The Place of North African Literature in African Literary Canon

Home , Ahmed Shawqi, Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi

Oluwatoyin Umar

Plateau State University, Bokkos Plateau State University, Bokkos

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article No.: 030620047 This study is an evaluation of North African literature, aimed at Type: Research contributing to the few available discourses on the rather “silent” voices of writers from North Africa in mainstream African literary studies. Within the theoretical framework of New Historicism, the study examines the influence of Arab nationalism, colonialism, as well as literary trends and Accepted: 18/03/2020 movements on the development of modern North African literature. The Published: 20/05/2020 study provides textual analyses of selected works of Driss Chraibi, Tayeb Salih, Nawal El Saadawi, Tawfiq Al-Hakim, Abdelkader Alloula, Kateb *Corresponding Author Yacine, Ahmed Shawqi, Al-Qasim Al-Shabbi and Muhammad Al-Fayturi, Oluwatoyin Umar which are available in English translations from Arabic or French. This E-mail: funtofe3@ gmail. com work identifies themes of anti-colonialism, cultural identity, quest for Phone: 08060870823 freedom, leadership problems and patriarchy, as recurring themes in North African poetry, prose and drama. The study traces and locates the place of North African literature in African literature, and concludes that Keywords: North Africa; North African literature is both Arab and African. colonialism; Arab

INTRODUCTION African countries. Mazurui, quoted in Soghayroon has argued that Sudan is an “African country in a racial North African literature developed from sense and an Arab country in a cultural sense .... For different traditions and experiences of the countries many of them, Arabism is a cultural acquisition rather that make up North Africa. From the linguistic, religious than a racial heredity” (7). As it is with the rest of the and cultural standpoint, this literature includes works continent, European colonisation, particularly French from the Middle East. Anissa Talahite posits that the occupation of the Maghreb countries of Algeria, literature of the region offers a perspective that makes Morocco and Tunisia, has had great influence on North it part of Arabic literature, which includes the Middle African literature. East (39). The literature of North Africa is made up of Many of the North African writers have works from the three Maghrebian countries; Algeria, published works under the three genres. Some of them Morocco and Tunisia, as well as the literature from have attained international recognition. Naguib Egypt, Libya and Sudan. These countries share a Mahfouz, Author of Cairo Trilogy (1957), was the first common ethnic, cultural, linguistic and Islamic identity Arab to win the Nobel Prize for literature; he is a that has significantly distinguished them from the rest leading Egyptian writer. Assia Djebar, Nawal El of Africa. Sudan is one of the most unique of the North Saadawi and Fatima Mernissi are among North Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-10, 2020 2 Umar / Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research

Africa‟s most influential internationally acclaimed which is based on the past or a foreign culture that is female writers, known especially for their extensive unrepresented or underrepresented is at best, a matter fictional works on the plight of the Muslim-Arab woman of interpretation on the parts of both the writer and the in a patriarchal culture. The literary works of these reader. Secondly, the very existence of any text in a writers often lead to several problems for them in their culture changes the culture it reflects, raising an societies; for instance, the feminist ideologies of the awareness of vital issues and helping to bring about feminist writers clash with their religious backgrounds, change (Grudzina 253). For any new historicist and have resulted in bitter criticism of the writers. reading, there are some essential questions to ask; for Generally, many North African writers have had to put instance, what event occurred in any given writer‟s life up with censorship, imprisonments and death threats that made him or her who he or she is? What or who from government and Islamic fundamentalists. Some has influence and affected the writer‟s world view of writers, such as Algerian playwrights Abdulkader life or philosophy? What are the writer‟s social Alloula and Taher Djaout have been assassinated. concerns and what did he or she do about them? What There is an enduring view by many North was happening at the time the book was written or in Africans that they belong to pan-Arabic confederacy the time in which it is set? Who are the powerful and rather than to African socio-ideological block who are the powerless? What is similar or different (Olusegun-Joseph 223). In this study therefore, the about the perspective of the book to others written in term „Arab‟ shall be used interchangeably with North that era? In the light of these questions, the study African. evaluates the subject matters of the selected texts Yomi Olusegun-Joseph has identified that against relevant backgrounds. This approach has been European “...Orientalist remapping of North Africa as selected for this study because answering the largely belonging to the „Middle East‟ rather than Africa questions posed by this literary theory in the works of is because of its predominant Islamic cosmic leaning the selected writers is central to understanding trends and Arabic socio-cultural predisposition” (220). He has that have shaped North African Literature. also argued that colonialist representation of Africa in European literature, which resulted in black oriented cultural and nationalistic reactions, has contributed to NORTH AFRICAN PROSE the marginalization of North Africa in