Life-Span Analyses of Piagetian Concept Tasks: the Search for Nontrivial Qualitative Change

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 092 907 CS 001 180

AUTHOR Hooper, Frank H. TITLE Life-Span Analyses of Piagetian Concept Tasks: The Search for Nontrivial Qualitative Change. INSTITUTION Wisconsin Univ., Madison. Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning. SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (DREW), Washington, D.C. REPORT NO Theoretical Paper 46 PUB DATE Sep 73 CONTRACT NE-C-00-3-0065 NOTE 26p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$1.85 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS *Continuous Learning; Educational Philosophy; Educational Research; *Human Development; *Individualism; Individual Psychology; *Maturation; *Personality IDENTIFIERS *Piaget (Jean)

ABSTRACT The implications of a life-span developmental prospective for Piagetian theory and research are discussed in this paper. Initially, certain recent criticisms of the Piagetian system are evaluated. These include the interpretations of Piaget's abstract model of logical reasoning; his views concerning the interrelationship of hereditary, maturational, and socioexperiential factors; the similarities and contrasts present in the Genevan viewpoint and neo-Hegelian dialectical approaches; and the possibility of continued developmental change following the adolescent years. A brief overview of the research on Piagetian concept development beyond the years of adolescence is presented. These cross-sectional assessment studies which have included samples of elderly subjects have generally found marked differences favoring the mature adult subsamples, similarities letw,een the performances of the young children and aged subject subsamples, and/or apparent decrements in the performances of elderly persons on the Piagetian tasks. In a concluding section the philosophical, metkodplogical, and practical implications of a straightforward acceptance of a life-span orientation are discussed. (TO) U.S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION& WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION N- THIS DOCUMFNT HAS BEEN REPRO DUCED ExAcrLyasRECEIVED FROM rriE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN o A TING IT POINTS OF VIE A OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF eSJ EDUCATION POSPTrON OR POLICY C77, CD Theoretical Paper No. 46 JJ LIFE-SPAN ANALYSES OF PIAGETIAN CONCEPT TASKS: THE SEARCH FOR NONTRIVIAL QUALITATIVE CHANGE

by Frank H. Hooper

Report from the Project on Children's Learning and Development Herbert J. Klausmeier and Frank H. Hooper Principal Investigators

Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning The University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin September 1973

V) Published by the Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning, supported in part as a research and development center by funds from the National Institute of Education, Departmnt of Health, Education, and Welfare. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the National Institute of Education and no official endorsement by that agency should be inferred.

Center Contract No. NE-C-00-3-0065

ii Statement of Focus

Individually Guided Education (IGE) is a new comprehensive system of elementary education. The following components of the IGE system are in varying stages of development and implementation: a new organization for instruction and related administrative arrangements; a model of instructional programing for the individual student; and curriculum components in prereading, reading, mathematics, motivation, and environmental education. The development of other curriculum components, of a system for managing instruction by computer, and of instructional strategies is needed to complete the system. Continuing programmatic research is required to provide a sound knowledge base for the components under development and for improved second generation components. Finally, systematic implementation is essential so that the products will function properly in the IGE schools. The Center plans and carries out the research, development, and implementation components of its IGE program in this sequence:(1) identify the needs and delimit the component problem area; (2) assess the possible con- straintsfinancial resources and availability of staff; (3) formulate general plans and specific procedures for solving the problems; (4) secure and allo- cate human and material resources to carry out the plans; (5) provide for effective communication among personnel and efficient management of activities and resources; and (6) evaluate the effectiveness of each activity and its contribution to the total program and correct any difficulties through feed- back mechanisms and appropriate management techniques. A selfrenewing system of elementary education is projected in each participating elementary school, i.e., one which is less dependent on external sources for direction and is more responsive to the needs of the children attend- ing each particular school.In the IGE schools, Center-developed and other curriculum products compatible with the Center's instructional programing model will lead to higher student achievement and self-direction in learning and in conduct and also to higher morale and job satisfaction among educational personnel.Each developmental product makes its unique contribution to IGE as it is implemented in the schools. The various research components add to the knowledge of Center practitioners, developers, and theorists .

iii Acknowledgments

This paper was presented at the symposium "Cognitive Develop- ment Through Life:Research Based on the Piagetian System" at the 1973 Biennial Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development--The Developing Individual in a Changing World, Ann Arbor, Michigan, August 21-25, 1973.I would 1:ke to acknowledge continuing "dialectical" conversations with Nancy Sheehan, Gene C. Anderson, Judy Hooper, Jane Goldman, and Stephen Kerst of the University of Wisconsin, Charles Brainerd of the University of Alberta, William R. Looft of the Pennsylvania State University, and the members of a proseminar on cognitive functioning across the life-span held during 1972-1973 at the University of Wisconsin for many of the more worthwhile ideas discussed in this paper.

iv Table of Contents

Acknowledgments iv

Abstract vii

I.Introduction 1

II.Piaget and His System Are Alive and WeldAnd Not Only in Geneva 3 III.Cognitive Development Beyond the Adolescent Years 9

IV.The Relationship of Organismic Theory and Life-Span Developmental Research 13

References 17

vlj Abstract

The implications of a life-span developmental prospective for Piagetian theory and research are discussed.Initially, certain recent criticisms of the Piagetian system are evaluated, and these include the interpretation of Piaget's abstract model of logical reasoning; his views concerning the interrelationship of hereditary, maturational, and socioexperiential factors; the similarities and contrasts present in the Genevan viewpoint and neo- Hegelian dialectical approaches; and the possibility of continued developmental change following the adolescent years.It is maintained that most of these possible shortcomings are the result of incorrect secondary interpretations or misunderstandings of the Piagetian viewpoint as represented in Piaget's own writings. A brief overview of the research on Piagetian concept development beyond the years of adolescence is presented. These cross- sectional assessment studies which have included samples of elderly subjects have generally found marked differences favoring the mature adult subsameles, similarities between the performances of the young children and aged subject subsamples, and/or apparent decrements in the performances of the elderly persons on the Piagetian tasks. The systematic incorporation of these finlings into a life-span model of cognitive development has yet to be accomplished. In a concluding section the philosophical, methodological, and practical implications of a straightforward acceptance of a life- span orientation are discussed.While the methodological concerns are extremely complex, they are, in principle, resolvable.More importantly, the acceptance of a life-span perspective demands a parallel adherence to a philosophical world view (i.e. ,the organismic) which expects multiple causation to be the rule and wnich places an emphasis upon the study of individuality.

vii 'Time present and time past Are both perhaps present in time future, And time future contained in time past. T. S. Eliot

