McGill Canadian Undergraduate Content Journal of

Canadian Studies Canadian Content - Volume 3

Volume 3 Canadian Content The McGill Undergraduate Journal of Canadian Studies

Editors in Chief Evan Akriotis Meredith McLean

Senior Editor (French) Anne-Laure Mercier

Design Editor Sydney Warshaw Canadian Content is published annually by the Canadian Studies Association of Undergraduate Students (CSAUS). The editors welcome under- graduate students at McGill University to submit academic and creative works related to the study of Canada in English or French; students need not be enrolled in the Canadian Studies Programme to contribute.

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Cover Art by: Carolyn Rowan Table of Contents

4 Foreword Professor Elsbeth Heaman

9 Developing National and Personal Identity: What MacLennan Achieves in Making Two Solitudes a Künstlerroman Madeline LaRue

17 Power, Incentive, and Recursive Validation: Political Institutions as Representation in Canada Denis Douville

35 La Représentation de l’identité québécoise dans D’Amour, P.Q. de Jacques Godbout Émilie Horrocks-Denis

56 Pure Haine? Reading Barney’s Version in Montréal, Québec Cameron McKeich

73 Globalization, Ethnicity, and Politics of Identity, Québec’s Resistance to Cultural Homogenization Vincent Di Sciullo

87 Images of Canada

93 A Convenient Canadian Marriage of Interest: How the West Was Won, 1870-1914 David Nagel

105 Filmic Fabrications: The National Film Board of Canada and a 1950s Production of Identity Lina Crompton 117 Exiles or New Citizens? American Vietnam War Resistors as Symbols of Canadian Autonomy Laurin Liu

133 Le fait anglais et français : y a-t-il deux presses au Canada? Éléna Choquette

153 Scouring the Canadian-Cultural Bazaar: Self-hood, Object-hood and the Contemporary Canadian Art Industry Rebecca Chapman