African literary criticism (224). Bentthar is however of the opinion that Fiction as a genre emerged as an influence by the origin of African literature as the subject of European narrative form on the Arabic folk narratives. academic discipline was construed along racial terms, The earliest North African novels are mostly with “blackness” as a literary category (quoted in autobiographical. The authors saw their individual life Olusegun-Joseph 224). Olusegun-Joseph has stories as part of the collective changing social and described this postulation as one that has a gap in that historical experiences of their people (Talahite 43). it fails to recognise that black racial affinity possessed by some North African writers has not exempted them Driss Chraibi from being left out in mainstream African literary criticism (224). Achebe has pointedly called attention Driss Chraibi was a Moroccan Author whose novels to the significance of the complexities of the African deal with colonialism, culture clashes, generational scene in any definition of African literature (27). conflict and the treatment of women and children. He The writings from North Africa have been is considered to be the father of modern Morocco considerably influenced culturally, politically and in novel. He is critical of both Islamic and western terms of language of expression by Berber oral cultures. The Simple Past (Le Passe Simple) was traditions of pre-Arab inhabitants, as well as Arabic published in 1954, two years before Morocco gained civilization, and contact with Europe. Talahite‟s its independence. It is an autobiographic narrative. It summation is that “It seems more appropriate to speak was translated from French by Hugh A. Harter. In this of North African literatures rather than of one literature” novel, the protagonist, Driss Ferdi revolts against his (39). While some of the non-English North African tyrannical father and flees to France. He dislikes both literary works are available in English translations, they his father and the social hypocrisy. Driss‟ mother is mostly consist of writings in Arabic and French. The tyrannised, subjugated, silenced and secluded by her thematic preoccupations of the North African writer husband. She seeks refuge in suicide from the include cultural identity, colonialism, European oppressive traditions and the patriarchal expressions misrepresentation, hybridization, poor leadership, the by her husband. Driss Ferdi is confronted by a quest for societal and individual freedom, political phenomenon called the “Thin Line”. The Thin Line corruption, oppression, Islamic fundamentalism, war, speaks to Driss as he tries to understand who he is. In disillusionment, the Palestine problem, gender reality, there is a thin line created by western values relations and patriarchy. that disconnect Driss Ferdi from his root. The story illustrates the plight of the generation of Moroccans who are a product of French colonial policies and THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK influence, which leave them with confused identity. The novel also portrays the oppressive conditions New historicism has been chosen as the under which the women live in an oppressive tradition. theoretical underpinning for this study. According to Both mother and son seek emancipation in different the new historicists, any understanding of the truth ways but the question that remains is „do they find it?‟ Umar / Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research 3

Heirs to the Past (Succession Ouverte) is a This is a most unlikely match because Zein, though a novel published in 1971 by Driss Chraibi. In Heirs to likeable man for his friendliness, possesses an the Past power and authority is associated with unappealing appearance; such as having just two benevolence and wisdom, as opposed to domination teeth. Zein succeeds in breaking the barrier between and exploitation. Haj Ferdi, also called Seigneur is his “the Arabs of a-Quz, who do not marry with the native family patriarch and his people‟s benefactor. His death people...” (Salih quoted in Khalel 115). In a wedding brings so much sorrow to the entire community. He that turns out to be the talk of the entire village, Zein prevents the trouble that will result from the distribution unites everyone who belongs to the three main groups of his estate by having his will listened to on a of people in the village the older and religious people, recorded tape instead of the traditional written will. In a the rebellious young and adventurous youth and the calm, commanding voice charged with emotion, he development-driven young men of influence. The novel gives his family the experience of hearing a dead man is an attempt to reconcile between tradition and give his last wishes and advice. This helps them to modernism. cope better with their grief and to accept their share of Season of Migration to the North is Salih‟s the estate without grumbling. most popular work. “It has been acclaimed as one of In his 1972 novel, Mother Comes of Age (La the first hundred masterpieces in the world and the Civilization, Ma Meré), Chraibi “charts not just the best Arabic novel in the twentieth century” (Idriss 117). seclusion, deprivation and suppression, but the The novel treats the issues of national integration and doughty struggle for emancipation of the Muslim the quest for national identity as reflected in the lives of woman” (Asha 989). In this novel, unlike in the Simple characters in the village of Wad Hamid; a microcosm Past, the mother achieves total emancipation. Mother of Sudan. The village is made up of people from Comes of Age treats the themes of oppression and various cultures; Arabs, Africans and the racially freedom, presented against a backdrop of colonialism. mixed. Mustafa Sa‟eed, the protagonist is a product of Nagib and Junior narrate the experiences of their the union