1 Introduction

No more sobering experience exists in Initially, I will take this opportunity to re- academic life tnan to sit down to write a sub- spond to certain recent criticisms of Piagetian stantive essay under a presumptuous title sub- theory and related research which deny the mitted six months earlier in the glow of ambi- utility of the Genevan views for a viable life- tious optimism.The eventual realization that span approach in today's (and yesterday's and a given topic is particularly complex and re- tomorrow's) ever chancing sociocultural milieu. sistant to simplistic analysis may be genuinely I hope to demonstrate that only one of these beneficial to the writer, in the form of an in- pt..tative weaknesses in the Piagetian system, creased sense of humility, but the reader is , the lack of a comprehensive acknowledg- typically the disappointed loser.In the pres- ment of development beyond the adolescent ent instance, I must confess that I have not years, is a genuine deficiency.Following been able to make much significant progress this,I shall briefly discuss some of the issues toward a methodologically robust and concep- raised by the complementary juxtaposition of tually satisfying view of nontrivial qualitative an organismic viewpoint (e.g., Piaget's or cognitive change across the life span.None- Werner's developmental theories) with an in- theless, I have a much better idea of wnat a terest in life-span cognitive development.It true life-span orientation demands (in terms of is my contention that a whole-hearted commit- the concomitant philosophical, conceptual- ment to the latter subject area demands a col- theoretical, methodological, and humanistic lateral acceptance of the Piagetian type of de- presuppositions) of the observer of human cog- velopmental world view (cf. Hooper, 1973; nitive development, especially for the adher- Overton & Reese, 1973; Reese & Overton, 1970). ents of Piaget's system.

1 II Piaget and His System Are Alive and WellAnd Not Only in Geneva

While it is distinctly presumptuous of me the equilibration processes), with all its to assume the role of defender of the "Piagetian reverence for an active constructionist Faith," L feel that certain recent critics of view of man's cognitive growth, is not Ptaget's theory have been singularly unfair really "dynamic" enough in comparison zindjor misinformeti in their criticisms; thus I to the neo-Hegelian dialectical approach would like to make a few points on Piaget's of Rubinstein (cf. Payne [1968] as cited behalf.The majority of these recent criticisms in Riegel [1973a, 1973c]; Wozniak [1973]); of Piaget's system discuss one or more of the following "deficiencies"; e.that the interrelationships among the major Piagetian periods or stages of cognitive a that Piaget's single-minded pursuit of development and their respective behavi- the dominant characteristics and deter- oral archetypes (sensori-motor, concrete, minants of a structural approach to logi- and formal operational), especially follow- cal reasoning has culminated in a sterile ing maturity, do not adequately character- automaton model of cognitive functioning ize normal human functioning with its in- slievoid of concern for the individual per- herent blending of affective, motoric, son's needs, goals, and related idiosyn- iconic, and symbolic aspects--this criti- ° cro.cies (e.g., Looft & Svoboda, 1973); cism usually involves the stipulation of optional, multilevel operations (Riegel, that in his views regarding the interactive 1973b; Werner & Kaplan, 1963) or claims pattern of hereditary, maturational, and that the progressive elaboration toward socioexperiential factors, Piaget has not formal operational thought carries with sufficiently recognized the salient role it a systematic alienation of earlier modes of the latter component, especially in of dealing with the "real" world (Riegel, regard to changing historico-generational 1973b), and related to this point; cohjitions , Looft, 1973; Riegel, 1973a, 1973b) or to the role of the indi- f. that Piaget and his collaborators have viiu,11 as a potential source of change paid insufficient attention to development upon the surrounding environment (e.g., during and beyond the years of cognitive Riegel, 1973a, 1973c); "maturity," especially the aging years, and that consequently many interesting c.that Piaget's inordinate emphasis upon a changes of both a progressive and regres- biologically constrained "unfolding" of sive variety (perhaps of a genuine quali- cognitive structure, relatively impervious tative nature) have been ignored (e.g. , to environmental variation, denotes Hooper, 1973; Hooper, Fitzgerald, & genetic preprogram:rung (Bei lin, 1971a) Papalia, 1971; Looft, 1972, 1973; -Loon or, by implication at least, acceptance & Svo'ooda, 1973; Riegel, 1973a, 1973b, of a Kantian variety of apriorism (Riegel, 1973c; Wozniak, 1973). 1973b) [points b and c are obviously closely related]; I believe the initial criticism concerns a natural outcome of the progressive elaboration that the Piagetian system (particularly and increased formalization which has charac-

3 terized the growth of Piaget's theorization pp.18-20,1962a, pp. 290-291,1966, pp. 156- attempts. The answer to "Where have all the 166,1967,pp. 117-120, 1970a,pp. 721-722, people gone? [Looft & Svoboda, 1973, p. 15]" 1970c, pp. 61-62; and Piaget & Inhelder, 1969, is quite straightforward -the individual cog- IDID 152-159) assigned a necessary (but not nizer is still there but he is now encapsulated sufficient) "causative" role to socioexperien- in a highly abstract formal model of logical tial determinants.Moreover, he distinguishes problem solving and associated ratiocination. between logicomathematical, physical, ana As Van den Daele (1969) has recently pointed social experiences, all of which are essential out, developmental stage theorists engage in to normative development (Piaget, 1970a, a three-phase evolutionary process in "con- pp. 719-722; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969, pp. 155- structing" their theories..iirainera (1973b) has 156).For Piaget, discussed this three-step sequence in terms of general typologies.In the initial phase, maturation . . .is undoubtedly never mutually, exclusive ..;enavioral traits which independent of a certain functional clearly differentiate certain developmental exercise where experience plays a levels are selected under logical and/or em- role. . .the maturation of the nervous pirical criteria. system simply opens up a series of possibilities . . . without giving rise During the second phase, the potential to an immediate actualization of these groupings are refined.Redundant traits possibilities so long as the conditions and inconsistent traits are eliminated of material experience or social inter- from the intensional complement of each action do not bring about this actualiza- stage. . . . During the final phase, tion. . . . This actualization presupposes the typology is translated into an ab- certain conditions of physical experience stract symbolism of some sort. Each such as the manipulation of objects, etc. , stage is assigned a symbolic represen- which is also essential for logic, and tation that facilitates description and certain social conditions such as the explanation [Brainerd, 1973b, p. 7]. regulated exchange of information, mutual control, etc.[Piaget, 1967, pp. 119- It is clear that Piaget's theorizing has "pro- 120, emphasis added]. gressed" to the final abstract model stage. (Somehow it seems most appropriate to de- There are no possible grounds for mis- scribe Piaget's scholarly endeavors themselves interpretation here if one is willing to accept in stage terms.)In so doing, the original Piaget's defining criterion for accommodation- emphases (on unique individual persons with one conceptual part of the dynamic auo (the age-related particularistic thought processes, counterpart being assimilation, of course) for example) are not lost; they are merely which together make up the functional invari- subsumed under the higher-order abstract ant of adaptation. The Piagetian organism does mechanisms or constructs, e.g. ,the logical alter his cognitive makeup as a consequence grounements which cover classificatory of repeated encounters with his environmental and relational concepts during the middle- surroundings. childhood period.Of course, one could argue In discussing the relationship of logical that Piaget has never paid enough attention operations and social fe.ctors, Piaget has stated to individual difference variables (unlike his American psychometric counterparts), but this One (answer) is that without interchange is not a result of his recent model-building of thought and co-operation with others endeavors vihich stress the formal analogies the individual would never come to group between systems of logic and behavioral his operations into a coherent whole: patterns (e.g Piaget, 1970c, 1972a); rather, in this sense, therefore, operational this stems from his bias toward behavioral grouping presupposes social life.But, uniformities and generalities (which we all on the other hand, actual interchanges kno'v are the hallmark of any dedicated stage of thought obey a law of equilibrium theorist). which again could only be an operational The second criticism dealing with the grouping, since to co-operate is also supposedly minor role accorded to social or to co-ordinate operations. The grouping jeneral experiential factors may be valid for is therefore a form of equilibrium of secondary interpretations of Piagetian theory, inter-individual actions as well as of but it clearly is not true of Piaget's own later individual actions, and it thus regains writing. He has consistently (e.g., Inhelder its autonomy at the very core of social & Piaget, 1964, pp. 293-294; Piaget, 19525, life [Piaget, 1966, pp. 163-164].

