Articles Articles ALEXI BAKER “Precision,” “Perfection,” and the Reality of British Scientific Instruments on the Move During the 18th Century Résumé Abstract On représente souvent les instruments scientifiques Early modern British “scientific” instruments, including du 18e siècle, y compris les chronomètres de précision, precision timekeepers, are often represented as static, comme des objets statiques, à l’état neuf et complets en pristine, and self-contained in 18th-century depictions eux-mêmes dans les descriptions des débuts de l’époque and in many modern museum displays. In reality, they moderne et dans de nombreuses expositions muséales were almost constantly in physical flux. Movement and d’aujourd’hui. En réalité, ces instruments se trouvaient changing and challenging environmental conditions presque constamment soumis à des courants physiques. frequently impaired their usage and maintenance, Le mouvement et les conditions environnementales especially at sea and on expeditions of “science” and difficiles et changeantes perturbaient souvent leur exploration. As a result, individuals’ experiences with utilisation et leur entretien, en particulier en mer et mending and adapting instruments greatly defined the lors d’expéditions scientifiques et d’exploration. Ce culture of technology and its use as well as later efforts sont donc les expériences individuelles de réparation at standardization. et d’adaptation des instruments qui ont grandement contribué à définir la culture de la technologie. In 1769, the astronomer John Bradley finally the calculation of the distance between the Earth reached the Lizard peninsula in Cornwall and the Sun. Bradley had not needed to travel with his men, instruments, and portable tent as far as many of his Transit counterparts, but observatory after a stressful journey. The British the journey and then the conditions on site still Royal Society and Board of Longitude had sent posed a danger to the well-being of the observer him there to observe the upcoming passage or and his equipment. His letters to the Astronomer Transit of Venus across the face of the sun as Royal, Nevil Maskelyne, at Greenwich reveal well as other celestial phenomena, mainly in the great anxiety about reaching the Lizard, erecting hope of settling the latitude and longitude of a the observatory, and then making observations coast that was well known to be hazardous to as illness wracked his body and horrible weather ships. The Transit phenomenon, which had last hindered his efforts (RGO 14/52: 4-26). On occurred in 1761 but would not occur again for May 19, Bradley recounted how he had checked another 105 years, had prompted European and the poor roads to the peninsula, being unable to colonial astronomers to scatter around the globe land there safely by boat, and then journeyed to in the hope of making similar determinations, the site by wagon although “often very uneasy for but also observations accurate enough to aid in fear of the Carriage being overturn’d.” He and his 14 Material Culture Review 74-75 (Spring 2012) / Revue de la culture matérielle 74-75 (printemps 2012) men erected their observatory in weather “so bad astronomical regulator clock (a long pendulum [they] ha[d] seen neither Sun or Horizon with clock) had been broken and would likely need to any distinctness” (RGO 14/52: 7). be sent to London for repairs, although, somewhat After lengthy dealings with the proprietor unusually, all of the other equipment had returned of the nearby lighthouses in order to secure undamaged. The keeper of the lighthouses at the lodgings (“I find we are got into an Odd part Lizard had also been angered by their coming of the Kingdom”), Bradley settled down to wait and going without official authorization and by for the “very dirty” weather to hopefully clear. their having painted a Meridian Mark on his He noted, “The Fatigue I have met with & the house and having left behind the observatory. He Cold weather has almost laid me up with the exclaimed that “he would never trust to any ones Rhumatism” (RGO 14/52: 7-8). On June 4, Word again.” Bradley himself was little better off, the astronomer was pleased to record that he saying, “My Rhumatick complaint is something had been able to observe most of the Transit better, but I have such a nervous complaint I despite having had “Rain & in general very Dirty can scarce write my hand shakes so much I am Weather” every day and despite still having his afraid I shall find the effects of the Lizard Jaunt “Rhumatick Complaint.” He believed that the for some time” (RGO 14/52: 20). observatory itself would need to be abandoned This muddy, rheumatic, and rather haphaz- after the mission because although it answered ard episode bears little resemblance to most con- “its purpose very well … [they] were Obliged to temporary representations made to the broader cut it in Pieces very much for the conveniencey public of 18th-century instruments and their of Carriage & some parts by long Standing in usage. Indeed, the summary of this expedition the Weather [were] being Rotten” (RGO 14/52: for the American Philosophical Society reflects 14-15). On June 18, he hoped to “soon have few of the problems Bradley experienced, but Orders to return,” writing that, “I do assure you for the occasional cloud, and concludes that the I am so Lame with my Old Rhumatic Complaint astronomer was “lucky enough to make a great that I can scarce crawl about and am afraid of many useful observations” (Bradley 1769-1771: being quite laid up in this Place” (RGO 14/52: 114). Early modern “scientific” publications like 16-17). On July 2, Bradley continued complain- this, but especially instrument advertising and ing but also described the makeshift arrangement images, often present these technologies as tidy he had rigged up in order to attempt accurate and self-contained precision tools, practically observations in this unwelcoming environment: operating “out of the box.” The reality was of I believe my Meridian Mark is very near the course much messier. Most instrument makers true [astronomical] Meridian … it is a white and sellers naturally avoided discussing the Spot … painted round with Black on the North complications inherent to using their wares when side of a Brick House which stands between advertising them in words and images and often the two Light Houses.… I have a Lamp fixed cited vaguely defined positive attributes including in the same Direction (against the Wall of the House) by which I can a[d]just the [astronomi- “perfection” and “exactness.” Many modern mu- cal transit] Instrument at Night nearly as well seum exhibitions perpetuate this misleading and as by Day. When the Wind blows any thing rather sterile view by presenting orderly lineups of fresh from the Sothward it is very difficult instruments that are disproportionately unmarred to hear the Beat of the Clock owing to the by frequent use, mending, or adaptation.1 continual Noise the Surff of the Sea.… I have a In reality, most early modern instruments Stout three Leged Stand for the Quadrant, the Legs gow through the Floor & stands on the were in near-constant physical flux due to Earth … by this Means our moving about has movement and to changes in conditions such no Effect on the adjustment of the Quadrant. as temperature and humidity, which sometimes (RGO 14/52: 18-19) impeded or entirely prevented instrument usage On July 9, Bradley wrote from Portmsouth, and maintenance. Instrument users also faced having finally escaped the Lizard, that “in the additional obstacles from settings that fell short Seven Weeks there we had but once 24 hours of the ideal—whether urban homes with visual without Rain.” He reported that the spring of the and magnetic interference for astronomical and natural philosophical experiments, or expedition Material Culture Review 74-75 (Spring 2012) / Revue de la culture matérielle 74-75 (printemps 2012) 15 camps plagued by poor weather and terrain. These glass, and ivory, and sometimes with decorative problems were usually more intense at sea and on additions such as inlay, and to widely varying expeditions of “science” and exploration—i.e., degrees of complexity and expense. They were the further afield one went from more stable and employed in many everyday, professional, and predictable conditions and from the instrument leisure activities, rather than solely being scientific makers in London and large towns.2 The same apparatuses. was true when Britons and other Europeans In the English-speaking world, early modern sought to set up permanent institutions such as instruments were therefore not classed as observatories in their colonies (Schaffer 2011: “scientific,” but as “optical,” “mathematical,” or 7, 11-12). This resulted in a pervasive “make do “philosophical,” or more narrowly for use in and mend” culture enhanced by global networks individual subjects such as astronomy and natural of communications about instrument procure- philosophy or in “practical” mathematics-oriented ment, usage, adaptation, and repairs, rather than pursuits including surveying and navigation the smooth and uneventful face presented by (Warner 1990: 83-93; Field 1988: 3-26). Most many published and visual representations of mathematical instruments such as drawing early modern instruments. This characterized and geometric tools, sextants, and globes had a instrument usage by citizens of all of the nations graduated scale for performing calculations or for of Europe, since they faced the same sorts of measuring angles and distances. Optical instru- conditions and employed the same general types ments employed lenses or mirrors and included of technologies. It will be explored here through microscopes, telescopes, eyeglasses, and some the experiences of British and British colonial instrument sights. Philosophical instruments actors, as they increasingly spread out across the were used in the demonstration or investigation globe in search of commercial, “scientific,” and of natural phenomena, including magnetism, imperial success—and through the products of electricity, and the attributes of air.