between an Arab man and a black woman, mother. Junior describes her as a „happy child‟ who “A slave from the south” (Salih 54). The mutual hatred has never gone beyond an inchoate and untainted between the Arabs and Africans dates back to adolescence and would never become an adult, no centuries of master-slave relations. On his return to matter what the events (Craibi quoted in Asha 990). Sudan, he settles down in the small village at the bend According to Asha, “The infantile state of the adult of the Nile (1). Mustafa is unable to attain a sense of protagonist may be perceived as an allegory of the belonging among his father‟s people because of his docile, infantilized condition of the colonized” (990). mixed racial heritage. They consider him a stranger. The mother had been orphaned at six months and His situation is worsened by the homecoming of an married at 13 years. She is hardworking and unnamed narrator. The new arrival is an aboriginal ingenious. Her sons incite her to rebellion. They take Arab son of the land who begins to question the place her out to various places where women never venture of Mustafa and his likes in the village. Even Mustafa‟s to, such as the park, cinema and a fair. In his own marriage to Hosna Bint Mahmoud displeases those narration, Nagib describes the changes that take place who think that he does not deserve an Arab wife. after their mother has crossed the boundaries of her Thus, membership in the nation is constrained by home: She pursues social-political causes, rejects history and its members‟ origin (Idriss 121). patriarchal family domination and protests against Season of Migration to the North has also colonialism and imperialism. She rebels against these been described as “... one of the most profound literary forms of oppression and exploitation but soon realises pronouncements on African decolonization in African that the government in the independent country is not literature (Olusegun-Joseph 228). Mustafa Saheed different from the colonial government. goes to study at Oxford on scholarship. While there, he experiences a culture clash between occidental and Tayeb Salih oriental cultures. He exploits western women sexually, in his quest to “liberate Africa with his penis” (Salih Salih is Sudanese writer. He was born in 1928 120). He describes himself as “a colonizer” (94). and died in 2009. His works have repeated themes, Abdala Saeed Adam likens this sexual exploitation to recurring characters and shared setting. He is the colonial exploitation of African people and their wealth author of The Wedding of Zein – Urs al- Zayn (1962), (96). Salih has explained that Mustafa‟s violent female Season of Migration to the North –Mawsim al –Hijra ila conquest figuratively has an element of revenge al Shamal (1966), The Wedding of Zein and Other seeking for the violent fashion with which “Europe Stories (1968) and A Handful of Dates (1964). Salih‟s raped Africa” (quoted in Olusegun-Joseph 228). novella, The Wedding of Zein was published in 1962. It Mustafa‟s lovers kill themselves when he eventually was written in Arabic and translated into English by rejects them. He murders Jean Winifred Morris, one of Denis Johnson-Davies in 1968. Mohammed Khalel has his lovers whom he has married, and serves a jail term described this work as an ideal artistic painting that for this. The novel explores the relationship between describes the Sudanese society in its integration and the colonized and the colonizer. Mustafa‟s eventual harmony, which emphasises the social and natural rejection of his lovers can (therefore) be interpreted as texture of the members of the same people and the a metaphorical rejection of the West on behalf of Africa same society (119). In this novella, Zein, the village (Tran 4). eccentric in a Sudanese village is chosen by Ne‟meh, „A Handful of Dates‟ is a short the most beautiful and sought after village maiden. autobiographical story in Salih‟s 1968 collection titled 4 Umar / Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research

The Wedding of Zein. A young boy thinks highly of his experience of going hungry so that her father, the man grandfather and hopes to be like him when he grows of the house, will have enough to eat; and her up. He considers him a gentle and gracious old man experience of genital mutilation. In Fwangyil‟s with admirable physical and personality traits. When summation, women in Firdaus‟ society face oppression his grandfather demonstrates his greed and from infancy to adulthood to bring pleasure to men callousness toward their neighbour, Masood, a dates (16). After her parent‟s death young Firdaus suffers farmer, the boy suddenly discovers that his sexual exploitation by several men: her uncle, her grandfather is actually a greedy vengeful old man. physically repulsive and abusive husband who is over Holding unto a personal old grudge against Masood sixty years old, as well as the numerous other men and relying on his power, wealth and influence, the who later come into her life while she seeks refuge in grandfather takes Masood‟s harvested palm dates. prostitution. According to Coin, “Marriage and This experience marks a major point in the young prostitution represent two different sides of the same boy‟s life – a point of transition from illusion to reality phenomenon”, one is simply legal prostitution of and from innocence to awareness, which are similar to women in marriage, while the other is illegal themes in Salih‟s The Wedding of Zein and Season of prostitution on the streets (430). Migration to the North. Since the law turns a blind eye on what men do but punishes „erring‟ women, Firduas is sentenced Nawal El Saadawi to death for killing the pimp who has been beating and exploiting her. Firduas‟ violent action is what finally El Saadawi is an Egyptian revolutionary writer, gives her freedom (Coin 431). The significance of her