161 Justice Plenipotentiary: The Role of the Judiciary in the Making of Canadian Foreign Policy David Zuluaga

178 Contributors/Credits Foreword

Professor Elsbeth Heaman 6 Foreword they work to construct paradigms of stable identity, as others find founds hard and identity. As and nationhood of foundations the up firm will that policy a or voice a for search they attest, here essays pass of number a as may and, too this that fear to not civilization of vagaries the to attuned well too are intellectuals and pundits, politicians, nationalist again, once predominant institutions and mores political French-Canadian with even Richler’s alienation and exile amidst Mordecai ruins, as Cameron McKeich observes here. But in became, characterized work that MacLennan’s hopefulness The civilization. whole their of decline of the lamented discussion Montrealers English-speaking her the in Now Godbout. Horrocks-Denis Jacques Emilie by here charted political renewal and economic, social, of process a through again once French racial of airily progress spoke and decline. In the 20 who English-speakers by dominated metropolis town that was founded by Maisonneuve and Mance became a commercial much greener,different, from very the looks mountain’s still vistas. The that French island missionary and the fur-trading around land on later and itself Montreal of island the on first reserves and missions as re-appeared habitations indigenous the and alleyways became mountain the up trails been abandoned when Champlain arrived nearly a century later. Traditional aqueducts. Hochelaga, the Roman village that Cartier passed on in his trek up the squatted mountain, had hermits and uses new found continually Brentano’s Robert of way the in renewed, and ruined are civilizations where city a is It whole. a as history,crucially shaping the modern ways that identities are of negotiated across the country experiments social great the of one remains city the “If this sprawling half-continent has a heart, here it is.” Half a century later, scholarly andartisticgrasp. our exceed to fail never that and geography and humanity shared our of understandings sophisticated more better, to always us call that and nation a city a upon here, suggests LaRue Madeleine MacLennan, Hugh to according one god-like a almost perspective, privileged a the is into It distance. stretch that continent and country the and historians, crusty of even poets makes that river roaring great, the city, the around plains the E Royal so they can contemplate the expansive view of Montreal, of view expansive the contemplate can they so Royal at Studies Mount on lookout the Canadian to up marched are University, in they McGill student every of experience the in arly MacLennan wrote in his great novel of Montreal, of novel great his in wrote MacLennan Rome before Avignon before Rome th century, that city was made predominantly wee l institutions old where , anys Version Barney’s TwoSolitudes , , Foreword 7 The essays in this collection go a long way to exemplifying the Still standing at the lookout atop Mount Royal, if you drop your federally, federally, or juridically. Populations and forms new the shape to rules sometimes entirely, disappear to sometimes change, decay, and old norms perpetual will to ever better representation of regions and social groups in the different political institutions in Canada, whether provincially, animate contemporary debates about newcomers, for example in Brendan in example for newcomers, about debates contemporary animate Tang’s artistic installations that play upon commoditized definitions of Chinese identity, or in debates over language policies in Quebec, or the qualities of Canadian and American identity or the conceptualization of English and French journalistic cultures. And those negotiations what is about old and what is new in Canada, what is good and what is bad, a diverse Those society. same processes of negotiation can be observed in the debates over whether Canada should welcome or American rebuff draft dodgers during the 1960s, when people argued as to quintessential Polish immigrant in Winnipeg. Grierson sought to depict such people as ‘hardworking, humble, religious, and thoughtful,’ and thereby to nudge the Canadian sense of self identity towards an enriched appreciation of his discussion of the balance between inclusion and and old peoples exclusion and products of on new the western plains and Lina Crompton probes them more intimately in John Grierson`s documentary of a processes at work in this process of construction and deconstruction of identity in Canada. The processes are infallibly at work when Canadians with scene the sets Nagel David another. one contemplate immigrants and there is indeed a when ‘there we there,’ try to focus on some sort of core to slip away. or essence, it seems of Canadian Studies is fraught with uncertainty and imprecision, because perilously seem, may it and, it to methods or boundaries clear no are there little that characterizes the country as a whole. Though we all know that conversations about what those approaches tell and how us they can mutually illuminate of one That another. Canada must be modern enterprise scholarly the Canada yet And doubted. be cannot understood and studied Studies is one of those vistas. Canadian Studies at McGill makes use of all the different disciplinary and theoretical approaches to the the study modern of world and invites students and scholars to engage in fertile eyes to the foot of the which mountain, offers you see McGill University, its own (distinctly ungod-like) vistas upon the wider world. Canadian means to undermine their bounded constructions. bounded their to undermine means 8 Foreword of identityandbeingthatcomeintoplay. well astheCanada Research Chairin EarlyCanada. professor,as associate an is She Studies. Canadian for Institute McGill Professor Elsbeth Heaman extend ourvistashigherandfurther. and conversations such sustain students and the may Canada Long studying Canadian. of being enterprise the of heart the at remains politics, of connection, shared experience intellectual that can suddenly transcend of language, ethnicity, sense gender, That city. extraordinary that in life of experience shared a capturing Montrealer, a as powerfully very her to spoke novel the that discovered she it, read actually she when But book. de Barney Guy`s reading of Mordecai Richler`s Chantal of McKeich, by described experience, the whole a as project our connection is fully on display here. Perhaps we may take as exemplary for an out staking people. intellectual to of sense pleasure made and or work happen, The to discovery, a making of intellectual claim, explaining joy how and why something happened, or failed the convey they Rather, uncertainty.not is together, read when program, Studies Canadian our in But the message that comes from the essays, produced by students . Guy disliked Richler`s politics and was prepared to dislike the is the Undergraduate Program Director at the Barney`s Version or, rather, Le monde Foreword 9 Künstlerroman a Madeline LaRue Two Solitudes Two Developing National National Developing and Personal Identity and Personal What MacLennan Achieves in Making Achieves What MacLennan 10 LaRue hs s o is niey h nvls rjc, nerl o hc i the is which to integral project, novel’s the entirely miss to is This and four, the sections following the death of Athanase Tallard, altogether. novel 1945 MacLennan’s and move resolutelyintothefuture. whole, a as itself understand can nation the that so respect, mutual of relations into subsiding their least at or tensions, those of dissolution the envision optimistically MacLennan and Paul both which in future a future, its for possibilities the and country that of understanding greater a him allows Paul’sthis and country his within of those to parallel conflicts are development own The essay. my of focus the is so, be to came he how and task, this the to to suited peculiarly get is he to That it heart. country’s young in and Canada, of novel great first the write to position perfect the in tradition—is education, language, religion, country—race, tradition-obsessed the than natives ofSaint-Marc. better world modern the understand view, thereby,and science in learn will Athanase’she where school, English an that Paul not only convert with him to Protestantism, but also that he attend son by Kathleen, Paul, is only a boy at this point, but Athanase is insistent Athanase’sFrench-Canadians. local the in anxiety sparking immediately sale, for is that property a at look to Montreal brings from Englishmen some land-owners, in French influential of line long a of descendant the and region the of native Tallard,Saint-Marc. Athanase a of town Quebec small the in WorldWarFirst the of end the at place takes the which of novel, part first the from clear is difficult progress joint make and exist towards a“self-movedreciprocation.” coexist, working hopefully but to simple” rarely and “slow,reluctant, struggle relations their they how and English, the and French the Canada, in legends” “race two these between dynamic the explores novel his of rest The is.” it here heart, a has half-continent sprawling this “If area, the about narrator his says side,” by side legends, separate their live and here meet religions and races “Twoold Montreal. of island the around merge I MacLennan describes the geography of Canada, specifically the specifically and meet they how and Lawrence, Canada, St. the and River Ottawa of courses geography the describes novel MacLennan 1945 his of paragraphs opening the n n 91 lue isl pt ot a sho eiin o Hugh of edition” “school a forth put Bissell Claude 1951 In the within tensions conflicting many so of product the Paul, That long-standing tension between the two traditions and cultures Two Solitudes Two that dispensed with parts three parts with dispensed that w Solitudes Two Hugh , 1

