Coming to Terms The Old Testament and Insider Movements by Harley Talman

he past several years have witnessed enormous controversy over the issue of the growing indigenous discipleship-to- movements within the world’s major religious traditions. Within Christian missionT discussions, these have been most commonly referred to as “insider movements.” Despite the fact that a number of these movements were clearly initiated by the Spirit of God, some critics claim that these movements are merely the fruit of misguided Christian missionary strategies and without bib- lical or theological validity. This paper seeks to offer fresh perspective from an Old Testament theology of religions, so as to discover how theological founda- tions might inform our attitude toward these movements.

Before embarking on an exploration of biblical theology, we must remind ourselves that the Old Testament does not directly ask or answer the ques- tions contemporary missiology is asking about the nature and validity of other religions. It does not even use a word for religion.1 Nevertheless, biblical scholars have observed two contrasting elements in the OT’s attitude toward the nations and their religions: particularism/exclusiveness/rejection versus universalism/acceptance/absorption. In our examination of the OT perspec- tive on religions of the nations we will first look at the positive attitude. Attitude of Absorption toward Other Religions

The argument of this section is as follows: The image of God is still evident in humanity, despite the effects of the Fall. Thus, human cultures and religions will reflect this reality in some measure. The scriptures indicate that other cultures (which Harley Talman has worked with include their religions) do indeed provide many moral and spiritual insights and not Muslims for three decades, two of just ignorance and error.2 Evidences of religious influences on Israel’s religion are them in the Arab world and Africa in church planting and theological unmistakable, and often acceptable, beneficial or useful as bridges to communication— education. He holds a ThM from even though they are not sufficient as sources of truth without the additional special Dallas Seminary and a PhD in Islamic studies from Fuller. revelation given directly by God through and to Israel. Allow me to elaborate:

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Many aspects of openness to other God of Israel.9 [This does not mean that continues with the building of the temple, the religion of the Psalter, religious influences are evident in the the Canaanite conception of God was and the ideology of kingship (divine patriarchal period. First, elements of the same as the Bible’s. I would view this and human). It continues in the other religions are borrowed. While as a divinely inspired appropriation. The oracles of the , whose ad- theologically liberal critics view these sub-biblical Canaanite conception of El mission to the council of Yahweh is strictly as a human phenomenon of was redeemed and sanctified by attribut- an admission to the council of El (cf. cultural borrowing, some conservatives ing to it all of the attributes and acts of Ps 82) where they overhear El giving may fear that this is suggesting syn- the God of Israel that are recorded in judgment, and in the visionary sym- cretism. Instead, we are on more solid the Hebrew Bible]. Evangelical scholar bolism of the apocalypses. Occasional ground if we understand it to be God’s Gerald McDermott asserts that Abra- specific texts indicate concrete de- intentional contextualization through ham’s identification of El Elyon with pendence (see Ps 104?). This is not to and other patriarchs to pres- Yahweh indicates that he considered that say that these institutions, ideas, or texts are unchanged when they fea- ent a culturally meaningful witness to the priest Melchizedek [I do not think ture within Yahwism, but that it was the surrounding nations. Charles Van he would say this of the Canaanites in able to reach its own mature expres- Engen maintains that God’s covenant general] worshipped the true God, but sion with their aid.13 relationship with Israel was a context­ by a different name.10 Goldingay states: ualization aimed at bringing light to Apparently Abram and Genesis itself Positive aspects in other religions also 3 the nations. The Book of Genesis, as recognize that Melchizedek . . . serves allowed for Jewish borrowing from a whole, records God’s promises and the true God but does not know all them for law, literature, and wisdom. their fulfillment in order to more fully The OT refers positively to wise men of reveal him. As Goldingay explains, , Phoenicia, and Edom; the Book The purpose of God’s particular of Proverbs reflects Israel’s willingness action in the history of Israel is ulti- to incorporate Egypt’s wisdom litera- mately that God, as the saving and Many aspects of ture (while rejecting its polytheism).14 covenantal God Yahweh, should be known fully and worshipped exclu- openness to other Furthermore, the OT emphatically af- sively by those who as yet imperfectly religious influences firms the oneness of humanity and that know God as El.4 all peoples are under his sovereign rule, are evident in the even those under pagan viceroys. Thus, At the same time, the Old Testament Jeremiah attributed the Babylonian infers that there are some constructive patriarchal king’s conquest of Jerusalem to Yahweh things that Israel could appropriate or (32:26–28). Despite his eclecticism, 5 period. learn from these religions. Cyrus, the king of Persia who is called For example, it has been noted that “God’s Anointed” (Isa. 45:1), declared the patriarchs worshipped at or near that “the God of Israel” moved him there is to know about that God. It to allow the Jewish exiles to return traditional Canaanite shrines, such is in keeping with this that Israel in (Ezra 1:1–2).15 We frequently find as at Shechem (Gen. 12:6), Bethel due course takes over Melchizedek’s the Prophets proclaiming Yahweh’s (Gen. 12:8) Hebron (Gen. 13:18) and city of Salem and locates Yahweh’s 6 universal purposes and sovereignty Beersheba (Gen. 21:33). In their early own chief sanctuary there . . . over the nations. Sitting at the center period, lived next to Ca- and Pharaoh, too, seem to work on of the chiastic structure of the Book of naanites in Shechem, even though the the basis that the God they serve 7 Daniel is Nebuchadnezzar’s proclama- latter were Baal worshippers. Despite is the same God11 (see Gen 41:16, tion, “I blessed the Most High, and being immigrants from the desert, the 39; and compare Pharaoh’s giving praised and honored the one who lives patriarchs and early Israelites assimi- and Joseph’s accepting an Egyptian theophoric name and a wife who was forever” (Dan. 4:34), emphasizing it lated into the agriculturalist culture 16 12 as the book’s central point. Likewise, of the Canaanites, adopting their a priest’s daughter, 41:45). Darius confessed Yahweh to be the “language, architecture, farming, legal 8 There are other absorptions as well: living God and ordered all those in his system, and values.” The wilderness sanctuary of Exod kingdom to “tremble and fear before” Furthermore, the high god of other reli- 25–40 follows Canaanite models for him (Dan. 6:26–27). Large sections gions is viewed in certain passages as re- a dwelling of El, in its framework of the Prophets are aimed at non- ferring to the God of Israel, although not construction, its curtains embroi- Jewish people (e.g., Isaiah 13:1–23:18; yet fully known. The Canaanite name dered with cherubim, and its throne Jeremiah 46–51, Ezekiel 25–32, Amos for the high God, “El” was used for the flanked by cherubim. Such adapting 1:3–2:3, Obadiah, and Nahum).