feminist, activist, physician and psychiatrist. She was action is seen when she declares, “When I kill I did it born in 1930. She writes on Arab women‟s life with truth not with a knife . . . they didn‟t fear my knife. conditions, questioning the authority and patriarchal It is my truth that frightens them. This fearful truth power in her society and advocating women liberation. gives me great strength”. (El Saadawi 112). She In the words of Malti-Douglas Fedwa, “No Arab describes her impending death as a journey that fills woman‟s pen has violated as many sacred enclosures her with pride (11). Friduas is executed for seeking as that of Nawal El Saadawi (8). Her works have liberation but her victory is evident in her final stirred up several controversies in the Arab world. declaration. Most of her works have been translated into English Another novel by Saadawi, God Dies by the language. Saadawi advocates women‟s struggle for Nile focuses on the need for women to rise up against social power in order to be liberated from male institutionalised economic and psychological despotism and self-limiting cultural practises. exploitation. In the novel, the mayor of Kafr El Teen, According to Fedwa, popular view on El with the assistance of some other religious and Saadawi‟s writing is that she did not write literature but political leaders in the community, takes advantage of polemics (1). Saadawi‟s novels include Memoirs of a Kafrawi‟s poverty and ignorance to sexually exploit and Woman Doctor (1958), The Absent One (1969) destroy the lives of Kafrawi‟s daughters, Nefissa and Woman at Point Zero (1975), The Fall of the Imam Zeinab. The mayor sees to the jail sentence of Kafrawi (1985), The Hidden Face of Eve (1977), The Circling and Jalal, Zeinab‟s husband in order to cover up his Song (1978), Two Women in One (1983) Love in the crimes. Zakeya, Kafrawi‟s sister, who sees the Mayor Kingdom of Oil (1993), The Innocence of the Devil as Allah – the one in control of their lives, is driven to (1994), and Zeina (2008). kill and bury him by the Nile. Zakeya achieves a sense El Saadawi has also written short of freedom by this act of resisting “oppression meted stories, plays and non-fiction memoirs. She has out against her family” (Shihada 176). treated the subjects of male-female relations, In Memoirs of a Woman Doctor (Muzekkirat sexuality, rape, the plight of illegitimate children, forced Tabiba) the protagonist is a woman who struggles to a marriage, domestic violence, politics and religion in her position of relative autonomy. She rejects social writings. Clitoridectomy is one subject matter that is barriers and questions gender roles, such as “the recurrent in her works. This practise is exposed for submissive domestic existence in the kitchen” (Fedwa what it truly is – “a practice meant to dominate women 15). She also refuses to keep long braided hair, and consolidate the patriarchal image of women as counters illicit sexual advances and pursues a career sexual objects” (Shihada 171). The heroines in her in medicine. As a medical student, she soon finds out works are mostly members of the lower social status that there is no difference between man and woman. who undergo physical violence. The dire situation of She rejects the myth that masculinity is an honour and the Arab – Muslim woman is brought to light rather feminity a weakness. Fedwa has stated that El strongly through the sacrifice her heroines have to Saadawi uses medicine as a subject matter in her make to attain freedom. “They often only attain works to “. . . call for the integration of traditionally freedom and power at the sacrifice of their lives, male and female qualities” (21). marriage and honesty” (Ogbeide 25). El Saadawi‟s novel, Woman at Point Zero (Emra’a Enda Noktal el Sifr) is the life story of Firdaus, THE GENRE OF DRAMA an Egyptian woman who has been convicted for murder and is awaiting execution. She has witnessed The question of whether or not the Arab world and experienced the hard life of a woman; from her has had a tradition of theatre remains an issue for father‟s maltreatment of her mother, to her own debate among writers from that part of the world. One Umar / Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research 5 popular argument has been that Islam does not allow and stir up the same emotion(s) on the target figurative arts (Selmane ii). Tawfiq Al-Hkim has refuted audience” (Leo Hickey quoted in Sidebottom 36). this assertion. According to him, Islam “permitted the The Tree Climber (Ya Tali Al-Shajarah), which translation of many works produced by heathens . . . dramatises illusory nature of happiness and [it] did not prevent the circulation of wine poetry of Abu knowledge, is a play based on Al Hakim‟s version of Nuwas, the carving of statues for the palaces of the the Theatre of the Absurd. He termed his version caliphs, or expert portraiture of Persian miniatures” “Irrationalism” – “the presentation of the rational world (377). The fact has been established that indigenous in an irrational framework”, rather than the true theatre art forms existed in pre-Islamic societies; and “Arab- of the absurd‟s “presentation of an absurd work in an Muslim societies have long traditions in the performing absurdist framework” (Al Hakim quoted in Sidebottom art and in drama in particular” (Selmane 3). This has 67-68). In this drama of Irrationalism, there are no been further promoted by colonialism and western divisions between time and place. Sometimes, the cultural influences. past, present and future are all presented as unfolding Arab dramatists have thus been involved in at the same time. The significance of symbols also what Selmane describes as pouring “local dramatic remains unclear to the end of the play; leaving the content into a borrowed form” (13). For instance, in audience with the task of tying the various loose ends describing