LaRue 11 , but that 2 because, for the first the for because, Künstlerroman , and the former generation’s back story is is striking as a as striking is , the latter, the development story of Paul-as-writer, Two Two Solitudes Two Solitudes Two Künstlerroman to bring it into modernity with that “promise of a better future” very desire defeats him as he manages to alienate first his fellow French- is noble, but, as Elspeth Cameron notes, he is want him “paralyzed makes province his by to loyalty instinctive traditional his (175); attachments” born, giving everyone a chance” (124). He wants to bring Quebec, though Quebec, bring to wants He (124). chance” a everyone giving born, “she had always hated and opposed the industrial vision His English. revolution” the of hands (24), the at into not and terms, own its on modernity using industry and technology not only for wealth, but for the betterment standards, living the “lifting things these sees he people; its and town his of wiping out debts, keeping people in their homes where they had been so that he can reconcile the national purposes of the English and French as French and English the of purposes national the reconcile can he that so he sees them: the French maintaining their identity and the English using industry and technology for the Athanase production envisions of wealth. descent who to attempts, bridge unsuccessfully, the gaps between French Canada. in modernity and traditionalism between and cultures English and Saint-Marc of town Quebec small his in factory a up setting of dreams He half of the novel, the focus of the narrative is not on Paul the artist but on aristocratic of land-owner French-Canadian a is Tallard Athanase father. his him as a modern novelist because it allows him to view the world and its struggles, in Canada’s with particular, an essential objectivity that allows control of it. him both to describe and to take creative only succeed as an artist by distancing himself from the world around him, him, around world the from himself distancing by artist an as succeed only an effect that he only achieves because of the strong direction given him in his education and development by Athanase, and that is important for the is the core of simply a vital setup to set that development in motion. Paul Tallard can a mixed education is just the action necessary to allow Paul that to distanced perspective. achieve So while Athanase dominates the first half of the novel and makes it appear at first more of the Family Saga genre than get at the end of part four, as his inability to distance himself effectively Paul’s for foil effective an provides heritage French rooted deeply his from insistence Athanase’s upon success giving in Paul this Additionally, area. the novel with death and failure and rather story Athanase’s than itself. country the an of and characters main optimistic its of future vision of the we ending happier that to precursors fundamental are however, failure, his development development of the young Canadian Paul as Tallard an artist, and to end 12 LaRue Canadians through his conversion to Protestantism and then the English the then and Protestantism to conversion his through Canadians when discussing hisfutureeducation,“Don’t forget that” (105). Paul reminds Athanase you,” mind Canadian, be “You’llstill reader: the As opposed to this, Paul’s case becomes clearly exceptional in the eyes of to think that “their country was not Canada but the British Empire” (288). a like thinking Canadian” or (140), and even Paul’stalking own schoolmates from at Frobisher are raised her prevent to could they all “done had and certainly not earlier ones; Janet Methuen’s teachers at finishing school as he matures. It is an opportunity not given to many of Paul’s generation, Paul without) (and within both exist that those less or more are conflicts and dilemmas internal its for country, entire the for metaphor a as even a intrinsically as Paul establishes youth early his from objectivity.appropriate an him allows traditions it both as in raised Being artist, an as development Paul’s to necessary is distance, that alienation, which will leave him in many ways with a rather lonely existence. Yet that (174), both from alienatehim to but conflict, the of side each to him align to not serve education and parenthood mixed his out, points Cameron as Paul (236). cursed were he if as approaches he as him from away run who children, the even village, the in Catholics the separation” by forcing Paul to convert “artificial as a boy,that isolating him forever displace from to more even does Athanase ethnicities. two the between (177) separation” “artificial existing the by determined loyalty his have not and boys,” English with naturally mix importantly,to “learn most and, education” “scientific a get will he his where school, English an at further to him for necessary on, Early project. artistic educated be to needs Paul that decides Athanase is from that distance divides the societal obtain and to tradition Paul enables education and development a as not taketheformofmaterialwealth. except what he can leave for Paul. As he dies bankrupt, this naturally does whatsoever,legacy lasting completely,or fails purpose no with left is and into humanists concerned for the welfare of their neighbouring profiteers French—he amoral from businessmen English change to and industrialists modern them making by French-Canadians traditional change (113)—to over” them make and people change to trying for his of passion “undying that of Because Saint-Marc. to liaison useful a longer no is he as outcast, an because, McQueen) (Huntly working is he whom with businessman Künstlerroman ht taae os ev t Pu i esnil o h novel the to essential is Paul to leave does Athanase What fr h drcin e osiul gvs o Paul’s to gives consciously he direction the for , is cursed in a way,for a in cursed Canadian , indeed , LaRue 13 , is where , the assumption the , Two Solitudes Two 3 Two Solitudes Two has a chance to view the city from above, from the from above, from city the view to chance a has as a genre. The typical artist-hero, says Beebe, has she Paul’s artistic mission, Paul’s too and in MacLennan’s Paul’s distance and objectivity allows him to assume a place in the in place a assume to him allows objectivity and distance Paul’s Künstlerroman specifically, the English portion of Westmount and the surrounding areas. the English portion of specifically, dual-education and split background that is so essential to Paul as an artist. an as Paul to essential so is that background split and dual-education when Significantly, summit she in Westmount, can see “only a portion” (333) of Montreal— instance, whose visual art is described as having a “lack in it” (381), cannot (381), it” in “lack a having as described is art visual whose instance, achieve the same; the lack is in her missing the “vastness” of such scenes as those she paints of the Laurentians (382). But Heather is missing the artist-creator in the Ivory Tower tradition generally takes generally tradition Tower Ivory the in artist-creator truly is that art great create to necessary is knowledge vast such that being for and that can respond to its needs. Heather, representative of humanity, narrator from the beginning as the heart of Canada, from his high position high his from Canada, of heart the as beginning the from narrator above it on the mountain. Indeed, from such a distance, one could almost call his viewpoint god-like, and that is exactly the kind of position the viewpoint, in ascending a “wall” (310) of rock at the top of Mount Royal and reaching the summit, where he “could see the whole city spread out beneath him” (311). He can see the whole of Montreal, described by the it” (305). Though still young, Paul fantasizes about the kind of knowledge of kind the about fantasizes Paul young, still Though (305). it” one would have from being able to look from down such a distance. upon That same others day, Paul manages to living achieve that life very and we read through free indirect discourse his thought that “It must have been wonderful to live in a city like that, where you could come up to the wall and see the whole of it at a single glance and know everyone inside life from There afar. are many explicit examples in flipping In way. a such just in him around world the from aloof stands Paul through an “old Homeric picture book,” Paul pauses on a picture of Troy of the artist and as the actual man participating in worldly life) and may the and men other from away creations his produce to artist, an as choose, observe may he where Tower” “Ivory an in is, living—that of experiences Ivory Tower Ivory of Tower the artist that Maurice Beebe describes in his assessment of the a “Divided Self” (a double-identity as both the distant, observant psyche