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Even the messages of severe judgment imply God’s concern for these peo- he OT’s critical attitude toward religions cuts both ples.17 However, the prophets did not ways. Biblical faith must not be seen as merely a only pronounce judgment on pagan matter of belonging to the “right” religion. nations, they heralded salvation, peace T and blessing to Egypt (Isaiah), Moab, Thus, we have seen much evidence of tradition, as in wisdom literature, it Ammon, Elam (Jer. 48–49) and other an OT attitude of appropriation of could not substitute for the knowledge nations so that they will “know that I positive elements in pagan religions. of Yahweh that came through his am the Lord” (Eze. 36:23). The Psalms This seems to reflect Yahweh’s desire unique dealing with Israel.25 Other similarly emphasize that God’s bless- to communicate his message with religions, observes Goldingay, ings and salvation are not intended just maximum impact by using ideas, are not inherently demonic or mere- for Israel, but for all the nations of the terms, forms, and elements that were 18 ly sinful human attempts to reach earth (67:2). already familiar to the audience. This God . . . .Yet they are not equally Noble and genuine faith is evident should inform our view of insider valid insights into the truth about among Abraham’s predecessors (such movements as well. God. They may provide a starting as Abel, Enoch, , and ), his point and certain areas of common ground, but not a finishing point. contemporaries (Melchizedek, Lot, Attitude of Rejection of Other They cannot tell us about the special and Abimelech), his successors (Rahab Religions and vital activity of God in Israel that and Ruth), and holy “pagans” outside In contrast to the OT’s attitude of ab- came to a climax in Christ . . . .26 of Israel ( Jethro, Naaman, the Queen sorption is a strong exclusivist strand. of Sheba and others). These men and All human religion is not only inevita- Stuhlmueller refers to this dual process bly tainted by our wayward life in this women seem to have been in right as “absorption and rejection.”21 In that relationship with God.19 earth, but can be the very means we vein, Goldingay declares: use to keep at arm’s length the God Others see the contribution of “pagan” Gen 1–11 suggests that the religions, we choose not to obey. Religion can religions on God’s call upon Abra- like all human activity, belong in the express our rebellion as well as our ham as natural and necessary, in order context of a world that needs resto- response . . . . Religion always has this to build upon, correct and purify it ration to the destiny and the relation- duality or ambiguity, a simultaneous through further biblical revelation. ship with God that were intended for seeking after God our creator and them, which God purposed to bring 27 Senior and Stublmueller elaborate: fleeing from God our judge. about through the covenant with A message is being flashed to us Israel that culminated in the mission Kärkkäinen suggests that where we find that religion is never a pure cre- and accomplishment of Jesus.22 ation by God but a synthesis of the the OT being critical of other religions, it “is not so much a general principle best under a new inspiration from Thus we find in the OT an emphatic but rather a desire to purify religions God . . . . A new religious experience judgment on the dark, deceptive, took place without the creation of destructive and sometimes demonic and focus on their major task, that is, a new religion. Abraham remained 28 character of the religions of the Ca- the worship of the true God of Israel.” within the Canaanite religious sys- When religion in Israel suffered from tem. Despite this system’s proclivity naanites and other neighbors of Israel. This included prohibitions on adopt- similar defects, the prophets were to sexual excess in the Baal worship, equally strong in their condemnation. Abraham recognized a dignity and a ing pagan practices such as mourning genuineness about it, and through its rites, eating unclean creatures, the Consequently, the OT’s critical at- instrumentality he acquired his own abominable acts associated with the titude toward religions cuts both ways. religious language, style of worship, pagan worship and covenant break- 23 Biblical faith must not be seen as and system of moral values. In fact ing by pursuing other gods. During merely a matter of belonging to the the “God of the Ancestors” appeared the Mosaic Period a distinct religion “right” religion (though the full range to Abraham at Canaanite holy places. with its own rituals, priesthood and Religious practices and even the per- of biblical truth is indispensable for teachings developed. And although true worship–John 4:23–24). God is ception of God’s special presence outside influences continued, through evolved within the geography and not partial in his critique of religions. the Mosaic Law, Israel acquired the politics of a local area. Only by first There is great danger when the people religious apparatus by which it could accepting the worth and authenticity 24 of God enjoy a false peace at having accept or reject these influences. 29 of preexistent religions were biblical ‘arrived’ or forget the possibility that people able to purify, challenge, and Even where there was a positive other religions may have something to 20 develop them. influence from outside the Hebrew teach them.