4 Piaget does deny that specific directed to trouble the Genevan researchers.(Tney have teaching is apt to produce genuine cognitive, always been much more preoccupied with ,what modifications U.e., those changes which de.m- you do with your observational data than how onstrate long-term stability, increased opera- you obtained it-- provided, of course, that the tional and functional complexity, and which integrity of the me.thode clinique is not at issue.) involve nonspecific transfer) (cf. Hooper, The assertion (point c above) that Piagetian 1972, 1973; Piaget, 1964, 1970a, pp. 713- theory implicitly accepts a form of Kalman 717) or should be tne guiding focus of our edu- apriorism is directly contrary to the explidit cational endeavors (cf. Furth, 1970; Piaget, statements found in Piaget's writings (e.g., 1970b), at least insofar as the sensori-motor, 1952b, pp. 376-395; 1966, pp. 11-17; 1970c, pre-operational, and concrete operational pp. 55-60) .As is the case wick Werner's child is concerned.Didactic approaches are theory (cf. Kaplan, 1967; Vverner & Kaplan, appropriate for older individuals who have 1963) ,the innate cate dories of reasoning are reached the formal operational level. the focal topics fot. developmental analysis, While it could be maintained that Piaget but Kant's agenJtic thesis is not accepted. has neglected the outward directed results of operative thought, i.e. ,assimilation modifies Meii,,,over, recourse to innate factors environmental inputs but there is little formal never resolves problems; it merely treatment of the organism's influence on the passes thorn on to biology, and as surrounding milieu (cf. Riegel, 1973e, p. 15), long as the fundamental question of the obvious implication of Piaget's comment= acquired characteristics is not defin- upon the role of optimal educational programming itively resolved, it may always be (Piaget, 1964, 1970b, pp. 178-180) E' :,d the supposed that modifications resulting type of individual required in modr_in society from environmental influence will be shows a distinct concern for r--.2 as a creative found at the origin of an innate mech- innovator -thus as a sourr-= of potential change. anism [Piaget, 1967, p. 117]. Misunderstandings mA," arise over this issue because Piaget usP., the equilibration process As the comments under point lasimply, Piaget model both to c':.scribe the internal organizing also denies that his theory necessarily requires factors which underlie sensori-motor schemes . .that the mechanism by which thought or higher-level representational schemata and processes deveiop is under the control of their respective intercoordinations (Langer, species-specific genetic programming. . . 1969) and as a mediator of the macro-level [Benin, 1971a, p. 99]." The commonly ob- interchanges between the active organism and served-systematic regularities (one is tempted the active environment (cf. Klausmeier & to use the term "cultural universals") observed Hooper, in press). across markedly varied sociocultural settings Piaget's interest in long-term historico- for the concrete operational period concepts, generational changes in our past cultural heri- for example, could also be determined by tage is evidenced in a number of instances functionally uniform or ecologicali:quivalent (e.g., see Kaplan, 1971; Piaget, 1950, 1957 life experiences (cf. Wohlwill, 1966, 1970). as reviewed in Flavell, 1963, pp. 255-261; Piaget would probably assert that these cross- Piaget, 1970c, pp. 97-119).His major con- cultural consistencies follow from the fact that cern with the historico-developmental approach all significant cognitive growth is governed, to the analysis of particular knowledge forms in the final analysis, by the equilibration certainly qualifies Piaget as one interest2d in dynamicswhich all men share as biological long-term change. entities.1 For a structuralism of this sort, structure and function, genesis and history, individual subject and society are--once the instruments of analysis have been refinedinseparable, the more so the 1Piaget usually claims that sequences of more it perfects its analytic tools [Piaget, logical concept acquisition rather than rates 1970c, ps 128]. of acquisition (i.e., mean age of attainment) are the proper focus of inter- and intraincliviclual Specialized assessment strategies designed to differences analyses insofar as sociocultural generate developmental norms nonconfoundeci comparisons are concerned.The putative de- by cohort or generational biases (cf. Banes, terminants of these invariant sequences could 1968) are of little import, but methodological rest upon innate determinants or some variety considerations such as these have never seemed of biological preformationism (Benin, 1971a),