he is viewing those of the entire country and thereby forming a national Canadian many of goal the is Willmott, Glenn claims This, consciousness. achieve its aim. Paul speaks for the young nation of Canada as a whole, and in viewing his own internal dilemmas from an objective distance, so vast in scope however that it really requires such a god-like position to 14 LaRue novels of the first half of the twentieth century and why the his art externalizing what is already in himself, can take on the task of task the on take can himself, in already is what externalizing art his distance a from world the survey entire generation. his over settled has that discomfort the in (371) ‘they’” as world whole to determine through the madness what “I” means and not to “think of the trying conflicts, and tensions those internalizing up grown has he because new place to live” (390), and Paul not only sees but also feels that intensity a find to trying [...] roaming is world whole the and us uprooted have [...] world, not just the old Canada, cannot handle modernity; “science and war old The (465). Europe” in witnessed had [Paul] process same “the seems what in himself” around tighter and tighter strait-jacket the “binding him the imagines Paul racialism, forward; moving conservative than rather traditions the old into retreating of representative is In together. Marius future novel, better the a entering thereby and purposes creative for technologies new embracing and together coming than rather traditions (166)—old countries resorting to nationalisms founded on race and cultural world the in breakdown” “international the of symbolic is schizophrenia” wrote he time the at MacLennan’stheory was claims Cameron As rapid values? its traditional and of modernity uprooting face to differences their of spite in harmonize these cultures within the nation, like their mother countries within Europe, will how but aware, is Paul as (454) decadent,” become almost had they traditions the general; in mature so “were France, and England of traditions the in, fixed is Canada world Western the of Canada representative especially is last itself this In globalism. and tribalism between world Marc childhood and his English education at Frobisher; Saint- and in the modern his between education in death; Athanase’s after and Depression French upbringing in wealth and his comparative urban rural poverty during the aristocratic his between class in mother; Anglophone Irish his and brother French race-centred his between ethnicity in torn is he for soul, whose literature he appears short, a protagonist whose development and feelings parallel the nation in protagonist”—in collective wandering, and young a of expression “the in literature Canadian in appeared articulations those that natural articulate” only be was to striving is which soul, a has [Canada] nation was such a widespread choice: as Archibald MacMechan said, “The young al te, n h piiee, o-ie oiin f en al to able being of position god-like privileged, the in then, Paul, 5 . Paul’s soul is representative of the Canadian w Solitudes Two and draw from his own experience, in experience, own his from draw pras aaas “national Canada’s perhaps , Bildungsroman 4 ad it and ,