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Old Testament Criteria for These two criteria, fearing God but to reveal his identity, character and Judging a Religion or Religious and pursuing righteous living were ways to the nations through his deal- Tradition expressed in the OT by “conversion.” ings with Israel as it lived in covenantal There were two different forms of con- relationship with him through the To- Two fundamental criteria for assessing version: non-proselyte and proselyte. rah. Thus, Israel would be a “light to the other religions stand out in the OT. The nations,” showing them that they too first was whether its adherents feared Non-Proselyte Conversion in could enjoy the presence and blessing God—even if they lacked the fuller the Old Testament of Yahweh by acknowledging him as revelation possessed by Israel. As stated supreme and treating people according earlier, Abraham inferred that Melchize- God’s plan since the time of Abraham to the moral standards reflected in the dek and Abimelech feared God (albeit has been to bless all of the nations, Torah (Isa. 2:2–4). by a different name) and similarly peoples and families of the earth (Gen. viewed Jethro.30 Of course, God’s ulti- 12:3). His redemptive program focused As mentioned earlier, the OT affirms mate purpose was always that all might on Abraham’s descendants, , the faith of people of faith who were know him more fully: and the nation of Israel who were to outside of the stream of Abraha- In dealing with the ancestors of Israel, serve as a “light to the nations.” There mic revelation, such as Melchizedek, the living God, later disclosed as Yah- was no clear or specific command to Abimelech, and the Queen of Sheba. weh, made an accommodation to the engage in proselytism, and thus for Jethro, the priest of , rejoiced names and forms of deity then known many centuries the Jews did not send in God’s great deeds through Moses, in their cultural setting. This does but returned home without join- not thereby endorse every aspect of ing Israel. The message of Israel’s Canaanite El worship. The purpose prophets pronounced judgment on of God’s particular action in the his- the surrounding nations for their sins tory of Israel is ultimately that God, of idolatry, injustice, oppression and as the saving and covenantal God wickedness, but nowhere do we see a Yahweh, should be known fully and Two fundamental call for them to adopt the Jewish way worshipped exclusively by those who criteria for assessing of life and system of worship pre- as yet imperfectly know God as El.31 other religions scribed in the Law of Moses. A case The second standard was the pursuit in point is YHWH-fearing Naomi of righteous behavior—what kind of stand out in the who exhorts Ruth to return to her own morality did religion result in? Gold- Old Testament. people and god; Ruth has to persuade ingay asserts: her mother-in-law to allow her to go What (and Yahweh) so ve- with her to join Naomi’s people and 34 hemently opposed was not merely worship her God. Even the prophets the worship of the wrong God (or sent to Israel’s enemies (Obadiah to rather of a no-god), as focused on out any evangelists or missionaries. Yet Edom, Jonah to Nineveh and Nahum Mount Carmel, but the hijacking of even this attracting power and purpose to Assyria) do not call for adopting the whole social, economic and legal of Israel’s light did not necessarily the religion of Israel or temple wor- ethos of Israel by the religious vandal- have proselytism and religious cultural ship in Jerusalem. The Lord commis- ism of Jezebel’s Phoenician Baalism, conformity in mind. For conspicuously sioned Jonah to preach repentance as focused in the Naboth incident (1 absent from the Old Testament is a to the Ninevites lest they perish, Kings 21). The struggle was not simply call for the nations to follow Israel in but there is not a hint that proselyte over what was the right religion, but observing the Mosaic Law.33 Accord- conversion was required for them to over what was a right and just society for Naboth to live in. Baal religion un- ingly, the Amos pronounces be “saved.” Repeatedly, we hear that dergirded, or at least imposed no re- judgment on other nations on the basis God’s purpose for the nations was that straint on, the way Ahab and Jezebel of their treatment of human beings, but they “know that I am the Lord” (Eze. treated Naboth. It could be argued, when the prophet condemns Judah and 36:23) which demanded that they, like therefore, that the moral, social, and Israel, the covenant becomes a stan- Israel, recognize his supremacy and cultural effects of a major religious dard of judgment. A principal reason “do justice, love kindness and walk tradition do give us some grounds is because the Law was the covenantal humbly with your God” (Micah 6:8). for a discriminating response to it, expression of its national religion, the The details of what this would look though this can be as uncomfortable legal code of Israel’s theocratic govern- like in each nation were not spelled an argument for Christianity as a cul- ment. God’s purpose for giving the out,35 but it may be implied that to the 32 tural religion as for any other. Law was not to create a world religion, degree Israel showed its light to the

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 53 nations, they were to abide by the ethi- cal principles exemplified in the Torah. his explanation is more convincing to me than In the eschaton, Isaiah (2:2–9) pictures suggesting that gave tacit approval for the nations coming to God’s temple to learn “his ways” (the standards of mo- syncretistic idolatry. 36 T rality that God requires of people). forget that he is, in fact, worshiping future and foreseen what serving God. That altar would represent no YHWH would entail in his home coun- A famous example of that purpose being other than YHWH, the God try. In essence, Naaman is explaining being fulfilled is found in the case who searches the hearts of men, the to Elisha that even though he has to of Naaman the Syrian. His healing God who would accept his sacrifices.39 physically bow down before the idol, from leprosy (2 Kings 5) provides an he is not worshiping the idol.41 example of non-proselyte conversion. However, returning to his country, The witness of a captured Israelite ser- people and job will entail fulfilling his Thus, the best interpretation of Naa- vant girl leads Naaman to the king of duties as the king’s top general—one man’s request for “forgiveness” was that Israel and then to the house of Elisha. of which was to escort the king into he was seeking “understanding” from 42 The prophet is determined to dem- the temple of Rimmon. With the king Elisha. As Frank Spina concludes: onstrate the power and grace of God. leaning on his arm, Naaman must assist The new convert wants to make sure Eli- The result is that Naaman declares his him in bowing in worship and for this sha realizes that, appearances aside, un- new faith that “there is no god in all Naaman asks “forgiveness.” Some, like der no circumstances are his actions to the world except in Israel.” He asks for Timothy Tennent, interpret this request be taken as sincere acts of worship . . 