the important role which translation has together. played in introducing new ways of writing into Arabic In the drama, Bahadir is suspected of Literature, Talahite has cited Al-Hakim‟s example. murdering his missing wife. He is however more According to Al-Hakim, in drama, dialogue and concerned about his missing lizard, Lady Green, and characterisation, among other dramatic techniques are the orange tree in his garden. A detective comes to adopted to suit the demands of the Arab culture. Some investigate the matter, and in a series of flashbacks, adaptation of European plays to the Arabic stage have the unusual relationship between Bahadir and his wife, required a change of plot “so that male and female Behema is revealed. Bahadir also learns from a characters were related” since “tradition did not allow Dervish (a member of a Muslim mystic Sufi fraternity) an Egyptian woman to appear unveiled in front of a that his orange tree will produce all kinds of fruits if it is person not related to her” (quoted in Talahite 42). It fertilised with a human body. After he has been has been further argued however, that North African arrested, his wife returns home. Bahadir is released playwrights “have now found a content which creates but Behama does not tell him where she has been for its own form (Selmane 13). Therefore, the study of the last three days. She simply answers „No‟ to all his North African drama will require a proper study of style numerous suggestions on where she has been. In and thematic preoccupations. Translations and furry, he strangles her and buries her under his orange adaptations of European plays and the changes these tree. Her body later disappears, to be replaced by that have required to suit the Arabic audience have played of his missing lizard. Through the play, Al-Hakim significant roles in bringing about the development of portrays that the search for happiness is illusory. the Arabic drama (Talahita 42 – 43). In Fate of a Cockroach (Masir Sirsour). Al Hakim uses allegory to dramatise the Arab nation‟s Tawfiq Ismail al Hakim inability to unite against a united Israel, and the consequences of individualism. The drama also Tawfiq al Hakim, who has also written novels, expresses the need for better leadership in Egypt, as short stories and essays, is a leading figure in drama. an attack on the leadership of Gamal Abdal Nasir, He has contributed immensely to the development of Egyptian president at that time. Another theme (in acts drama, not only in Egypt, but in modern Arabic 2 and 3) is feminine domination, which the playwright literature. The Egyptian playwright has written plays, protests. Al Hakim is known to be a misogynist. He which deal with universal and local themes, such as had given himself the title “Adu Al-marah”, - “Enemy of the pursuit of freedom, loss of direction by the society, Women”. It is believed that he had taken this position political oppression and the Israel – Palestine conflict. as a result of his mother‟s domineering attitude toward Plays by Al Hakim include The People of the Cave his father while he was growing up (Sidebottom 26). (1933), Suicide Secret (1937), King Oedipus (1944), Absurdist elements abound in Fate of a Cockroach. In The Perplexed Sultan (1960), Food for Every Mouth act one of the play, the cockroaches, who are larger (1963) and Fate of a Cockroach (1967). Al Hakim has than ants, are individualistic; as a result, a cockroach been influenced by the French Theatre of the Absurd is easily carried away by ants once it falls on its back. and modernist theatre such as the Bertolt Brecht. The king cockroach‟s court is made up of the self – However Islam had remained his major source and appointed minister, the servant and the priest. Amidst influence. In his adaption of King Oedipus (Al- Malik jeering and taunting comments from the queen Udib), the author removes superstitious beliefs, fate cockroach, these cockroach leaders are unable to and prophesies, to fit with Islamic sensibilities come up with a solution to their age-long ants‟ (Sidebottom 66). He has described his play as “a problem. The minister‟s son has just been carried off Greek tragedy through Muslim eyes” (quoted in by ants. The king himself soon ends up falling into a Sidebottom 31). Hermalain has stated that in human bathtub. In acts 2 and 3, in the human world, translation, culture plays a decisive role in attaining an Samia and her husband Adil argue over the fate of the acceptable rendition (32). There is a need to present cockroach in their bathtub. Eventually their cook runs a “a version which should produce the same effect(s) bath, the cockroach drowns and its corpse is carried off by the ants. The humans study the activities of the 6 Umar / Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research insects and wonder at “the genius of ants” (Al Palestine Betrayed (Falistin Maghdura) Hakim73). dramatises the conflict between Israel and Palestine. Yacine blames Islam, Judaism, Zionism and Western Abdelkader Alloula powers for the conflict. He uses satire to denounce injustice and imperialism. In this play, Moses and Another prominent North African dramatist is Mohammed are good friends and neighbours before the Algerian Abdelkader Alloula, whose works focus on the war between their people. The interference of political and social situations in Algeria. Alloula‟s works Britain, France and the United States, for their are also significant in the development of North African economic benefits, tthrough the sales of arms, leads to and Arab theatrical forms. His plays are mostly more violence. Greedy leaders of some Arab countries projected on cultural artistic traditions, particularly the also fuel the conflict, and religious leaders exploit the art of drama through storytelling, known as „maddah‟ situation for their personal benefits. The characters in (narration). In his words, this