5 Point d is perhaps harder to deal with in and integrate the previous level com- the present brief (and sometimes cavalier) bining it with new elements. Thus a con- fashion, but it is refreshing in a way to speak tinuity and coherence is maintained in to the contention that Piaget's conceptions development while simultaneously allow- are not dynamic enough,2 In my reading of ing for the production of novelty. Further- the Piagetian literature, I have always been more, such structures define only relative impressed with the relativistic nature of the periods of constancy and identity in the slowly evolving knowledge forms. The external child's psychological functioning tending world, the cognizing self, and of equal impor- toward a state of equilibrium. A Piagetian tance, the awareness of the self/world differ- "stage," for example, which is a macro- entiation process could never be orthogonally structure, is a period of relative and not defined without consideration of the interrela- absolute stability, i.e. ,it represents tionships among these components. The de- stable structures only when viewed at the scription of this process, whether in terms of macro level, as a totality.When taken the organization-adaptation (assimilation and in terms of its constituent sub-structures, accommodation dyad) invariants or in terms of existing at lower levels, macro-stability the equilibrium model, has always appeared to is no longer manifest.The child's in- me as distinctly dialectical in nature.This telligence never stops developing but formation-dissolution-reformation process in- certain structures at certain levels at cludes within-period and across-period devel- certain points in time achieve relative opmental phenomena. Moreover, the dialecti- stability [Wozniak, 1973, pp. 10-11]. cal nature of the equilibration processes is highlighted by the dynamic aspects of these Other writers (e.g., Elkind, 1967, pp. xii-xiii; systems; they are never completely stable or Overton & Reese, 1973, pp. 77-82; Reese & balanced, but ever-changing throughout life. Overton, 1970, p. 135; Hamlyn, 1971, p. 15; As Wozniak (1973) has recently stated: Riegel, 1973b, pp. 8-9) have noted the close affinity of Piaget's views to a dialectical Piaget employs the term "reflective ab- position.As will be shown below, certain straction" to denote the process in which writers (e.g., Looft, Riegel, and Wozniak)3 an operation which organizes one level of application is rediscovered at a second more general level and in organizing this new level serves to enrich 3Infairness to Riegel, it should be pointed out that he has directed his criticisms ()f Piagetian theory to that writing typified by environmentally derived recurrent regularities such works as The Psychology of Intelligence ()Nail lwill, 1970) ,or upon logically constrained (1966) and The Origins of Intelligence in inter-item relationships (cf. Flavell, 1972; Children (1952b). Thus, the earlier phase Kaplan, 1971). of Piaget's research and the most recent 2It is interesting that, in comparison to writings, represented by the overview volume, the operationel looseness of Piaget's system, Structuralism, would not appear to be at a wholehearted philosophical acceptance of issue (see Riegel, 1973b, footnote 4, pp. 35- the neo-Hegelian dialectical position may re- 36).However, in fairness to Piaget, it does sult in a methodologically it,-lefensible state not seem completely equitable to ignore his of affairs (Overton & Reese, 1973).Riegel's more recent writings (i.e. ,Piaget, 1970a, dualistic dialectic (soma/psyche and self/ 1970b, 1970c) when building a case for con- external world) in which all components are ceptual inadequacies. As mentioned earlier, rapidly changing over cultural and ontogenetic other critics (Looft & Svoboda, 1973) have time presents a formidable task indeed for attacked the recent Piagetian formulations as those of us concerned with eventual opera- contrasted with "vintage" Piaget.Piaget's tional specification. A single bipolar inter- theory must be considered as an organic en- acting entity is hard enough to specify and tity which itself has undergone change over "anchor" without qualifying the values of time.I certainly concur with Riegel and each polar aspect vis-à-vis another dialecti- with Looft in urging that a genetic analysis cal system's perturbations and regulations. of Piaget's evolving theoretical views would The operational complexities inherent in a be a genuinely worthwhile undertaking (cf. truly representative dualistic dialectical de- Looft & Svoboda, 1973, pp. 11-12; Riegel, sign strain the imagination. 1973b, p. 35; 1973c, pp. 30-31).

6 apparently feel that the dialectical process views cognition/affect patterns as indissociably aspects of Piaget's system are "lost" during fused, cf. Flavell, 1963, pp. 78-82). Werner's the adulthood and aging years.Piaget's recent views, in contrast, are much more global and views belie these misgivings.For example, all-encompassing concerning the variety of he concludes as follows: human behaviors which undergo genuine developmental transformation (Kaplan, 1967; Langer, Just as the structuralism of the Bourbaki 1969, 1970).In addition, a wider range of has already expanded into a movement information sources dealing with comparative calling for more dynamic structures (the analyses, e .g ., cross species, cross-cultural, categories with their functional empha- cross-generational, normal/pathogenetic, and sis) ,so the other current forms of struc- micro-genetic, in addition to the focal onto- turalism are no doubt big with future genetic changes are explicitly admissable developments. And since an immanent as developmental data in Werner's approach. dialectic is here at work, we can be Most importantly for our present concerns, sure that the denials, devaluations, and Werner at least discusses the possibility of restrictions with which certain structur- bidirectional developmental change (Roberton, alists today meet positions which they 1972), raising the possibility of short -term regard as incompatible with their own functional regression under special conditions will. one day be recognized to mark those during the :nature years and general dediffer- crucial points where new syntheses over- entiation and decreased hierarchic integration take antitheses [Piaget, 1970c, p. 143, during the aging years. emphases added]. A case could be argued therefore that Werner's position is a more veridical reflec- One of the possible distinctions between tion of normal adult life (and a more sympa- the views and emphases of Piaget compared thetic one for those of us who find it difficult to Werner (as representative spokesman for to function at the formal operational level for the organismic world view)4 concerns cognitive extended time periods).Still, both Piaget and functioning following maturity (pointS e and f Werner would strongly disagree with the con- ibove).Piaget is, of course, primarily a cog- tention that the acquisition of formal opera- nitive theorist--moreover, by choice, one rather tional thought or symbolic reasoning denies exclusively concerned with logical reasoning the continued utilization of earlier knowledge a id related problem solving. He thus pays forms based upon motoric or iconic modes. little attention to imagination, reverie, dream They certainly would deny that the acquisition states, creative expression in nonabstract of higher (from their vantage point) thought media, or to many aspects of affective function- processes removes the individual from contact ing (more exactly--he doesn't ignore them [see with the real world and results in a perverse Piaget, 1962b]; he simply subordinates these form of cognitive alienation from concrete phenomena to logical thought processes or reality (Riegel, 1973b; Wozniak, 1973).

It ,has always seemed curious to me that ogist") are seldom mentioned (and, I surmise, so much of the credit (and corollary respon- seldom even read) by American psychologists. sibility for any shortcomings) for the "estab- The lack of acceptance of Werner's develop- lishment" of genetic: epistemology on sound mental views is discussed by Brainerd (1973b, theoretical and empirical grounds should be pp. 15-18), Langer (1970, p. 772), and White rather exclusively accorded to Jean Piaget. (1970, pp. 662-665), while Kaplan seldom Piaget's (as he has indicated, i.e., misses an opportunity to defend justifiably Piaget, 1950, 1952a) have a number of pre- the Wernerian viewpoint. Some writers, e.g., cursory sources which include Wundt, Binet, Hooper (1973) and Langer (1969), stress the an:: Clapareile to name only a few similarities found in Werner's and Piaget's (cf. Kaplan, 1971, p. 63).While this may viewpoints, while others (such as Flavell or reflect the vagaries of the Zeitgeist, it is Kaplan or Overton) are, perhaps, more circum- particularly surprising (and sometimes a spert in describing the unique, yet comple- .-;)urce of consternation) to me that certain mentary, contrIbutions of the foremost orga- corit,L.rnp.iraries of Pia gel such as Cassirer nismic: theorists.In the present context, i a..: Werner (who certainly can make equally Werner's developmental theory appears ideally viable claims to the title "genetic epistemol- suited for life-span applications.