43. two mule-loads of dirt so that he can for “forgiveness” as springing from Naa- His request is not for advance pardon build an altar to the Lord, in keep- man’s feelings of guilt for what both he of actual sin, but for the potential for ing with his vow that he will not offer and Elisha “knew was wrong.” But Baeq misunderstanding based on mere ap- a sacrifice or to other shows how “the symmetrical structure pearances. This explanation is more than Yahweh. (While YHWH can be of his petition explicitly showed that his convincing to me than suggesting that worshipped anywhere, Scripture also bowing did not have the same mean- Elisha gave tacit approval for syncretis- supports the notion of sacred space. ing as his master’s bowing, which was tic idolatry—for that was the one thing Exodus 20:24 legislates that altars be described as “worshiping” . . . Rimmon. that the prophets of Israel did not per- constructed of soil, ’adamah, the same If he does not attach a pagan spiritual mit. That Elisha was not at all troubled word that Naaman uses. Whether meaning to his form of bowing, it should 40 by Naaman’s requests is evident from his Naaman knew this is not important, not be interpreted as an act of idolatry.” reply: “Go in shalom.” for biblical characers often “know” 37 Naaman’s confession made clear his more than they actually know. “The complete faith that only the Lord is But regardless of how one interprets the petition to get earth of Israel indicates God, as he swore full allegiance to and significance or meaning of this conces- the clear intention to worship YHWH exclusive worship of him. So it appears sion, many Christians today would have alone,” observes Daniel Baeq38 and acted differently than Elisha, had they to me that Naaman is not asking for 44 indicates that Naaman had no inten- permission to engage in an act of been in his place. Many of us would tion of being a “secret believer.” (It idolatrous syncretism. In assisting the have insisted that Naaman avoid even would have been well nigh impossible king to bow, he must bow with him— an appearance of syncretism by join- to keep his faith a secret, given the but Naaman’s bowing is not one of ing our community of faith, becoming visible proof of his miraculous heal- worship of the idol. As Baeq explains: a Jewish proselyte through covenantal ing, his entourage’s hearing of his vow, Naaman knows that as the command- circumcision, and living according to the mules carrying dirt, and then a er of the army and a notable and pow- the true religion of God (the Mosaic constructed altar.) But neither does erful official, he is unable to excuse Law). That Elisha does not even suggest Naaman consider participating in Jew- himself from all the state functions, this option indicates to me divine sanc- ish religious rites in Jerusalem’s temple. which usually entailed religious rituals. tion for God’s saving deeds being made As Baeq suggests: Thus, rather than trying to hide what known to the nations by non-proselyte More likely, he would have offered he would be required to do, he is ear- converts, such as Naaman. up sacrifices in the most reverent and nest and honest before Elisha, volun- worshipful way he knows. Certainly tarily informing Elisha of an unavoid- Was Naaman an Insider? the likelihood of his generating syn- able, inevitable activity in his home It is somewhat anachronistic to refer cretism was there, but more likely, be- land. The fact that he even brought to Naaman as an “insider” as defined cause the material that made up the up this subject strongly indicates that by insider movement proponents, altar was from Israel, he would never Naaman had already considered the since he preceded the church age,

30:2 Summer 2013 54 The Old Testament and Insider Movements and life under the lordship of Jesus be a Hindu follower of Christ when lived in various Muslim countries in the Middle East and beyond, I have Christ. However, even though we lack Hindus are idolatrous polytheists and been confronted with so many dif- sufficient information to be certain, believe in ?” This response ferent . No scholarly erudition Naaman might have illustrated the reflects an “essentialist” view of “world is required to see the enormous va- two key characteristics of an insider (as religions” that defines them and their riety . . . . Why, so the mind-boggling 45 defined by Lewis in 2009 ): adherents by a monolithic set of basic question, do then so many Muslims beliefs and practices in contradistinc- and non-Muslims nevertheless retain 1. Pre-existing families and social 47 tion to other religions. this essentialist image of “true ” groupings develop into fellowships of in their minds?50 believers as they become followers of While the essentialist view is often Christ; so the pre-existing community assumed, contemporary research in This sociological or cultural perspec- becomes the church, rather than a new the field of religious studies seri- tive accounts for the diversity in the social group being created or “planted” ously challenges this view. For example, history, beliefs, practices, and customs as a church. Heinrich Von Stietencron asks, “Why in the various religious traditions. By not becoming a Jewish pros- is ‘Hinduism’ so difficult to define? This It calls for us to speak in the plural elyte and instead returning to is because we always try to see it as one (Christian traditions, Hindu faith Aram, he could have remained ‘religion.’ Our problems would vanish if traditions, and Islams) or in particulars within his pre-existing social net- we took ‘Hinduism’ to denote a socio- (Algerian Berber Tijaniyya Sufi Islam). work, his household, which could cultural unit or civilization which con- 48 have become his “church.” (In the tains a plurality of distinct religions.” Contemporary NT scholars tell us ancient world, members of a house- that the same was true of first century hold normally followed the faith Judaism. J. Andrew Overman states, of its head. Moreover, we know for “So varied was Jewish society in the sure that his wife’s servant-girl was land of Israel during this period, and a believer in Yahweh, and it seems Contemporary so varied were the Jewish groups, that likely that Naaman’s servants who scholars no longer speak of Judaism encouraged and witnessed his heal- research in the field of in the singular when discussing this ing, would have also believed). religious studies formative and fertile period in Jew- ish history. Instead we speak about 2. The believing families in insider Judaisms. In this time and place there movements remain inside their socio- seriously challenges existed a number of competing, even religious communities by retaining this view. rival Judaisms.”51 their God-given birth identity while living under the Lordship of Jesus Matthew’s Gospel reflects one of Christ and the authority of the Bible. these Judaisms. He did not view the By fulfilling his duty as the king’s break from the synagogue as a break adjutant, it appears that he could A 19th century British census report from Judaism, but more akin to the retain his identity as a member from the Punjab testifies: “It would Qumran community’s self-perception of his socio-religious community hardly be expected that any difficulty of itself as the “true Israel.” Matthew’s (even though he did not retain or uncertainty should be felt in class- Judaism had a different center ( Jesus some of the fundamental tenants ing the natives of the Province under rather than Torah), a different view of of what we would call the “reli- their respective religions. Yet, with the the will of God (the kingdom of God gion” of his socio-religious com- single exception of caste, no other one rather than the nation) and different munity). Remaining part of this of the details which we have recorded leadership (the apostles in place of the 49 community would not have been is so difficult to fix with exactness.... unfaithful synagogue establishment)— possible had he joined the socio- Dietrich Jung expresses similar senti- but he still perceived the followers of religious community of Israel.46 ments about Islam: Jesus as within Judaism [whereas we view them as Christians].52 Socio-religious Community Versus I have asked myself why Islam is so Religion frequently represented in the ho- A sociological perspective helps explain The difficulty in differentiating be- listic terms of an all-encompassing how Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Jews tween a “religion” and “socio-religious socio-religious system. How is the or others outside of traditional “Chris- persistence of this specific image of community” has proven to be an insur- tianity” may be regarded as members Islam to be explained against all em- mountable difficulty for many critics of pirical evidence? Having worked and of their socio-religious communities, insider movements: “How can someone even though they do not adhere to

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 55 certain beliefs or practices of a religion (as prescribed by textbook definitions). his provides New Testament substantiation Often even atheists can be considered for the non-proselyte conversion model that is part of such a socio-religious com- followed in insider movements. munity, as long as they do not forsake T it by becoming proselytes to a different . Non-Israelite aliens dwelling we all know, after an intense struggle, socio-religious community. with Israel were to participate in feasts the church eventually followed the Hence, given the frequency of such and Sabbath and abstain from drinking model of Jesus in not requiring Jewish diversity within a given religious blood, but to participate in Passover, proselytism of Gentiles (Acts 15). tradition, it is quite feasible for a move- they had to be circumcised (Ex. 12:48– Noteworthy for this study is how the ment of Christ followers inside it to 49). All of this points to a degree of apostle James validated what they saw retain an affiliation within that tradi- religious inclusion without religious happening on the ground by quoting 53 tion that is distinctively different from conversion (becoming a proselyte). from the OT (Amos 9:11–12 LXX): other groups (due to its biblical char- Thus, it appears that non-Jews could “in order that the rest of mankind may acter). It needs to be mentioned that affiliate with Israel either as “god-fear- seek the LORD, and all the Gentiles such diversity is also evident among ers” (who were not required to abide by who are called by My name . . . ” (Acts various insider movements. Sometimes the Law in its entirety) or as proselytes 15:17–18). James concluded that if the even within the same geographical (who entered by circumcision, baptism, Gentiles were bearing God’s name, area, they do not look, act, interrelate temple sacrifice and Torah observance, then they were necessarily included or self-identify monolithically. yet even the latter could never regard in the people of God as Gentiles. This Israel’s patriarchs as their fathers).54 provides NT substantiation for the Proselyte Conversion in the non-proselyte conversion model that is Two of the most notable proselytes followed in insider movements. Old Testament are Rahab and Ruth who made the Conversion in the OT was not essen- God and people of Israel their own. In Implications of this Study for tially a change to another religion (i.e., contrast to women who were unaf- Insider Movements proselytism), but rather the conversion fected by it, circumcision was a major There are several implications that the of the person to faith in the God of obstacle to proselyte conversion for OT attitude of openness toward other Israel. Nevertheless, proselytism was men. Even so, sources outside of the religions has for insider movements one way in which faith in the God of OT testify to the fact of proselyte among non-Christian religious com- Israel was expressed. conversion, as it required Gentiles to become Jews through ritual baptism, munities. Factors supporting insider God’s stated intent was for Egypt to as purification from their pagan past. movements include: know that he was the Lord and serve However, there is scant evidence for him. Some of the fruit of God’s mis- significant numbers of conversions to • The recognition that God cre- sion through Moses was the “mixed the religion of Israel in its early period. ated all peoples and that human multitude” that