is “a new approach that the play consist of real and fictional ones. His play, was developed because the classic type of construct Mohammed Take your Suit Case, is concerned with was not suitable for us” (quoted in Selmane 96). In his the post-colonial immigration of Algerians to France, 1980 play, Sayings (Ai-Agwal), about the struggle of with its attendant problems of racism in contemporary the Algerian working class, a narrator, the Guwal France. The play exposes the class collaboration that delivers a speech to people who are gathered around occurs between the French bourgeoisie and the him in a circle. Through the narrator, the audience Algerian bourgeoisie. The playwright identifies with the receives important information about the actions in the plight of the poor, particularly the peasants. play; as well as the „after – events‟ (Hamerlain 35). However, to suit the non-Arabic audience, the translated English version of the play focuses on POETRY IN NORTH AFRICAN LITERATURE making intellectual communication understood (Hamerlain 36). For instances, the „Guwal‟ is translated Early Arabic writings were classical poetry. as the „minstrel‟. The protagonist‟s name, Kaddour is These were “the genre per excellence of classical replaced with Will, while Nacer, his greedy and Arabic literature” (Talahite 41). New themes and abusive boss is substituted with Victor. The names in techniques in North African poetry have resulted from the English version reflect character roles. In the contact with the west and with the need to break from translation, substitutes are also provided for political, the constraints of classical poetry and, by extension, religious or cultural elements that will be alien to the old ways (Al-Shabbi quoted in Talahite 41) foreign recipients (Hamerlain 39). Modern Arabic poetry resulted from the confrontation Alloula‟s play, The Story of the Generous between the traditional medieval values and the People (Al-Ajwad), produced in1984 is also based on modern western cultural values (Badawi quoted in Abu his traditional artistic form. The play tells the stories of Dib 168). Classical Arab poetry flourished significantly different working class people and their different in North African literature. The classical poetry has challenges. These people are victims of social been generally considered to be “the cherished injustice, corruption and the chaos in their country‟s heirloom” of Arabic literary heritage; treating the time - socio-economic system (Selmane 140). Some of honoured themes of love and death, courage, war, Abdelkader Alloula‟s plays are, The Leech (1969), Loaf God and nature...” (Abu Dib 4). of Bread (1970), Salim’s Madness (1972) and The In the eighteenth century, poets deviated from Lord’s Bath (1975), among several others. the old style. They introduced styles which Badawi has described as “verbal juggling” (7) and “intellectual Kateb Yacine frivolity (27)”. As a rejection of such practices, the nineteenth century poets, pioneered by Egyptian Kateb Yacine is also a prominent Algerian Mahmoud Al-Barudi, who is considered to be the playwright. Yacine is a poet and a novelist, known for pioneer of the Arab Renaissance, championed a return his most significant novel, Nedjma (1956). Yacine is a to “the excellence and relevance of the ancient Arabic nationalist and a revolutionist, who actively participated poetic heritage (Badawi)”. The poets of this era sought in the Algerian War of Independence at a rather young to develop the classical poetic form against a backdrop age. Kateb Yacine has been influenced by Bertolt of their western influence. They were the bridge Brecht in the creation of his political theatre. As a between the classical and modern poetry; they were revolutionary writer, Yacine‟s works are political, and it the neoclassical poets. The poets of this period include attacks religion and government. Like most Algerian Ahmed Shawqi, Nasif al-Yaziji and Hafiz Ibrahim of writers, one of his main thematic preoccupations has Egypt, others are, Ahmad Rafiq al-Madawi, Ahmed Al- been the Algerian War of Independence. He has also Sharif and Ahmad A. Qanaba of Libya, among several written on the Israeli-Palestine problem; a subject others across North Africa. matter which is central to most Arab literary discourse. Yacine is the author of Intelligence Powder (1967), Ahmed Shawqi The Man with Rubber Sandals (1970), Mohammed Take your Suit Case (1971) Palestine Betrayed (1976), Shawqi (1968-1937) is considered to be the King of the West (1978) and Bitter Bread (1981). Many best known of modern Arabic poets (Badawi 29). of his works are however not available in English. According to Nada Yusuf, all students, schools and universities in Egypt and in other Arab countries have Umar / Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research 7 recognised his verses (Lyrics 93) In 1927, in master”, not “contemptible slave”. He concludes in line recognition of his considerable contribution to the 19 to 21 that such a lifestyle is required “So that those literary field, he was conferred the title. “Amir al sho‟ who come after you should say / Indeed he has araa” (the prince of poets). Shawqi is a pioneer of passed through here / for here are his footprints”. modern Egyptian literary movement, a neo-classicist. Shawqi's poems have been published in four volumes His subject matters vary significantly. He has asserted of his poetry collection titled Al-Shawqiyyat in 1925, that the main springs of poetry are history and nature 1930, 1936 and 1943 respectively. (Badawi 38). In later years, newer poets, influenced by the Shawqi‟s poems are often lyrical and many of contact with the West, left the boundaries of them have been composed into songs by various neoclassicism in a bid to attain greater poetic musicians. This is the reason why his poems have aspirations outside the limitations of neoclassical