7 It must be remembered that Werner's levels tivity assert itself as a "Me." But here and Piaget's stages of cognitive development again the creative act, while it is in are, first and foremost, hierarchically orga- progress ,is not recognized as such; all nized systems in which the earlier (lower?) the energy of that spiritual achievement forms of dominant functioning are superseded is projected into the result of it, and by the subsequent forms, but are never lost seems bound up in that object from which (Langer, 1970; Piaget, 1970; Werner & Kaplan, it seems to emanate as by reflection. 1963). Thus the motoric and perceptual as- Here, too, as in the case of tools and pects may be functionally subordinate to the instruments, all spontaneity is felt as more abstract contemplative modes of "know- receptivity, all creativity as being, and ing" our world, but they continue to operate every product of subjectivity as so much and to undergo further development and spe- substantiality. And yet, this very hypo- cialization.In a normal individual, all forms statization of the Word is of crucial im- or modes of contact with the surrounding en- portance in the development of human vironment exist in an organized system. More- mentality.For it is the first form in over, the various modes of knowing our world, which the spiritual power inherent in of organizing our daily activities, and of me- language can be apprehended at all; the diating our intercourse with other persons are Word has to be conceived in the mythic commingled in the distinctly human activities mode, as a substantive being and power, of art, mythology, language, warfare, unre- before it can be comprehended as an quited love, etc. What mode is dominant at ideal instrument, an organon of the mind, any given point in time depends upon the affec- and as a fundamental function in the con- tive/conative context; the same symbol may struction and development of spiritual denote markedly different meanings depending reality [Cassirer, 1946, pp. 61-62]. upon the shared context as ti-e studies of word magic (Cassirer, 1946; S. K. Langer, 1951) Finally, contrary to the contentions of Wozniak have shown. (1973, p. 16),5 it is indeed the abstract con- Now it is quite true that Piaget and Werner templative mode of cognitive functioning, as rank order the degree of absolute development exemplified in Piaget's formal level hypothetico- or relative complexity of motoric, perceptual, deductive reasoning, which permits men to "con- and symbolic-representational (formal opera- struct" theories like Piaget's and, not inciden- tional period for Piaget) levels ,reserving the tally, to engage in academic discourse concern- highest position to the latter contemplative- ing the correct interpretation of these theories abstract level.But man as a symbol maker and once conceived (cf. Kaplan, 1967, p. 81). user does not lose contact with reality as a consequence of this developmental process (although some would argue that neuroses are one uniquely hum in outcome). Rather, he acquires the ability to transform and transcend concrete reality if he so chooses. As Cassirer has made clear, reflective or contemplative abstractions, especially with regard to language formsare the ultimate links between men 5From the organismic viewpoint it is futile as social organisms and the world about them- to engage in polemic discussion concerning thus permitting a view of reality never possible antecedent-consequent analysis of develop- through enactive or iconic modes alone. mental outcomes as conceptually distinct from a description and analysis of the final product It was a long evolutionary course which at issue (formal causation). One can no more the human mind had to traverse, to pass determine the particularistic form and contents from the belief in a physico-magical of Piaget's final theory from .n exhaustive power comprised in the Word to a reali- cataloging of his past history than one can zation of its spiritual power.Indeed, it expect to unravel the formative progression is the Word, it is language, that really (development) of his theory from an exhaustive reveals to man that world which is closer (logical or phenomenological) analysis of the to him than any world of natural objects properties of his formal model of cognition. and touches his weal and woe more di- Attempts to do so confuse efficient, formal, rectly than physical nature.For it is and final causative determinants (cf. Kaplan, language that makes his existence in a 1967, p. 71; Overton & Reese, 1973, pp. 75- community possible; and only in society, in relation to a "Thee," can his subjec- 77).

8 You are old, Father William," the young man said, And your heir become very white; And yet you incessantly stand on your head- - Do you think, at your age, it is right?" "In my youth," Father William replied to his son, "I feared it might injure the brain; But now I'm perfectly sure I have none, Why, I do it again and again." Lewis Carroll

III Cognitive Development Beyond the Adolescent Years

I imagine everyone feels very strongly that prelogical level in others, but will never some very important cognitive advancements reason at a formal level. An adult who are indeed accomplished following the flower- is able to apply correlational reasoning ing of adolescence.In this regard, T'iagetian in a highly simplified situation may re- theory is not very informative (Hooper, Fitz- gress to a particularistic or to an abso- gerald, & Papa lia, 1971; Looft & Svoboda, lute frequency approach in many everyday 1973; Riegel, 1973b). What little that has life situations.Briefly, it is assumed been written from the Genevan viewpoint con- that the developmental stages are de- cerning possible changes during the adult and scriptive of different levels of cognitive aging years (Flavell, 1970; Piaget, 1972b; functioning, and that adults may, at Smedslund, 1963) has emphasized experien- various times, function at any of these tially based (e.g., occupational status, years levels, although under optimal conditions of formal schooling) specialization and diversi- they are capable of formal, hypothetico- fication of an essentially nonqualitative na- deductive reasoning. The empirical ture.In contrast, Riegel (1973b) has proposed problem in each case is to determine a fifth stage of cognitive development charac- under what range of conditions a given terized by "dialectical operations" and denot- person will function at a given level. ing qualitative progression during adulthood. The present data support the hypothesis What empirical findings are available con- that this range is very restricted, or cerning the possible changes following adoles- even non-existent, in most adults as cence may be briefly summarized.Initially, far as the concept of correlation is con- it must be acknowledged that we really know cerned [Smedslund, 1963, p. 173]. very little about the typical cognitive competencies of normal adults as they are confronted There are a somewhat larger number of with Piagetian concept tasks. A few studies studies that have administered Piagetian tasks have shown that criterial formal operations to aged subjects (and in some cases compared performances appear later than Piaget origi- these normative patterns to those of younger nally contended, and in some instances, have subjects). These include: been notably absent in mature subjects (e.g., Elkind, 1962; Piaget, 1972b; Smedslund, 1963; a.research with clinical populations of Stephens, 1972; see also the review of animis- elderly subjects tic tendencies in adults by Looft & Bartz, 1969, 1.Aju-iaguerra, Boehme, Richard, pp. 13-14). This has led Smedslund to con- Sinclair, and Tissot (1967) (time clude as follows: concepts a.ld representative concrete operational tasks [linear and The present data lead to the following inverse order, horizontal coordinates, interpretation of the Piaget-Inhelder typological representation, conser- theory: The analyses in this theory are vation of quantity, weight, and seen as referring to the optimal perform- volume] in 15 subjects aged 64 to ance at each developmental stage. Thus, 86 years and a comparison sample a child capable of concrete reasoning in of 6 noninstitutionalized subjects some situations may be functioning at a aged 74 to 90 years)

