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CHILD MALTREATMENT Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children CHILD MALTREATMENT Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children Editor-in-Chief Mark Chaffin, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK Associate Editors Veronica Abney, UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute, John Myers, University of the Pacific, McGeorge Los Angeles, CA School of Law, Sacramento, CA Lucy Berliner, Harborview Sexual Assault Center, Theresa Reid, Chicago, IL Seattle, WA Charles Wilson, Center for Child Protection, David Finkelhor, University of New Hampshire, San Diego, CA Durham, NH Book Review Editor Dan Smith, Medical Univerisity of South Carolina Consulting Editors David Kolko, Western Psychiatric Institute, Barbara Boat, University of Cincinnati, OH University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA Barbara Bonner, University of Oklahoma Health John Landsverk, Center for Child Protection, Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK San Diego, CA Bette Bottoms, University of Illinois–Chicago, IL Ken Lanning, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Judith Cohen, Allegheny University Hospitals/ Quantico, VA Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA Elizabeth LeTourneau, Medical University of David Corwin, University of Cincinnati, OH South Carolina, Charleston, SC Ted Cross, University of New Hampshire, NH Anthony Mannarino, Allegheny University Hospitals/ Constance Dalenberg, California School of Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA Professional Psychology, San Diego, CA William Murphy, University of Tennessee Medical Deborah Daro, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL Center, Memphis, TN Esther Deblinger, University of Medicine and Narina Nuñez, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY Dentistry of New Jersey, Stratford, NJ Steven Ondersma, Merrill-Palmer Institute, Detroit, MI; Diane DePanfilis, University of Maryland, Wayne State University Baltimore, MD Robert Pierce, Washington University, St. Louis, MO Bret Drake, Washington University, St. Louis, MO Robert Reece, Massachusetts Society for the Prevention Howard Dubowitz, University of Maryland, of Cruelty to Children, Boston, MA Baltimore, MD Benjamin Saunders, Medical University of John Eckenrode, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY South Carolina, Charleston, SC Ann Elliott, Radford University, Radford, VA Dan Smith, Medical University of South Carolina, Mark Everson, University of North Carolina– Charleston, SC Chapel Hill, NC Paul Stern, Snohomish County, Washington, Kathleen Coulborn Faller, University of Michigan, Prosecutor’s Office, Everett, WA Ann Arbor, MI Daniel Taube, California School of Professional Lisa Fontes, Shutesbury, MA Psychology, Alameda, CA Julian Ford, University of Connecticut Medical School Anthony Urquiza, University of California, Davis William Friedrich, Mayo Medical School, Rochester, MN Medical Center, Sacramento, CA Rochelle Hanson, Medical University of South Debra Whitcomb, Education Development Center, Inc., Carolina, Charleston, SC Newton, MA Jeffrey Haugaard, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY Linda Williams, Stone Center, Wellesley College, Carol Jenny, Brown University School of Medicine, Wellesley, MA Providence, RI James Wood, University of Texas, El Paso, TX Keith Kaufman, Portland State University, Portland, OR Susan Zuravin, University of Maryland at Baltimore, Susan Kelley, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA Baltimore, MD For Sage Publications: Amy Landru, Kendra Kimball, Corina Villeda, and Elena Nikitina For APSAC: Elissa McElrath, Editorial Assistant CHILD MALTREATMENT Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children Volume 6 Number 4 November 2001 CHILD MALTREATMENT Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children Volume 6, Number 4 November 2001 Table of Contents Focus Section I: Fathers and Child Maltreatment: Findings From the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) Guest Editor: Howard Dubowitz 281 Are Father Surrogates a Risk Factor for Child Maltreatment? ARUNA RADHAKRISHNA, INGRID E. BOU-SAADA, WANDA M. HUNTER, DIANE J. CATELLIER, and JONATHAN B. KOTCH 290 The Effect of Fathers or Father Figures on Child Behavioral Problems in Families Referred to Child Protective Services DAVID B. MARSHALL, DIANA J. ENGLISH, and ANGELA J. STEWART 300 Father Involvement and Children’s Functioning at Age 6 Years: A Multisite Study HOWARD DUBOWITZ, MAUREEN M. BLACK, CHRISTINE E. COX, MIA A. KERR, ALAN J. LITROWNIK, ARUNA RADHAKRISHNA, DIANA J. ENGLISH, MARY WOOD SCHNEIDER, and DESMOND K. RUNYAN Commentary 310 Male Roles in Families “at Risk”: The Ecology of Child Maltreatment MICHAEL E. LAMB Focus Section II: Nonoffending Mothers of Sexually Abused Children Guest Editor: Ann N. Elliott 314 Reactions of Nonoffending Parents