joined Israel’s exodus. diversity reflects the will of God. These would become “proselytes,” be- Later in the Hellenistic period Jew- Moreover, religions do not save— coming members of the covenant na- ish missionaries actively pursued the not even Israel’s [nor ours]—only 55 tion (formalized with their participa- proselytizing of Gentiles. While such God does. This should temper our tion in circumcision with the Israelites Jews sought to make god-fearers into temptation to follow the paradigm in the wilderness). Thus the proselyte proselytes, Jesus did not. He never of proselyte conversion which re- model of conversion does have a valid required anything of Gentiles beyond quires the adoption of identity and place in redemptive history. But at simple faith. In his method of mission, forms belonging to our Christian least in the case of the Egyptians and his Jewish disciples remained Jews (but religious tradition. Edomites, the Law stipulated that did not adhere to the false teachings of • OT openness provides a counter- only in the third generation could the religious establishment); Samari- balance to the exclusivist approach children of foreigners integrate into tan believers remained Samaritans (but that other peoples are excluded the community of Israel, “the assembly now offered true, spiritual worship to from a relationship with God and of the Lord” (Deut. 23:9). Moreover, the Father through the Savior of the their identity should be elimi- the Midianites (Num. 10:29ff) joined world—John 4); and Gentile fol- nated. Although YHWH chose Israel while retaining their iden- lowers remained Gentiles, as Jesus’ a particular people to be partici- tity, of whom the Kenites ( Jud. 1:16; witnesses to what “great things God pants in the story of his revelatory 4:11) dwelled among the Israelites in had done for them” (Mark 5:19). As and saving acts, belonging to this

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socio-religious group was insuf- insider movements. Thus, where a to Jesus’ instructions (Matt. ficient apart from a right response socio-religious tradition exerts more 6:5–15), making whatever to him. Likewise, not belonging to negative pressure on the insider adjustments they deem neces- this socio-religious group did not community, greater resistance and sary to “worship in spirit and preclude others from making this rejection to it will be needed. in truth” (John 4:23–24). story their own and becoming a • The OT’s dual stance toward other 4. They relegate (diminish or mar- chapter in it. In fact, religions may religions provides a foundation for ginalize) the role that any pre- 61 provide a “starting point for people insider approaches today, with vious religious authorities or on their way to recognizing that negative features of other religions writings had over their lives.63 the definitive acts of God are found being rejected, and positive aspects in the story of Israel that comes to emulated. “Along-siders” testify • Furthermore, an approach of a climax in Jesus.”56 that this is in fact what they ob- duality should be reflected in each • The significance of religion in serve happening as insider believers insider movement’s identity (i.e., Israel was not as a set of beliefs and seek to remain within their socio- they should have a dual identity). practices for all to follow, nor in the religious community of their birth. The first Jesus community retained number of its distinctive features, nor As they evaluate their religious their identity within Judaism, as a comparison with other religions. heritage, they retain the good and while adopting a second identity as Rather, it was its testimony to God reject, reinterpret or relegate the members of a renewal movement and his acts. As Goldingay affirms: bad. More specifically, (the Way) that was a sub-group Israel’s significance lay in its sta- of their corporate Jewish identity. tus as witness to the deeds of Published evidence of the dual, the living, active, saving God. hybrid and multiple identities This is the repeated thrust of among Muslim Followers of Christ Isa 40–55: written in the con- living in Islamic communities is text of overbearing religious Old Testament provided by Jens Barnett.64 Dudley plurality, the prophet did not Woodberry, regarded as the leading encourage Israel to compare its attitudes toward authority on insider movements, religion with the Babylonians’57 and feel superior, but directed other religions maintains that all insider move- their thoughts to the acts of ments do end up with some kind of call for an approach 65 Yahweh in its actual history dual identity. and declared, “You are Yah- of duality. weh’s witnesses.”58 Conclusion

Likewise, what validates insider The purpose of this study was to inves- believers is their bearing witness to tigate possible theological foundations their community of what God in 1. They can retain anything that that would support insider movements. Christ has done for them and for is compatible with the Bible.62 After becoming acquainted with the historical origins and a definition of the world. 2. They reject those elements of insider movements, an Old Testament • Furthermore, other religious religious teaching that contra- theology of other religions revealed traditions can even enrich our own dict the Bible (such as Jesus 59 dual attitudes of acceptance and spiritual life and worship. did not die on the cross, the rejection. We also determined that Bible has been corrupted, Jesus At the same time, OT exclusivist at- the OT’s two fundamental criteria for is not the Savior, or salvation is titudes toward other religions, call for assessing religions was their promotion by works). an approach of duality. of the fear of God and the pursuit of 3. They reinterpret aspects that righteous living and that this could be • The Old Testament’s attitude to- can be redeemed. For example, expressed in “conversion.” Two types of ward other religions “apparently var- Muslims might continue conversion were found in the OT: non- ies not only with the nature of the to fast during Ramadan, no proselyte and proselyte. Naaman fits religion, but also with the nature of longer to earn salvation, but the non-proselyte model and illustrates the power and the pressure exercised to pray for the salvation of conversion in the insider paradigm. by its adherents, but both openness their community. Those who and guardedness seem to feature continue the practice of ritual Critics of insider movements holding 60 in all contexts” —as they must in prayer would do so according to an essentialist view of religion cannot