LaRue 15 the first truly Canadian novel , offering a harmonious solution and 6 consciousness that is not merely the sum Two Two Solitudes Canadian setting out to harmonize the world as the last chapter of 7 suggests Canada is starting to harmonize. But then perhaps Perhaps many call that can help it along is art such as theirs. to terms with the inner tensions its soon roots come will have self-awareness a such created. that optimistic both MacLennan are Paul and perhaps in the middle of the twentieth century when they write and that one thing way to cope with the modernity that has defined much of the youth country’s and development. This, of course, will only be possible once the nation is secure in itself, in its unique and identity, has resolved or come whole. As a relatively young country, it is still determining its place the in world, trying to sort out its own and identity, in its youthful idealism maybe attempting to offer the old European world, so set in its ways, a because its ambition, if not its effect, is to define, through the character of Paul, a specifically of its French and English parts but a completely different and brand new nationalism would be one based instead in the harmonious coexistence of two formerly conflicting cultures. new nation formed from old cultures in a time of rapid change. Canada’s nationalism would not be a frightened retreat into old ideas of bloodlines and culture, but would, by its very nature, be a large step forward; its the novelist’s god-like power is confined to the world of the novel alone creation would still, as a manifestation and cannot be extrapolated; Paul’s of Canada’s soul and awakening self-consciousness, be valuable to a agree morally with his conclusion and more, would be “practically active” “practically be would more, and conclusion his with morally agree (36) afterwards, Solitudes Two real world for benefit, and whether their failure to do so is the fault of the author alone, cannot really be determined. Deborah Bowen suggests that MacLennan himself in writing the novel assumed a reader who would maintain control over that creation Whether destructive. and hateful become has that society a re-humanizing the standards and values of this fictional world can then be applied to the God himself may have become disinterested in the fate of the world simply been or outmoded by science, but the artist, as a kind of “successor” and it sees he as world the write can century, twentieth early the by God to writing writing the momentous novel that sums it all up and offers a solution. 16 LaRue Willmott, Glenn. MacLennan, Hugh. Cameron, Elspeth. Bowen, Deborah.“Two SolitudesandaReader:Continuing‘The Tallard Saga.’” Beebe, Maurice. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 English Toronto Press, 1981. Press, 1997. Web. 6Oct.2010. in from GoethetoJoyce ECW Press,1997,36 Tallard Saga.” DeborahBowen.“TwoSolitudesandaReader:Continuing‘The Maurice English Glenn York UniversityPress,1964,13. Maurice 171. Ibid. 19. Ibid., 174. Elspeth Cameron. Essays onCanadianWriting Willmott. . Montreal:McGill-Queen’s UniversityPress,2002. Montreal:McGill-Queen’s UniversityPress,2002,19. Ivory Towers andSacred Founts:The Artist asHero inFiction Unreal Country:ModernityintheCanadianNovel Beebe. Beebe. Hugh MacLennan: A Writer’s Life Two Solitudes Essays inCanadianWriting Unreal Country:ModernityintheCanadianNovel Ivory Towers, Ivory Towers andSacred Founts. Hugh MacLennan: A Writer’s Life . New York: New York UniversityPress,1964. . Toronto: McClelland&Stewart,2003. Works Cited Endnotes 13. 61(1997):26-41. Toronto andMontreal: . Toronto: Universityof EBSCOhost New York: New

(Toronto: 1981). . ECW

Foreword 17

Validation Canada Canada Denis Douville Institutions as Institutions Representation in in Representation Power, Incentive, and Recursive Recursive and Incentive, Power, 18 Douville of the constituency that the representative acts for varies; he or she may she or he varies; for acts representative the that constituency the of with.” himself concerns or after looks he whom) (or what represents man a sense this In [...] groups respective of interests for,“speak to begins for,person act one the when for occurs out that look something as representation substantive describes Pitkin Fenichel Hanna society,defined. the however within group a towards benefactor a as acts representative the that is condition first The met. are conditions key two when created is that constituency represented a and politician or representative person a between relationship a is representation substantive of the constitutionasitstandspost1982. and federalism, system, electoral of first-past-the-post Canada’s levels examined: different are to institutions Canadian due three only and impact, potential conciseness and entrenchment For ends. those of one be may representation ends; certain achieve to designed systems and asprocedural rules defined broadly are Institutions verification. empirical to regarding transferred validity then weigh theory,and on placed is their Emphasis Canada’sinstitutions. will verifying paper empirically This by theories representation. different of the form assertion a above are the institutions isagainst that paper propositions this theoretical of competing purpose pit The to representation. to regard in institutions as they wouldapolitician. them change and judge may citizens visible, are effects institutions’ impose upon politicians to consider they certain interests. that Furthermore, because incentives and constraints through “act” They functions. same the perform institutions Arguably, representative. the replace and judge inthe act interests arepresentative of the represented, and second that the represented, if unsatisfied, that first requires representation political of the model that traditional Arepresentation. of strong form a so are themselves institutions are process the on effects institutions’ political that process. argue and however, further, political approach neo-institutional the the take can One influence institutions that assertion institutional A Theory andHypotheses:InstitutionsasRepresentation At its minimum and most general conception, Pitkin’s understanding of role and nature exact the debated have theorists Political eortc ersnain cus Ls cmo i te neo- the is common Less occurs. representation democratic which through structures the provide they that suggests systems) electoral as (such institutions political of understanding common 1 The nature and interest and nature The Douville 19 Pitkin 4 Giovanni 5 disobeys the This formulation is then 2 consistently If the representative 8 3