to the Sexual Abuse of Their Child: A Review of the Literature ANN N. ELLIOTT and CONNIE N. CARNES 332 Comparative Efficacies of Supportive and Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapies for Young Children Who Have Been Sexually Abused and Their Nonoffending Mothers ESTHER DEBLINGER, LORI B. STAUFFER, and ROBERT A. STEER 344 Intrafamilial Child Sexual Abuse: Predictors of Postdisclosure Maternal Belief and Protective Action DENISE PINTELLO and SUSAN ZURAVIN 353 A Three-Generational Study Comparing the Families of Supportive and Unsupportive Mothers of Sexually Abused Children MYRA LEIFER, TERESA KILBANE, and GAIL GROSSMAN 365 Attachment Behaviors, Depression, and Anxiety in Nonoffending Mothers of Child Sexual Abuse Victims LINDA LEWIN and CHRISTI BERGIN 376 Index RadhakrishnaCHILD MALTREATMENT et al. / FATHER / NOVEMBER SURROGATES 2001 Focus Section I: Fathers and Child Maltreatment: Findings From the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) Are Father Surrogates a Risk Factor for Child Maltreatment? Aruna Radhakrishna Ingrid E. Bou-Saada Wanda M. Hunter Diane J. Catellier Jonathan B. Kotch University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Most research on the effect of father figures in the home on the (Ventura & Bachrach, 2000). These trends have incidence of child maltreatment has been cross-sectional and prompted concern, especially as they relate to the has focused on sexual abuse. This prospective study’s purpose economic deprivation (Duncan, Brooks-Gunn, & is to determine if the presence of a father surrogate in the home Klebanov, 1994; Garrett, Ng’andu, & Ferron, 1994) affects the risk of a subsequent child maltreatment report. In a and the diminution of human capital (Garfinkel & longitudinal sample of at-risk children, North Carolina’s McLanahan, 1986; Thompson, Entwisle, & Alexan- Central Registry for Child Abuse and Neglect was used to de- der, 1988) and social capital (Astone & McLanahan, termine the maltreatment history of children from birth to age 1991; Coleman, 1988; Dornbusch et al., 1985) associ- 8 years. Children who had a father surrogate living in the ated with single-parent families. However, concomi- home were twice as likely to be reported for maltreatment after tant with these trends in marital dissolution and his entry into the home than those with either a biological fa- nonmarital childbearing has been an increase in rates ther (odds ratio = 2.6, 95% confidence interval = 1.4-4.7) or of cohabitation. In the United States, the percentage no father figure in the home (odds ratio = 2.0, 95% confi- of unmarried mothers cohabiting with men who are dence interval = 1.1-3.5). unrelated to their children has increased dramatically since 1976 (London, 1998). In 1990, it was estimated that nearly one in seven children living with a single It is estimated that at least one half of today’s chil- mother coresided with her unmarried male partner dren in the United States will experience father ab- (Graefe & Lichter, 1999). When cohabitation and sence at some time during their childhood or youth (Bumpass & Sweet, 1989; Castro & Bumpass, 1989). Authors’ Note: This work was supported in part by Grant No. 90CA1467 from the Children’s Bureau, Administration for Marital dissolution rates have remained constant for a Children and Families, USDHHS, to the University of North decade but are still high, involving more than 1 mil- Carolina Injury Prevention Research Center; Grant No. MCJ-37051 lion children per year (Bumpass, Raley, & Sweet, from the Maternal and Child Health Research Program, Bureau of 1995). Nonmarital childbearing rates have increased Maternal and Child Health, Health Resources and Services Admin- over the past two decades and continue to rise istration, USDHHS, to the Department of Maternal and Child Health, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; and Grant No. R49/CCR402444 from the National Center for Injury Preven- CHILD MALTREATMENT,Vol. 6, No. 4, November 2001 281-289 tion and Control to the University of North Carolina Injury Preven- © 2001 Sage Publications tion Research Center. 281 282 Radhakrishna et al. / FATHER SURROGATES marriage to a partner who is not biologically related to BACKGROUND the mother’s offspring are considered together, it is estimated that nearly 30% of all American children Sociobiologists, emphasizing the adaptive pro- will live at some time with an unrelated father figure cesses that increase an individual’s success in passing (Bumpass et al., 1995). on his or her genes, have theorized that more Furthermore, there is evidence that children of sin- resources are invested in biological offspring than in gle mothers are exposed to more adult males than stepchildren and, conversely, that parents are less children of married mothers (Finkelhor & Baron, inclined to injure their own offspring than an unre- 1986; Tomison, 1996), which implies
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