transcended “the literary saloons and narrow forums conventions. This era saw the rise of romanticism in and placing him on records widespread across the Arabic poetry. The era also recorded the birth of poetry Arab world . . .” (Yousef). Shawqi has written various that is concerned with the socio-political milieu. poetic forms; odes, elegies and even panegyrics. He is Kaadhim is of the view that contact with empire has also known for his poetic stories, which are often particularly played a significant role in the evolution of written as odes, using the animal world. He uses this nationalist movements (38). Even strong neoclassical genre to express moral, national and social desires poets have questioned the limitations of neoclassicism; (Yousef 108). For instance, his desire to give children for instance, Ahmed Rafiq-al-Mahdawi, who has “poems that are close to them, from which they could continued to be influenced by classical style, has gain wisdom and good manners according to their called for the liberation of poetry from the traditional understanding” (Shawqi quoted in Yousef 109) has old Arabic form in favour of liberal and progressive made him to write children‟s poems on animals and ideas, which are not limited by rhyme and elaborate family members, among others. In his poem, “The Bat versification (Abu Dib 27). In the course of this and the Butterfly Queen”, the butterfly Queen mocks development, a society of modern Arabic poets, known the bat: “O darkness lover! Have you been derogated as the Apollo Society, pioneered a new form of poetry by love? / Describe to me, sluggish naked black fellow” with new themes and style. This group of the older (lines 5-6). The butterfly queen however soon realises poets and some younger ones had “A new vision and her error of judgement using outward appearance. She encouragement of creative risk-taking” as well as “a comes by with missing parts one hour later, almost sense of history and lineage” (Qualey 5). Some of dead. It is the bat‟s turn to laugh: “...whether alive or these poets turned to English romanticism completely. dead, didn‟t I tell you? / Many a black slave friend has Prominent poets of this era include the Egyptians a white loving face” (lines 27 and 28). Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi, Khalil Mutran, Abdul Rahman Shawqi‟s subject maters also include the past Shukri, Ali Mahmud Talha, and Abdul Qadir al Mazini. glory of Arabs, religion, history and politics. British Others are Tunisians Abu al-Qasim al-Shabbi, Bayram imperialism and European invasions of Arab countries al-Tunis and Al-Tijani Yusuf Bashir. have also been important subjects for his poetry. In the poem “Damascus”, the poet expresses strong Abu al-Qasim al-Shabbi emotions against the 1925 violence in Syria in the wake of the 1925 – 1926 revolution, which was caused Abu al- Qasim-Shabbi was a young Tunisian by the French colonial authorities. After eulogising the poet of the romantic era during the Arab Renaissance. beauty and virtue of the Arabs and Damascus, the He died at an early age of twenty five (1909-1934). He poet moves on to condemn French intrusion and the is acclaimed to be Tunisians greatest modern poet disorder that ensued. He laments about “The ominous (Badawi 160). Al-Shabbi deploys natural imagery to day of death and bombs that harvest people” (line 52). convey his messages. His love for nature is very He extols Arab resilience and describes the evident in several of his poems. In “Chant of the revolutionary fighter as “The warrior who has the Herder”, the poet‟s metaphoric description of natural nature of battles‟ boastfulness and boldness” (Line 61). phenomena is typical of the romantic poet that he was. The young men of the country are ready “To sacrifice In lines 1-3, he describes the breaking of the day in themselves in order that others will be alive” (line 69). enchanting terms: “Morn breaks forth singing to the The poet does not forget to remind the French delicate life always / While the hills still stream in the colonialists of similar Arab violent resistance: “The shadow of thick boughs all days / The flaky north wind blood of the revolutionists, France knows it well / and it shakes the dried flower leaves”. Daylight penetrates knows that the blood is the way of liberty” (lines 64 and the darkness of the night as “...the light swings inside 65). Shawqi‟s ode to Damascus is an example of Arab the dark valleys spreading its rays / Morn comes unity. This view is expressed in lines 81 and 82 of the nicely, their light covers the faraway lands” (lines 4 and poem where the poet states, “Even if we are different 5). In lines 6 and 7, nature celebrates the dawn of a is countries but we / sacrifice for the same destiny”. new day: “Birds, flowers and river waves cheerfully flap His poems often reflect his philosophies and their hands / The lively world has awakened chanting views to life. In a poem titled “Footprint”, he to the life”. The happy herder calls out to his flock in considers life as a road, “Upon which the masses line 8: “Follow me my sheep and wake up my lambs”. travel / Toward specific missions” (Lines 1-3). He Al- Shabbi‟s poems have attained a place of admonishes man to live “uprightly”, “nobly” and significance in the Arab world, particularly his “The Will “honourably”; to work, in order to live as “respected for Life” and “To the Tyrants of the World”. These 8 Umar / Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research poems have been memorised and reproduced in Abdal Sabur of Egypt, Jili Abd al Rahman of Tunisia, textbooks (jadaliyya.com). The poems, especially “The Sudanese Muhammed Miftah al- Fayturi and Taban Lo Will for Life” has been subjected to various versions of Liyong are among the poets of this period. Some poets English translations. “The Will for Life” has been added such as Muhammed al-Makki, Muhammed Abd al