9 2.Ajuriaguerra, Kluser, Velghe, and 2.Denny and Lennon (1972) (classifica- Tissot (1965) (object permanence tasks tory sorting tasks in 32 middle-aged and sensorimotor tasks assessing adults 22 to 55 years of age and 32 "operational schemata" similar to elderly adults 67 to 95 years of age) the vocal encoding subtest of the 3.Kaminski and Coppinger (1968) (con- Illinois Test of Psycholing_diztic servation of surface area in 102 in- Abilities in 19 subjects aged 67 to stitutionalized male veterans in three 91 years) age groups: 50-59, 60-69, and 70 3.Ajuriaguerra, Richard, Rodriguez, and years of age and older) Tissot (1966) (spatial orientation and 4.Looft and Charles (1971) (spatial ego- representation tasks [ideo-motor centrism and social communication- apraxia] in 13 subjects 64 to 86 interaction tasks in 46 young adults years of age) [X age = 19 years, none over 21 years] 4.Eisner (1973) (conservation of surface and 34 aged persons [X age = 77 years, area, number, continuous quantity none under 66 years]) [clay and %.,ater] and weight, discon- 5.Overton and Clayton (1972) (transitive tinuous quantity, and volume in ten inference [length] and formal reasoning males free from organic brain damage [pendulum task] in 20 college-aged [65-83 years of age, X age = 71.7 years], females [X age = 19.05 years) ,20 ten institutionalized males diagnosed females aged 60 to 69 years [X age = as evidencing moderate chronic organic 64.90 years], 20 females aged 70 to brain syndrome [64-91 years of age, 79 years [X age = 73.25 years], and X age = 74.4 years], and ten severely 20 females aged 70 to 79 years [X age brain-damaged institutionalized males = 76.35 years] from a home for the aged) [78-90 years of age, X age = 84.0 6.Papalia (1972) (conservation of quan- years)); tity, number, weight, and volume in 96 subjects across the age range of 6 to 7 years, 11 to 13 years, 18 to 19 b.studies of normal nonclinical samples of years, 30 to 54 years, 55 to 64 years, elderly persons and over 65 years of age) 1.Dennis and Mellinger (1949) (animistic 7.Rubin (1974) (spatial and communica- reasoning in subjects 70 years of age tive egocentrism measures in four and older) groups: young [15 males and 15 fe- 2.Papalia, Kennedy, and Sheehan (1973) males, X age = 7.63 years], late child- (conservation of surface area in 48 hood [15 males and 14 females, X age subjects aged 63 to 92 years) = 11.53 years], young adult [11 males 3.Papalia, Salverson, and True (1973) and 14 females, X age = 21.07 years), (quantity, weight, and volume con- and elderly [13 males and 1.4 females, servation tasks in 4:subjects aged X age = 76.33 years], 64 to 85 years) 8.Rubin, Attewell, Tierney, and Tumolo 4.Rubin (1973) (spatial egocentrism and (1973) (spatial egocentrism and con- conservation of two-dimensional servation of two-dimensional space, space, number, continuous quantity number, continuous quantity [clay and [clay and water] and weight in a water] and weight in 132 subjects in sample of 28 institutionalized sub- five differing age groups, i.e., young jects aged 71 to 85 years and a [X age = 7.63 years], late childhood sample of 27 noninstitutionalized [X age = 11.53 years], young adult_ subjects 70 to 85 years of age [X age = 21.07 years] and elderly [X 5.Storck, Looft, and Hooper (1972) age = 76.33 years]) (multiplicative classification and 9.Sanders, Laurendeau, and Bergeron sedation, conservation of weight (1.966) (conservation of surface area and volume, and a role playing ego- in 155 subjects in three groups; 20 to centrism task in a sample of 24 sub- 39, 49 to 59, and 60 years of age and jects aged 55 to 79 years); older)6; and

c studies which compared the pe:formances of elderly persons and younger age groups 6 1.Annett (1959) (classificatory sorting In addition to these completed age com- tasks in 303 children aged 5 to 11 parative studies, a series of life-span in- years and 42 adults aged 18 to 73 years) vestigations (cross-sectional and short-term

10 (1. studies of disparate age groups or the that investigators are beginnning to speculate elderly which assessed performance on regarding the possible correlates of impaired theoretically relevant non-Piagetian task functioning on the Piagetian task settings, e.g. , formats, for example, the effects of institutionalization (Ajuriaguerra, 1. Bromley (1956, 1957, 1970) Boehme, Richard, Sinclair, & Tissot, 1967; 2.Coma lli, Wapner, and Werner (1959) and Rubin, 1973; contrasted with Overton & 3.Riegel and Riegel (1964) Clayton, 1972) and related social interaction 4.Trembley and O'Connor (1966) factors (Denny, 1973; Loft, 1972; Looft & 5.Wapner, Werner, and Coma lli (1960). Charles, 1971), the role of educational attainment (Papa lia, 1972; Sanders, Laurendau, & In almost every instance, these cross- Bergeron, 1966; and Storck, Looft, & Hooper, sectional assessment studies have found marked 1972; contrasted with Papalia, Kennedy, & differences favoring the mature adults, similar- Sheehan, 1973; and Papalia, Salverson, & ities between performances of the young chil- True, 1973), and the possible relationship of dren and aged subjects subsamples, and/or Piagetian concept competencies to the psycho- apparent de :fements in the performances of the metrically derived distinctions between fluid elderly persons on the Piagetian tasks.It is and crystallized general Intelligence (Horn, particularly interesting that in the elderly sub- 1970), e.g., Hooper, Fitzgerald, and Papalia ject samples, the relative item difficulties for (1971), Hooper and Storck (1972), Overton the formal/concrete task comparisons and the and Clayton (1972), Storck, Looft, and concrete operations inter-task analyses, i.e., Hooper (1972). the well-known horizontal d6calages and the The fundamental questions at issue here within-stage item concurrences or correspond- concern:(a) Whether the performances of ences, parallel those found for samples of normal adults from a representative sampling younger subjects aged 5 to 15 years.This of sociocultural and occupational groups on has led to the intriguing speculation that longi- formal reasoning tasks merit the use of tudinal assessments could detect a regression ;cage designation to the same extent (i.e., sequence in reverse order to that associated in terms of cultural universalism and relatively with. the chr.d's normative acquisition sequence minor interindividual and intraindividual vari- (cf. Ajuriaguerra, Boehme, Richard, Sinclair, ability) as that accorded to the earlier develop- & Tissot, 1967, pp. 388-389 and 436-437; mental stages; and assuming the answer to the Ajuriaguerra, Kluser, Velghe, & Tissot, 1965, initial question is affirmative, (b) Whether the pp. 316-318 Ajuriaguerra, Richard, Rodriguez, performance difficulties of the elderly subjects & Tissot, 1966, pp. 460-461 [sensori-motor on formal, concrete, and sensori-motor tasks period ta:4:.s]; Ajuriaguerra & Tissot, 1966, denote competence deficits (Flavell & Wohlwill, pp. 335-336; Hooper, Fitzgerald, & Papalia, 1969) and hence merit the appellation of quali- 1971, pp. 15-16; Papa lia, 1972, p. 231; tative regression. Papalia, Salverson, & True, 1973, pp. 5-8; In regard to the first issue, Piaget has Storck, Looft, & Hooper, 1972, p. 464 [con- recently commented regarding the status of crete operations period tasks]). The available formal operations period research: evidence has been so consistently uniform But there is the possibility of a third hypothesis and, in the present state of knowledge, this last interpretation seems most probable.It allows us to reconcile the concept of stages with the idea of progressively differentiating aptitudes. longitudinal assessments) are currently under In brief, our third hypothesis would state way at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, that all normal subjects attain the stage under the direction of Diane Papalia, Nancy of formal operations or structuring if not Sheehan, Patricia Storck, and the author. between 11-12 to 14-15 years, in any Topic areas include animistic reasoning, con- case between 15 and 20 years. However, crete and formal operational reasoning tasks, they reach this stage in different areas moral development, egocentrism tasks, and according to their aptitudes awd their representative ?neasures of fluid and crystal- professional specializations (advanced lized intelligence.Additional Piagetian life- studies or different types of apprentice- span comparative studies are being conducted ship for the various trades):the way in by Nancy W. Denny at the University of Kansas which these formal structures are used, and Kenneth Rubin at the University of Waterloo, however, is not necessarily the same in Canada. all cases [Piaget, 1972b, pp. 9-10].