6 The fact that politicians selfishly seek power, however, does To this tragedy , one adds another: the two conditions are at constant at are conditions two the another: adds one , tragedy this To Implicit in these two conditions is the tragic reality of representation: of reality tragic the is conditions two these in Implicit As per Pitkin, the second condition for substantive representation Implicit warning in is Machiavelli’s that the nobles (or politicians) 7 moments of revolution. and are unresponsive to the public. For Wolin, since selfishdo not actually represent, democracy only truly occurs during the fleeting politicians vie for power. Politicians may not represent if all they seek is power or office. What is one to do? In “Fugitive Democracy,” pessimistic. argues Wolin Sheldonthat Wolin is politicians are selfish, promote inequality, warns princes that nobles are a constant threat to the and prince’s that position, nobles will always scheme against a prince back. behind his or her the same time. risk, because politicians are Machiavelli naturally inclined to seek power. Sartori echoes a similar idea when he complains that democratic power is something is power “real people; other over have people some that power at others all over power have cannot people all thus and exercised,” is that and that a leader will have to choose the laments too: this she reality, interests notes that every society has a of multiplicity of only one. cleavages, and politicians have to choose which to represent. not every or person, interest constituency, can be represented all the time and in every action of the political leaders representative. that Niccolò nobles and Machiavelli commoners have warns conflicting appetites, constituency and refuses to ever act as a from command. becomes indistinguishable delegate, then representation occurs somewhere in between the act that the representative thinks is in the constituency’s interests, and the act that the constituency wishes the representative to do.” that the representative ought to be “responsive “one represents whatever guides to ones actions.” pressures,” because representation that notes she delegation: of treatment Pitkin’s in elaborated requires that the represented group or constituency be able to judge the representative’s actions and deem whether or not doing the a good or representative a bad job is at furthering its interests. Indeed, Pitkin notes fishermen and theirassociates), or therepresentative may look after the electoral district. individuals in an of a select group of interests look look after the interests of the fishing industry (the constituency is thus 20 Douville o peld rpeetto, eas pltcl ntttoa rls and rules institutional political because representation, preclude not and predictable inasociallyscientific way. enough. verification are tendencies general Furthermore, those tendencies are indeed more or less directly observable time; the all predicted as themselves manifest not need causes institutional claimthat science, social isto any as which response, in Sartori’s solace finds one however, behaviour.predict accurately cannot incentives and than on institutional constraints; others suggest that institutional constraints rather themselves preferences on more their depends representation that argue on theorists least many that notes instance, at for Massicotte, of Louis representation. doubts, condition first the these for difficulties conceptual and raise to factors, appear surface, predictive or causal as versus local as such national interests. interests, different for stand not may or may who parties, of types different reward and punish systems electoral different systems: electoral different Sartori of attributes incentive-changing the describes instance, For actions. different encouraging or discouraging by different institutional designs can change politicians’notes, incentives for power Sartori as but themselves, of and in act actually cannot course of one cannot represent everyone all the time. Institutions (rules, procedures) interests must be exclusive according to the first tragedy of these representation; and interests, specific for” “act institutions that requires condition first The model. traditional the of conditions two the account into takes other quite goals,” inourcase,power. pursuing are legislators, and voters both individuals, many political a from “emerge may process institutional an as cause them. that hate to actions citizens avoid to princes advises he why is that avoid punishment; to satisfaction some with groups certain provide to incentive has are rewarded and which are punished. Even Machiavelli’s unelected prince acts which determine institutions and punishment, avoid and reward seek politics are merely systems of incentives: reward and punishment. all that notes Sartori represent). (to interests certain the further including to power,incentive obtain to order in comply must politicians which with specific incentives different of create institutions interests design, the different By to groups. power gaining of means the tie procedures Many theorists have raised doubts about the utility of institutions of utility the about doubts raised have theorists Many that representation “institutional” of model a devise may One 12

10 In other words, as Pitkin notes, “representation” notes, Pitkin as words, other In 11 14

13 To such objections, Tosuch

system in which in system 9 Actors Douville 21

16 As noted above, however, 17 Benhabib offers a plausible theoretical theoretical plausible a offers Benhabib 18 Iris Young’s general thesis posits that special, extra- Young’s Iris 15 The theorist is left with a model of institutional representation An opposing body of theory suggests that institutions may not The second condition holds that in order to be called a form of interests over others. The second hypothesis suggests that citizens, though citizens, that suggests hypothesis second The others. over interests constrained by institutional rules, can nevertheless engage in recursive empirical verification. The first hypothesis suggests that institutions, by groups’ certain favour or for” “act elites, of incentives power the changing that is not so different from representatives Pitkin’s minimal and model citizens of as politicians empowered as conditions, judges. this model can be distilled into two hypotheses to Based be used for on the two to be discussed and have an effect. an have and discussed be to fears. Weber’s alternative to empirically test against of recursive validation in particular is just as if not more plausible than fears Weber’s of an iron cage. Indeed, she even emphasizes that debates about institutions themselves need not be “rationalist” or legalist in order icy darkness,” citizens and politicians alike are automata: mere cogs in a machine of legalism, and bureaucracy, rules. theory Benhabib’s change. institutional about optimistic are authors many that institutions themselves might come to govern our lives entirely: he forewarned, in his famous phrase, that society may be trapped in an “iron cage of modernity.” In this iron cage, also known as the “polar night of meet the second condition. This theory suggests that institutions, unlike politicians, cannot be “held to account.” Max for Weber, example, fears limited by the institutions. Phrased differently, limited a by discussion the that institutions. is Phrased guided differently, by rules and procedures can result in a decision that changes in the rules have guided the discussion. and procedures that analysis on how institutional change She may argues that occur. societies engage in “recursive validation”: elites and society may rules and deliberate procedures the by which deliberations themselves are guided and corrupt institutions. institutional structures must be created in order to adequately represent marginalized groups. Seyla Benhabib provides the most convincing must be capable of changing the institution constituency is able to vote politician’s him or her out. Sartori that argues in the same with dissatisfaction way of reflection a that is politicians corrupt the with dissatisfaction representation, representation, institutions and their effects must be judged or evaluated by their “constituencies” in the same way that a politician, the classical representative, is judged and evaluated. Moreover, the represented