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 57 reconcile the idea of followers of Christ 2 John Goldingay, “How Does the First but comparable phrases come elsewhere to remaining within a non-Christian Testament Look at Other Religions?” 2–3. designate Canaanite deities. Such Canaanite socio-religious community. But we saw This is an expansion and revision of a paper texts also more broadly refer to El as one written for the Tyndale Fellowship Confer- who blesses, promises offspring, heals, and that contemporary scholarship argues ence on Religious Pluralism in 1991, revised guides in war, like Yahweh. against the essentialist view in favor of in light of comments by Christopher J. H. 13 Goldingay, 5. the cultural view of religions. The di- Wright as respondent and published under 14 Dickson, 20. versity inherent in the cultural view of a both names in One God, One Lord in a World 15 Dickson, 16–17. of Religious Pluralism, Andrew D. Clarke 16 socio-religious tradition makes feasible R. Torpin, “Lessons from a Study of and Bruce W. Winter (eds.), (Cambridge: the existence of a sub-group of Christ Daniel,” unpublished paper, February, 2012. followers within it who develop a dual Tyndale House, 1991), 34–52; 2nd ed., 17 (Carlisle, UK: Paternoster/Grand Rapids: Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, An Introduc- identity: one is socio-religious identity Baker, 1992), 43–62. Page numbers in the tion to the Theology of Religions (Downers that reflects their affiliation with that Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 40. book differ from those in the paper that I 18 socio-religious tradition; a second is a accessed at http://campusguides.fuller.edu/ Kärkkäinen, 40. 19 spiritual identity (as Christ followers) content.php?pid=190354&sid=1671168 Clark Pinnock, A Wideness in God’s that is distinctively different from the 3 Charles Van Engen, God’s Missionary Mercy: The Finality of Jesus Christ in a World of Religions (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, larger group. People: Rethinking the Purpose of the Local Church (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1991), 102–103. 1992), 92. We cannot be sure that all of The second type of OT conversion was 4 Goldingay, 4. them obtained full knowledge of all revela- tion that had been given, but the latter ones the proselyte pattern. Though it was 5 Goldingay, 4. 6 may have been regarded as righteous under uncommon in early Jewish history, it Goldingay, in contrast, asserts that “the the terms of the Noahic covenant. ancestors’ words and deeds do not imply the 20 became prominent during the later Senior and Stuhlmueller, 18. Hellenistic period. But Jesus opposed belief that other peoples in Canaan have no 21 knowledge of God, though the ancestors do Senior and Stuhlmueller, 17. the proselytizing of Gentiles (as well 22 seem to establish their own places of worship, Goldingay, 2. as Samaritans); his only requirement 23 near those of the Canaanites, rather than Dickson, 11–14. This last reason was for them was simple faith. By Acts 15 making use of Canaanite sanctuaries,” p. 3. the primary factor in the injunctions against the church opted for the model of Je- 7 Bruce Vawter, On Genesis, p. 355, intermarriage with non-Jews. 24 sus in not requiring Jewish proselytism cited in Donald Senior and Carroll Stuhl- Senior and Stuhlmueller, 18. of Gentiles. This decision was rooted mueller, The Biblical Foundations for Mission 25 Goldingay, 2. in the theology of the OT (Amos 9). (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1983), 17. 26 Goldingay, 2. 8 Hence, the NT favors the non-prose- Senior and Stuhlmueller, The Biblical 27 Goldingay, 3. lyte conversion model that is followed Foundations for Mission (Maryknoll, NY: 28 Kärkkäinen, 47. Orbis, 1983), 18. 29 in insider movements. 9 Senior and Stuhlmueller, 20. Goldingay, 7. The name “Baal” 30 Kärkkäinen, 49. Lastly, implications of this study for (“owner”) might also have been appropri- 31 Goldingay, 4. insider movements were offered. The ated, but it seems that his status as a lesser 32 deity was a main cause for its being rejected, Goldingay, 8. OT’s attitude of acceptance sanctions 33 as worship of Baal implied worship of other Note in Amos 1 and 2, these nations the appropriation of prior cultural gods than Yahweh. are judged on the basis of treatment of hu- forms and identity that enrich spiritual 10 Gerald McDermott, “What If Paul mans, but when the prophet comes to Judah life and worship. What truly matters Had Been from China? Reflections on the and Israel, the covenant becomes a standard is the Jesus community’s witness to Possibility of Revelation in Non-Christian of judgment. 34 what God has done in Christ. But OT Religions.” In No Other Gods Before Me: Evan- Homer Heater in email to the gelicals and the Challenge of World Religions, author, July 28, 2012. exclusivist attitudes call for an approach 35 of duality: negative features of other John G. Stackhouse (ed.), (Grand Rapids, MI: Perhaps the legal and religious life Baker, 2001), 18–19. Of the same persuasion of the Gentiles would be analogous to a religions must be rejected (or reinter- are Goldingay, as well as Veli-Matti Kärkkäin- comparison of codes of law in two countries preted or relegated), but positive aspects en, An Introduction to the Theology of Religions today, many of the moral demands of the can be retained. Duality should also be (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003). law are the same (prohibiting murder, theft, expressed in identity: in socio-religious 11 This could not be said of the Pha- etc.), but dissimilarities reflect their different identity, as well as a spiritual identity raoh of Moses’ time. contexts and cultural values. Some later Jews (being in Christ and his Body).66 IJFM 12 Goldingay, p. 3, elaborates: “Yah- (as in the Talmud) viewed the Gentiles as weh roars from Zion” (Amos 1:2); indeed, being under the Noahic covenant. 36 Endnotes “El, God, Yahweh” shines forth from Zion The NET Bible (Biblical Studies (Ps. 50:1). A similar implication emerges Press, L.L.C., 2005): footnote 11, 1265. 1 Kwesi A. Dickson, Uncompleted Mis- from Abraham’s calling on God as Yahweh 37 Frank Anthony Spina, The Faith of the sion: Christianity and Exclusivism (Maryville, El Olam in Gen. 18:33. El Olam appears Outsider: Exclusion and Inclusion in the Biblical NY: Orbis, 1991), 7. only here as a designation of Yahweh, Story, Grand Rapid, MI: Eerdmans, 2005, 86.