11 Insofar as the second question is concerned, they have not, as yet, systematically incor- while it is indeel true that the Genevan re- porated these findings into a life-span model searchers have conducted some extremely of cognitive development. interestin.j assessments on elderly persons,

12 The original aim of developmental theory, directed toward the study of universal genetic changes, is still one of its main concerns; but side by side with this concern, the conviction has been growing in recent years that developmental conceptualization, in order to reaffirm its truly organismic character, has to expand its orbit of interest to include as a central problem the study Of individuality. Heinz Werner Iv The Relationship of Organismic Theory and Life-Span Developmental Research

As recently as 1963, Nancy Bayley felt aging years, are the natural preoccupation of obligated to make a special plea for the nec- a true life-span developmentalist. Now, even essity of the life-span approach to develop- if you restrict your attention to a single rela- mental analysis: tively circumscribed behavioral domain (and most life-span researchers are too zealously This train of thought leads to the necessity, "holistic" to do this), the resultant assess- for a comprehensive approach to the study ment-interpretation task is enormously complex. of behavior, that we consider the whole Initially, when I contemplate the considerable life-process as a frame of reference. . . controversy and disagreement among researchers In general, change is most rapid and most in a relatively restricted content domain/age obvious at the two ends of the lifespan, range, e.g., cognitive development during the in infancy-childhood and in old-age years of middle childhood- -the topic area with senility.However, even though it tends which I am most familiar--I must confess the to be forgotten, and even though the prospects for a viable life-span research various behavioral functions of the young program are dismally pessimistic. adult are often treated as stable, change Most of this initial pessimism concerns is continuous, right through the "mature" the considerable methodological problems as- adult period.The process of maturation sociated with life-span assessments (cf. of growth and subsequent decline never Nesselroade & Reese, 1973). These usually cease, whatever the structure or function involve three interrelated prerequisities: being considered [Bayley, 1963, p. 126, (a) the provision of an array of task or mea- emphases added]. surement settings demonstrating equivalent reliability and validity (of a psychometric and Today I think it is fairly safe to say that a ecological variety); (b) the provision of gen- general life-span orientation has been accepted eral assessment designs (normative measure- by a large number of developmental investiga- ment and experimental manipulation) which tors (cf. Baltes ,1973) .I should like to ask, permit unbiased estimates of developmental How many of these enthusiastic promoters of changes; and (c) the provision of statistical a life-span Zeitgeist realize exactly what they analysis procedures which can accommodate are getting themselves into?If one accepts multiple independent and multiple dependent the provisional definition "Human life-span variables. Assuming consensual operational developmental psychology is concerned with agreement regarding the target cognitive be- the description and explication of ontogenetic haviors, an explicit answer to a quest for (age-related) behavioral change from birth to specifying nontrivial qualitative change prob- death [Baltes & Goulet, 1970, p. 12], " and ably awaits the provision of these methodologi- if one wishes to add potential modification as cal essentials. a long-range objective (Baltes, 1973), then However, before we lapse into premature we do indeed have a formidable task ahead of despair, I should like to point out that all us. This follows as a natural consequence problems of life-span psychology which are of the fact that all of the conceptual and meth- distinctly methodological in nature are in odological problems germane to an age-specific principle ultimately resolvable.In essence, developmental analysis, e.g. ,infancy or the the methodological and general research design

13 requirements of life-span ontogenetic assess- If the child does not have an adequate ment are analogous to those in any area of understanding of the problem, then it comparative analysis (e.g. ,philogenetic, should come as no surprise that the child pathogenetic, or ethnogenetic comparisons) . does not engage in activities appropriate It follows, therefore, that since workers in to solution of the problem . . . (and these related comparative disciplines are not further). . . . Obviously the question beset with any noticeable methodological de- of whether adequate performance at this spair, we too have reason to be optimistic. task is dependent upon comprehension of It also follows that we could gain much by the end-state or is simply dependent familiarizing ourselves with the methodological upon heightened motivation must be innovations and safeguards employed in these carefully considered, but it can at least other comparative areas. Many of the proposed be suggested that experimenters often solutions to problems of data comparability as do not exact optimal performance from approached in cross-cultural research (cf. their younger subjects [Meacham, 1972, Eckensberger, 1973, pp. 46-61), for example, pp. 211-212]. are appropriate to life-span assessment applications. Similar admonitions for researchers using class Major advances in life-span assessment inclusion tasks have been engagingly suggested design and related statistical analyses (points by Hayes (1972), and I would maintain that b and c above) have recently been discussed by these caveats are equally relevant to assess- Baltes and Nesselroacie (1973).In the present ment research with elderly persons. We simply context, the availability of these improved cannot assume that since the fundamental task techniques in conjunction with the fact that requirements are self-evident to us (as task many Piagetian task formats have a most ob- designers or task administrators) they are vious face validity (at least when compared equally obvious to any individual "fortunate" with many intelligence test items commonly enough to be drawn into our subject sample. employed in life-span research) is reason for By way of conclusion, let us presume genuine optimism.This will be particularly that we do indeed possess all the methodologi- true if the reservations concerning the applica- cal armament essential to conducting life-span tion of parametric statistical techniques (e.g., analyses cf Piagetian conceptual abilities. the linear additivity assumptions of parametric Even if we had a series of absolutely equiva- ANOVA models) to behavioral domains derived lent tasks, an infallible assessment research from organismic theory prove to be groundless design and associated analytic techniques, (see Overton & Reese, 1973). and a "normal" subject who was willing to In our initial attempts to conduct Piagetian have us follow and observe his activities from research in a life-span framework, it is probably birth onward--there would still be something advisable to confine our endeavors to those missing.I contend that there is something task formats which have undergone thorough over and above a methodological sophistication, preliminary analysis with the original age- a penchant for model building, and ready a.:;cess appropriate samples. The understanding of to subjects at widely disparate age levels which classificatory relationships as assessed in the is the crucial defining criterion for a true life- class inclusion task, for example, has been span developmental investigator. Acceptance extensively and intensively investigat,,:!.d, and of the life-span orientation demands an aware- the determinants of successful performance are ness of certain process/product distinctions reasonably clear-cut (e.g. ,Brainerd & Kaszor, as potentially present throughout all our inves- in press; Klahr & Wallace, 1972); its relation- tigations.At the general level this implies ship to other Piagetian tasks has been demon- that we discard the traditional notions that all strated (e.g. ,Brainerd, 1973a; Hooper, Sipple, developmental phenomena from birth to adult- Goldman, & Swinton, in press); and the influ- hood are necessarily progressive in nature and ence of instructional programming on criterial that all the interesting changes during the performance, has been studied (e.g., Bei lin, aging years are primarily decremental in nature. 1961b; Klausmeier & Hooper, in press).In the More specifically, it means that we must rec- employment of class inclusion tasks (or any ognize that the same absolute performance tasks, for that matter) in a life-span assess- levels (quantitative and qualitative criteria) ment design, it is extremely important to provide for differing age groups may be mediated by comparable motivational attractiveness and ap- different process mechanism (Turiel, 1969; propriate instructional sets for an the age sub- Wapner, 1969; Werner, 1937) or may involve samples under examination.In discussing mem- multiple distinctive problem-solving strategies ory research paradigms, Meacham has stated: or learning skills, only some of which are age-