22 Douville validation to both discuss and change the institutional rules themselves. rules institutional the change and discuss both to validation h cagd netv fr oiiin i t mblz ter constituencies their mobilize to is politicians for incentive changed the speaking, Generally parliament. in seat a words, other official in office: of political holding the as defined is here Power not). do that votes than power by maximizing effective votes (votes that translate into seats, obtaining rather at chances their maximize to wish indeed who politicians, for and punishtheopposition by allocatingitfewerseats. seats more with party government victorious large,electorally the reward to tended also generally FPTP vote. popular the of 4.1% had only party that though even Credit, Social for seats 7 allocated FPTP 1935, in also disbanded. instance, For subsequently support. concentrated regionally with parties small rewards and seat one only with rewarded was but nation, the across vote popular the of 8.7% held Party Reconstruction the 1935, in instance, For seats. fewer them allocating by support nation-wide with parties small punished consistently FPTP that Electoral “The In reward. System and and the Party System in Canada, 1921-1965,” punishment Cairns demonstrates through parties Canada’s constrains system the that evidence convincing provides system electoral furthers arguably considerations ofminorities. and protects constitution The interests lines. provincial regional along furthers federalism Canadian lines. district different and institution. Canada’s electoral system furthers regional interests along punished (suffering a reduced chance at power), depending on the interest or power with rewarded either are interest an represented further who Elites interests. those for” “act do institutions Canadian interests, different constraints) that encourage (or discourage) politicians to represent (or not) (or incentives Through institutions. of importance overwhelming the on In its exploration of representation, this paper champions Cairns’ emphasis Alan Cairns examines the influence of institutions on Canadian political life. system, thefederalandconstitution. electoral the Canada’sinstitutions: of political three core investigating by sections two next the in verified respectively are hypotheses two These The constraints illustrated above translate into changed incentives Alan Cairns’ analysis of Canada’s current first-past-the-post (FPTP) In Canada, an existing body of literature spurred by the writings of Power, Punishment,andRewardinCanada: Institutions “ActingFor” 19 ovrey FPTP Conversely, Douville 23