Hai, as the last two stanzas of the current Tunisian national Al-Nur Uthman Abbakar and Muhammad al-Fayturi anthem. (egypttoday.com). In “The Will for Life”, the have expressed the fusion and acceptance of the poet‟s call to revolutionary action and bravery echoes African-Arab identity. throughout the poem; from one imagery to another. This is illustrated in lines 16 to 18 of the poem: “He Muhammad Miftah al-Fayturi who doesn‟t like to climb mountains / Will forever live among the hollows / The blood of youth in my heart Al-Fayturi is a Sudanese poet. He was born in roars”. The opening lines of the famous poem have 1936 and died in 2015. His father was Egyptian while been chanted, recited and written on signs and walls in his mother was Sudanese. His grandfather was from Arab cities, especially with the recent Arab uprising Bahr al- Ghazal, now South Sudan. Al-Fayturi pursued (jadaliyya.com). It reads: the themes of black Africa, African unity, slavery, anti- colonialism, race and class in his poems. According to If one day, a people will to live, Gohar, “Al-Fayturi faces the dilemma of bridging the Then fate must obey gap between identity and culture. “He also confronts Darkness must dissipate the difficulty of writing in a manner that blends his And must the chain give way. double consciousness as an African and Arab Muslim” (49). His poems on slavery and colonialism show his The power of Al-Shabby‟s message, resonates antiphony towards the subject matter, which resulted throughout the poem. The last two lines re-echo: “If to from his hatred for Western/European policies of life souls aspire / Then fate must obey”. It is with a exploitation which has targeted Africans for centuries similar revolutionary tone that the poet‟s “To the (Gohar). In the poem “Nkrumah”, Al-Fayturi describes Tyrants of the World” has stirred up nationalistic and his “words” in metaphorical terms. His “words” are: the revolutionary fervour. Another theme which has been “African victims” who are “crucified on the roads” (line treated in some of Al-Shabbi poems is that of death 2); the “pregnant bowels” who are “twisting under the and the meaninglessness of life. In these poems, life is stabs of dagger” (lines 3 and 4); “African people with / portrayed as not worth living and Al-Shabbi‟s view of negro features” (lines 9 and 10). In other words, it is for death is fraught with romantic glamour and seen as a these oppressed people that he speaks. means of “attaining a fuller and more significant life” In “He Died Tomorrow”, the death of a black (Badawi, 168). In the first two lines of stanzas one and political victim is recounted with furry and bitterness at two of “A Storm in the Dark”, the poet writes: “If I had the lack of thought for the dead man. “He died / Not a time in the clutch of my hand / I would scatter the days drop of rain wept for him / Not a handful of faces to the wind like grains of sand”, “If I had this world in looked sad” (lines 1-3). In the second stanza of the the clutch of my hand/ I would hurl it into the fire, the poem the poet makes reference to the injustice the fire of hell”. The poem concludes on the same note in poor and the weak have suffered in the face of the last two lines of stanza 3. “Absurd is this world of oppression. “I am a Negro” (Ana Zinji) is a poem in yours / And lost in darkness without end”. Al-Shabbi‟s which Al Fayturi expresses the need to assert his poetry collection, Song of Life was published identity in a racially mixed society. “Say it, don‟t be a posthumously in 1955 (Badawi 158). Al-Shabbi‟s life- coward...don‟t be a coward! / Say it in the face of long desire to be really heard and understood by the humanity... / I am a negro (Lines 1-3). In line 8 he people for whom he had written his poems and who describes Africa as his land. In the poem Fayturi also have often misunderstood him in his life time (Badawi addresses the issues of colonialism, describing the 159-160), is expressed in his almost prophetic diary white man as Africa‟s “occupying, invading pollution”. entry dated 7/1/1930. In his diary, the poet expresses (line12). “Al-Fayturi insists on his ethnic origin as an his wish that in the distant future his people, who at African celebrating his black identity and glorifying the that time did not understand the words he wrote, will history of the African People” (Gohar 50). The poet embrace his dreams; that the spirits of the youths will committed to the African motif in his poetry. His poems be awakened to chant the message of his poems are in different poetry collections such as The Songs (166). from Africa (1955), Lover from Africa (1964), Other influences on modern Arab literature Remember me Africa (1966) and African Sorrows include Marxism, socialist realism and existentialism. (1969). By the 1950s, the need for the writer to have a message rather than simply creating a work of the imagination was emphasized in the Arab literary world. CONCLUSION This led to the debate on literature of commitment (Badawi 207). In North Africa, new poets came on the Within the New Historicist framework, the scene and some old ones changed their subject study has provided an understanding that North matters. Some, who had been concerned with African Literature, in spite of its affiliations to Arab romantic subjects such as love and nature, moved on Literature, is African literature. Indeed North African to poetry that focused on social and political issues. literature cannot be studied as purely African without They were the social realist poets. Kamal Nashat, acknowledging or engaging in some study of Middle- Umar / Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research 9

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Cite this Article: Umar, O (2020). The Place of North African Literature in African Literary Canon. Greener Journal of Language and Literature Research, 6(1): 1-10.