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38 Daniel Shinjong Baeq, “Contextualiz- 49 Denzil Ibbetson, Report on the teaching of the Lord Jesus who did not seek ing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missio- Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of his followers’ withdrawal from the world, logical Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions February 1881 (Calcutta: Superintendent of but their protection from evil/the Evil One (2 Kings 5:15–19),” International Journal of Government Printing, 1883), 101. (“My prayer is not that you will take them Frontier Missiology 27:4 (Winter 2010), 200. 50 Dietrich Jung, Orientalists, Islamists out of the world, but that you will keep them 39 Baeq, 203. and the Global Public Sphere: A Genealogy from the Evil One” John 17:15). This duality 40 Baeq, 204. of the Essentialist Image of Islam (Sheffield, reflects the tension between what Andrew 41 Baeq, 203. UK: Equinox Publishing, 2011), 1. For F. Walls calls the “Pilgrim Principle” and the 42 Baeq, 204. additional challenges facing essentialist “Indigenizing Principle” of the Gospel (“The approaches to describing Islam, see Ronald 43 Rebecca Lewis, “Insider Move- Gospel as Prisoner and Liberator of Culture” Lukens-Bull, “Between Text and Practice: ments: Honoring God-Given Identity in The Missionary Movement in Christian Considerations in the Anthropological and Community,” International Journal of History (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1996), 7–9. Study of Islam,” Marburg Journal of Religion Frontier Missiology 26:1 (Spring 2009): 16. 58 Goldingay, 11. 4, no.2 (December 1999), 1–10. 44 This surmising of mine may be due 59 51 Cited by Charles Talbert, Reading Dickson, 61–66. to my being the product of a Western indi- 60 the Sermon on the Mount: Character Forma- Goldingay, 9. vidualistic culture. One colleague noted that tion and Ethical Decision Making in Matthew 61 Goldingay, 14. most Christians are now from the collectiv- 5–7 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 62 ist south and said that those he knows are This is not to say that all Jesus fol- 2006), 5. lowers will arrive at the same understand- much more sympathetic to the pressures that 52 lead other collectivists to continue going Talbert, 5–6, expressing the position ings of what the Bible teaches (e.g., Calvin along with certain things as they go through of NT scholar Anthony J. Saldarini. allowed only what was explicitly permitted in 53 a process of redefining them internally. Dickson, 25–26. the Bible to be used in worship; Luther and 54 45 Rebecca Lewis, “Insider Move- Emil Schurer, The History of the Zwingli rejected only what the Bible forbade). ments: Honoring God-Given Identity Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, vol. 3 63 Adapted from John J. Travis who and Community,” International Journal of (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1986), 161, cited uses “reassess” in place of “relegate.” by Dickson, 27. 64 Frontier Missiology 26:1 (Spring 2009), 16. Jens Barnett, “Conversion’s Conse- 46 55 Homer Heater finds in 1 Kings an The zeal of the Pharisees in travel- quences: Identity, Belonging, and Hybridity ing “land and sea to make one convert” ironic parallel in the case of Obadiah (email amongst Muslim Followers of Christ” (M.A. (proselyte) (Matt. 23:15) may have been to author, July 28, 2012). Obadiah faithfully thesis, Redcliffe College, August 2008). followed the Lord, even while serving in the a reference to this. But others see this as 65 Woodberry has stated this on many court of Ahab and Jezebel, the arch-promot- an attempt to convert Jews to the stricter occasions, as well as in an email message to ers of idolatrous worship and persecutors of Pharisaic traditions of halakah (Daniel God’s prophets. Yet he remained part of the Boyarin, The Jewish Gospels: The Story of the the author, February 29, 2012. 66 same socio-religious community (Israel), but Jewish Christ (New York: The New Press, This study has attempted to at least rejected Ahab and Jezebel’s form of “religion.” 2012), 115. show that non-Israelites in the OT could be 56 47 Jan-Erik Lane and Svante O. Goldingay, 6. saved without becoming Jewish proselytes. Errson elaborate: “In the essentialist ap- 57 Although Isaiah did exhort the exiles It has not attempted to specify exactly what proach to religion, the emphasis is placed on of Israel to depart from Babylon and return they had to believe or practice in order to be its core ideas. The core of a religion is a set to Palestine (“Depart, depart, go out from saved. For example, the OT is not entirely of beliefs or values which are in some sense there; touch no unclean thing; go out from clear whether or not non-Israelites had fundamental to the religion in question, at the midst of her; purify yourselves, you who to believe in/worship YHWH alone for least in the eyes of its virtuosi. It may be a bear the vessels of the Lord” —52:11). The salvation. Some theologians do not believe controversial task to specify this core, but apostle Paul cited this in 2 Corinthians 6:17 Nebuchadnezzar was saved, even though often religions have key sources from which (as did Isaiah) to warn against participa- he recognized the supremacy of the God one may distil its core beliefs or values. tion in idol worship; biblical sanctification of Israel, because he did not offer exclusive However, one may have to be content with should include forsaking anything that worship to him. (Note that the same could laying down a variety of core interpreta- defiles. However, this verse is frequently be said of Solomon and Gideon). Another tions of a religion since these will have been cited by critics to argue that insiders should question is whether they could in some sense interpreted differently at various times. For leave their non-Christian socio-religious be saved even if they did not know YHWH, instance, Christianity received a number community. However, associating with a corollary to the contemporary issue of of authoritative interpretations when it unbelievers should not be equated with whether some who have not yet heard of was established as a state religion, but this participation in evil. Paul’s instructions to did not prevent it from later splitting into the Corinthians in regard to non-association Christ could be saved because of what he several core sets of beliefs and values. The with immoral people meant that they should has done. But these issues are not central to same process has taken place within Islam.” separate from immoral believers, not from insider movements where disciples of Jesus Culture and Politics: A Comparative Approach immoral unbelievers, “for then you would proclaim salvation through Christ while (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005), 147. have to go out of the world” (1 Cor. 5:9–11). remaining in their non-Christian socio- 48 Heinrich Von Stietencron, Hindu This lends support to insiders living godly religious communities. The possibility of the Myth, Hindu History: Religion, Art and Poli- lives while remaining amidst unbelievers in salvation of those communities apart from tics (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2005), 228. their communities. In this Paul followed the the gospel of Christ is not in view.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology