,dhs ■$ M bhbbdhcac N bKbdhj Significance of the Modal Framework 53 the modes, they differ from one another in the same way in each individual performance. H. THE SCALE I. The Intonation The determinationof the intonations, that isofthe pitchofthe tones building the melodies and the intervals between them, was done with the aid of the melograph. We cannot here discuss in detail the methods used in the work, but we will present the basic findings and conclusions. The importance of stable and unstable tones in the singing of the Arabs has been discussed in previous papers30. We showed that the intonation of a group of songs, like a maqam, is often characterized by the place and amount of dispersion of the tones (the amount of dispersion is the range of change of pitch in the appearance of a given tone). We also showed the importance of the intervals between two adjacent tones, i.e. the Seconds, in contrast to the larger intervals, such as the Fourth and Fifth31. And we showed how it is possible to summarize the intonation of a song in a diagram by notating each of the Seconds separately. The various sizes of each type of Second are measured according to the graph, and recorded in a diagram along an axis representing that Second's size. Thus a characteristic summary of each Second and its amount of dispersion in the song is obtained. In order to enable a comparison of the intonations of a large number of songs, we proceeded to clarify our summaryof intonations32. A tonal skeleton was obtained from every diagram by taking the average size of each dispersed Second. We can describe the tonal skeleton thus: "a series of consecutive Seconds about which are dispersed the Seconds existing in the performance practice". In fact, the "theory" never gives us more than a tonal skeleton. It is not usual to obtain two identical tonal skeletons, even in different renditions 30 See Cohen, "An Exploration into the Tonal Structure of the Maqamat", The Journal of the International Folk Music Council XVI (1964), pp. 102106; also D. CohenR. Katz, "Some Remarks Concerning the Use of the Melograph" in Yuval, I, pp. 155168. 31 In the music examined, in contrast to Western music, the relationships between adjacent Seconds are the important determining factors, and they are often not dependent on the larger intervals which limit them. In Western music, the larger intervals (the Fourth and the Fifth) are stable, and they indicate the internal division into Seconds. Thus, in Western music, if one Second is larger, this is at the expense of a neighbouirng, smaller, Second. But, in the music studied the larger encompassing interval often has no such determining importance. A discussion of the interesting intonation of the larger intervals, the Fifth, the Fourth and the Third in the music studied, is found in Cohen, pp. 100102. 32 The new method referred to is descirbed by the wirter in her dissertation of 1967, pp. 9091. Catalog TOC < 54 Daliah Cohen of the same song by the same informant. Often, however, a strong similarity exists between the tonal skeletons, similarity here meaning the preservation of certain relations between the adjacent Seconds. These types of nonvariable relations belong for the most part to the category of "greater" or "smaller" and are not exact quantitative relations. Such groups of similar tonal skeletons I have termed "types of tonal skele ton". Two or three types of skeleton are usually found in each mode and occasionallythe same type is found in different modes. Thus in studies of musical practice a concept comparable to the term "scale" would be the "tonal skeleton" or even just the type of tonal skeleton as deifned above. The tonal skeleton is one of the important factors in deifning the lahan or modal frame. Different modes are deifned by different types of tonal skeleton, which are not drawn from a single system of intonation, in contrast to the Western modes which are derived from one scale. (The scale of every Western mode is estab lished by starting on a different note of the same single scale.) It is worthwhile noting that a similarity was found between part of the types of tonal skeleton of the different alhan and the types of tonal skeleton found in the folksongs of the widespread maqdmat^. The types of tonal skeleton found in the alhan can be summarized as follows34. Lahan I has two main types of skeleton (one of which resembles the type found in maqdm baydt) Lahan II has four main types of skeleton (one of which resembles a type appeairng in mode I, another the maqdm siga) Lahan III has one skeleton type Lahan IV has the same types of skeleton mentioned for lahan II Lahan V has two types of skeleton, one of which resembles the Western minor scale Lahan VI for the most part uses only one type of skeleton which resembles the maqdm higdz Lahan VII has one type of skeleton, similar to that of lahan III Lahan VIII has one type of skeleton, resembling the maqdm rast. 33 It is interesting to note that among some of the informants the concept lahan equates with the concept maqdm in the following way: The 1st "lahan" = Maqam bayat The 2nd " = " siga The 5th " = " nahawand The 6th " = " higdz The 8th " = " rast 34 A diagrammatic summary of the tonal skeletons of the eight alhan is given in Fig. 8 (IVIII) in Cohen, pp. 140147. Details and discussion of the intonation of the music studied may be found in Cohen, "Patterns and Frameworks of Intonation", The Journal of Music Theory XIII/1, pp. 6690. Catalog TOC < Significance of the Modal Framework 55 II. The Internal Organization of the Scale It is interesting to note that mostof the theories dealing with the scale, from the classical Greek to those of O. Strunk", are based on tetrachordal units only usually identical whose combination produces the scale. Inthe material studied it was usuallyfound valid to divide thescale into smaller units as in the theories mentioned; but not necessarily unitsof four identical unchanging tones. The smaller units are determined by the central tones, the musical motif and the characteristic motif. Thus it was found that most of the melodies are organized in tetrachords (identical or not); trichords (identical or not); pentrachords plus tetrachords; pentrachords plus trichords or tetra chord plus trichord. The First /a/ilfw conjunct tetrachords re sol do The Second lahan a wealth of scales that are almost always organized in trichords (usually not identical) do mi sol si re and sometimes a trichord plus a tetrachord mi sol do The Third lahan tetrachords and trichords do fa la do or according to the intonation 2 conjunct tetrachords, similar but not identical The Fifth lahan type 1 . Trichord la do type 2 Pentrachord and tetrachord re la re (probably Western inlfuence] The Sixth lahan type 1 conjunct tetrachords re sol do 35 In order to ifnd the basic scale of the Byzantine music, Strunk assumed that a single scale system exists for all the modes, built on a combination of identical tetrachords. See his article "The Tonal System of Byzantine Music", The Musical Quarterly XXVIII (1942) pp. 190204. Catalog TOC < 56 Daliah Cohen type 2 trichord and tetrachord mi sol do The Seventh lahan Like the Third The Eighth lahan type 1 Like the Seventh type 2 pentrachord and tetrachord do sol do SUMMARY To sum up, we see that the modal framework still holds an important and vital place in the material examined. The attitude of the informants towards the alhdn is emotional, and differs for each. The alhdn are associated with different occasions and holy days but not with a peculiar modeof performance (such as solo, choral, antiphonal). The modal frameworks reliably relfect the types of melody. The number of modal frameworks (the alhdn) varies between 4 and 10 according to the informants and depends on different factors. It is possible that according to one component such as the scale (to be more speciifc and exact the "type of tonal skeleton" as deifned above), two modal frameworks may be identical while according to other components they are different. The interrelations between the various components determined in the modal framework depend on the informants and their theoretical knowledge of music. There are many components that deifne the modal frameworks, each im portant to a different degree, and in a different way. There is a kind of "area of dispersion" in the deifnition of each component. The lack of precise deifni tion in the laws governing the modal framework is, it seems, oneof the charac teirstic features of the music as it is actually performed, and this is in contrast to the "steirle laws" of music established by the theoretician who cannot accept disorder and deviation from theoretical norms. In the mateiral examined it was found that for all the informants the most stable components in determining the alhdn were the central tones and the intervals between them. These central tones aid in subdividing the scale of the lahan into tirchord, tetrachord and pentrachord. (In the First lahan, for example conjunct tetrachords; in the Second lahan conjunct tirchords). Another important component that quite well deifnes the lahan is the collection of characteirstic musical motifs. Certain motifs occasionally appear in more than one lahan, but always in different contexts. The order in which the motifs appear is also a determinant. As for the intonation of the scale of the lahan, there is no single scale system for all the alhdn as there is, for example, in Gre goiran modes. Different and independant scales (or tonal skeletons) exist for Catalog TOC < Signiifcance of the Modal Framework 57 the different aytan, although occasionally the same tonal skeleton is present in different alfidn. The tonal skeleton is an important factor in the lahairs deifnition. This component, perhaps more than any other, is permanent in each la/tan for each informant, but may changefrom informantto informant. These changes, in each layfan, are restricted within the frameworks we have called "typesoftonal skeleton". Thus the typeoftonal skeleton determines the rules of intonation of each of the ayfan. Other components that to a lesser degree help to determine the laban are the tempo, the degree of meUsma and the absolute and relative range (ambitus). The degree of codiifcation of the above components is different in the different alfian. Catalog TOC < YUVAL STUDIES OF THE JEWISH MUSIC RESEARCH CENTRE Edited by AMNON SHILOAH in collaboration with BATHJA BAYER VOLUME II JERUSALEM, 1971 AT THE MAGNES PRESS, THE HEBREW UNIVERSITY