14 specific (Goulet, 1973), or that differential en- cross-sectional age decrements in cog- vironmental conditions and related concurrent nitive functioning are less indicative of factors may be operative.7 The same reserva- biological aging phenomena than of tions, of course, may apply to observed per- changes in cultural input systems [Baltes formance differences across age groups.In & Labouvie, 1973, p. 197]. cautioning against a premature reliance upon biological factors as the major determinants The possibility that differential processes of intellectual functioning in the aged, Baltes may be involved in supposedly congruent focal and Labouvie have stated: task performances may be briefly illustrated. A number of recent theorists have posited a Consider, for example, that the age- close relationship between Piagetian task graded nature of the educational system performances and memory factors as repre- deemphasizes formal training in efficient sented in information processing approaches information processing and complex prob- (cf. Klahr & Wallace, 1970; Neimark, 1970; lem solving in the aged.Moreover, con- Pascual-Leone & Smith, 1969). Many of the sider that age differences in a given study Piagetian task formats such as transitive in- might not only reflect the effect of age- ference and conservation have a memory re- specific deprivation or enrichment that quirement as an essential component.In dis- differentiates older and younger subjects cussing the possible interactive role of memory but also the differential distance from and operational factors, Piaget has stated that the time of formal schooling (compare the most likely hypothesis is that the memory e.g. ,the often reported age-decrement code itself depends on the subject's operations. functions with retention curves).Further, and therefore this code is modified during denote that the measurement instruments velopment, and depends at any given moment used when comparing age groups may on the subject's operational level [Piaget, 1968, not at all adequately sample the universe p. 2]." of task conditions that define the main- Tentative support for memory variables tenance systems for the elderly.Finally, as partial determinants of young children's recognize that environmental differentials success on Piagetian concept tasks has been combine both ontogenetic (individual) and oiered (Roodin & Gruen, 1970), and the devel- generational (historical) change compo- opment of memory strategies appears to parallel nents.Indeed, the overpowering effect the growth of operational thought (Meacham, of cohort differences found in recent 1972; Neimark, Slotnick, & Ulrich, 1971). studies (e.g., Schaie, 1970) assigns In contrast to these findings with children, high probability to the conclusion that memory ability disturbances do not appear to be closely linked to the operational deficits observed in the elderly (e.g. ,Ajuriaguerra, Kluser, Velghe, & Tissot, 1965; Ajuriaguerra, Richard, Rodriguez, & Tissot, 1966). Thus, 7Inaddition to these reservations, it the possibility exists that the concept task should be remembered that "pure" stage X performance pattern similarities shown in responses are seldom observed by Piagetian comparisons of young children and the elderly researchers. While there is no question that are not based on identical process mechanisms. major qualitative distinctions are evident It is obvious that life-span assessments when data are viewed from a macro-level, a which involve an emphasis upon process dis- mixture of stage responses for any given indi- tinctions such as these require multiple_ mea- vidual is frequently the case (cf. Pleven, surement settings.But, in reality, it requires 1971). A combination of distinctive stage- more than just sophisticated measurement specific response categories or problem solu- strategies with closely matched analytic pro- tion strategies appears to be typical of transi- cedures; it requires adherence to a world view tional phase children (e.g., Turiel, 1969, which openly tolerates intraindividual and pp. 113-126), and adults in artificially con- interindividual differences and which accepts trived or stress-producing situations (e.g. , multiple causation of developmental phenomena Werner, 1957, pp. 140-146) and has been as a logical and natural outcome. This empha- observed in elderly persoas (e.g. ,verbal sis on an appreciation of individuality highlights justifications associated with a lower genetic the fact that we are, in the final analysis, con- level may accompany higher level solutions cerned with people; thus a fundamental human- and vice versa; Ajuriaguerra, Boehme, Richard, istic philosophy is essential. We must not Sinclair, & Tissot, 1967, p. 437). attempt to impose our particular form of adult

15 logic upon the preschool child, or the resident cal observations are a prouuct of the psychol- of the old age home, or the member of another ogist-observer's theoretical predispositions "different" subculture.Normative behavior and his complex interactions with the system from the life-span perspective must forever be undergoing examination. As K. E. Boulding a relative term. has stated:"All scientists are participant- As you no doubt have surmised, I feel that observers in their own systems. . . . Hence the organismic world view ideally meets these the system changes as it is studied and because requirements.I shall even contend that any- it is studied.There can be no myth of an un- one who openly accepts my criteria for a viable changing universe with the scientist acquiring life-span developmental discipline is, implicitly abstract knowledge about it[ Boulding, 1967, at least, accepting the organismic world view as quoted in Riegel, 1973a, p. 16]. "The two of Werner and Piaget.In a pervious paper most commonly discussed contrasting world (Hooper, 1973), I have claimed that an inves- views are, of course, the organismic and the tigator's world view or basic philosophy of behaviorist (Looft, 1973; Reese & Overton, man is the primary determinant of what he ex- 1970). While acceptance of the organismic pects to find as he examines life-span phe- approach may not guarantee that the quest nomena, effectively constrains what behavioral for nontrivial qualitative change will find an alterations he will designate as developmental empirical resolution, this acceptance at least in nature, and to a great extent, determines acknowledges the question of qualitative the methodological strategies he employs. change as an issue worthy of research and From this position, there is no possibility of subsequent theory development. Few of our acquiring so-called "pure" objective data behaviorist colleagues would make that state- concerning life-span functioning. Any empiri- ment.

16 S PO 505-281-3 References

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