22 Thus, 21 Certainly, there will be constituents who prefer 23 Hence at why, the time, the Liberals favoured campaigning 20 Some objections to the regionalizing electoral effects system’s in Importantly, Importantly, the electoral system as an institution influences The changed incentives, furthermore, translated into representation representation into translated furthermore, incentives, changed The or a few provinces its vote should be, if it is to maximize its strength in Parliament. Conversely, the larger the party, the more dispersed across representation may be made and considered. Richard Johnston and Janet one in concentrated more the party, the smaller “the that argue Ballantyne places on elites. Constituencies that do not seek regional representation, or muted by the electoral system. have their voices dampened however, or a group that crosses Quebec’s boundaries, or a non-regional group be electoral the by amplified be will voices constituency’s Those represented. system, which represents regions regardless, given the incentives that it necessary or desired. that representation occur in the form of regional representation; they may wish, for instance, that Quebec, and not a certain group within Quebec, constituents for this form of representation. As Cairns argues, the electoral the argues, Cairns As representation. of form this for constituents system may lead to misperceptions about the constituencies; it may make the constituencies wish for more regional representation than is actually Conservatives, who become invisible. policy and regional representation without a necessary demand by regional biases are reflected in the victorious party’s government policy. regional biases are reflected in the victorious party’s Through its “represents” incentive Liberals structure, in FPTP Quebec by granting them increased party support, while not representing Quebec’s during this period, Conservatives in Quebec received little institutional representation, given that Quebec was Jean-Pierre Dierrienic criticizes a FPTP for this Liberal reason, arguing that stronghold. such Indeed, accuracy the distribution of partisan interests the to sensitive less “become parties as country” the of provinces support in the various sections/ of the unrepresented sections than they otherwise would be.” via Cairns policy. notes that “the significance of the electoral system for party policy is due to its consistent failure to reflect with even rough terms of “the payoffs of representation,” that is, a chances politician’s to get elected. Ontario. favoured while the Conservatives in Quebec issues, issues, such as left-right class politics. As [regionalism] Cairns has notes, “sectionalism been rendered highly in support” electoral organize to which on basis fruitful a it makes system visible because the electoral and make appeals on the basis of region instead of on other, nation-wide 24 Douville provinces its votes should be.” should votes its provinces upt o sml rfetos f neet o te rus theycontrol, the groups of service.” or interests regulate, of reflections simple or not “although are puppets they society, that of societal sectors laments particular Cairns to or them it. relate functions for leaders their strive political actively not different do if members even occurs representation ‘la survivancefrancaiseen Amerique’.” of objective sacrosanct the question “would party, of regardless leader,” succession of incumbents who briefly possess it.” For instance, behaviour. “no the Quebec constrains and such influences that history a has documents [...] office political “Each Cairns represent. they what or stand, they sit.” you where on where is region the thus, jurisdiction; depends regional specific, a in sit Provinces stand you “where that contention main Hence, importance. office’s Allison’s and the prestige on depend salaries, and jobs their as well as actors, other influence to politician’sability and changes that person’s incentives to match those of the office. A bureaucrat’s office an in someone placing briefly, notes, matter Graham asthe Allison put To representation. provincial of regionalization institution’s federal cleavages withintheirregion. the minimizing by votes maximize to order in identities provincial foster to incentive an have provinces the speaking, institutionally Furthermore, for subsequent increases in their governmental potency and importance.” essential integrity jurisdictional the protected formally and future the for self-interested their “By funding). obstinacy [provincial governments] preserved provides their basic bargaining power (which resources natural and funding), massive requires (which care health as such jurisdictions, important increasingly with vested are governments provincial one, For favour regional representation. Cairns explores those incentive structures. and amplify likewise incentives these and elites, political upon incentives Quebec sustainstheminpower.” diffuse,Though and Quebec, typically outside are “losses Liberal support power. lose they that Quebec lose Liberals the when only is it power; in Indeed, prior support bases, intoaccount and parties takes have an incentive to hold likely unto that support. strategy party because however, qualifier, this Johnston later notes that the Liberals have needed Quebec to stay to Quebec needed have Liberals the that notes later Johnston The end result of the institutional structure is thus that regional that thus is structure institutional the of result end The Canadian the behind motivator prime the is Undoubtedly,power and constraints of set own its imposes federalism Canadian 30 “Passivity, indifference, or the absence of strong of absence the or indifference, “Passivity, 27 24 25 Johnston’s later studies shed doubt on doubt shed studies later Johnston’s 29 28 26

Douville 25

33 34 However, 36 The interests The 39 Citizens are not are Citizens 35 Even more so than 32 38 Each region thus endures (or enjoys, 31 The federal government also faces constraints. Federal parties Federal constraints. faces also government federal The 37 Through its empowerment of the courts, Canada’s constitution (and constitution Canada’s courts, the of empowerment its Through Although-on the surface, Canadian federalism seems to grant the The consequence of increased regional representation is the particular interests into account - Aboriginal, multicultural, freedoms.” and and rights the interpret they gender when - respectively its Charter) has created new constraints and incentives for governments. take to courts instruct 28 and 27, 25, “sections that notes MacIvor Heather must also manage more diverse interests. Provinces can also “gang up” on up” “gang also can Provinces interests. diverse more manage also must bold. the federal government if it grows too important. Further, base. support regional own their to cater to incentive an have also the government cannot criticize a province without losing legitimacy; it the federal government responds to certain nation-wide considerations, and can have considerable power spend in provincial any sources issue of area. funds, such as natural resources, are increasingly federal government considerable amounts of room to inspection represent, reveals closer that this room is limited and regionalized. Certainly, Furthermore, certain national politics, such as class, are subsumed in precedence. takes that provinces of perspective regional a provinces are “have” or “have not.” “wealthy” or “poor”; rather, supporting that Liberal province’s opposition. Hence, “the circumstances counterparts federal their support will power in parties provincial which in considerations.” strategic motivated] [institutionally reflect entirely almost The parties split because to maintain links would only be detrimental to their appeal to voters. Federal Liberals do not wish to suffer that the comes hassle with having to deal with provincial Conservatives while also negation and difficulty of interests that do not serve provincial governments’ governments’ provincial serve not do that interests of difficulty and negation federal the mirror to split become has structure party The power. for search Liberals. Ontario or federal than different are Liberals Quebec structure; or creates for political elites to act for and represent a type of regional as opposed to other interest. occurs despite the lack of lobbying or demand for it. electoral system, Canadian federalism acts in the name of FPTP Canada’s on imposes it that incentives and constraints the through interests regional need need in order to thrive and grow.” provincial tailored regionally of proliferation a perspective) on depending statutes, regulations, and laws. Cairns notes that this government activity opposition from their environment may be all that provincial governments governments provincial that all be may environment their from opposition 26 Douville behind these rights and freedoms are now valid sources of legal reasoning. referenda, Canadian federalism by bolstering the government level that level government the bolstering by federalism Canadian referenda, and assemblies through system electoral judged their of have representativeness Canadians the representation. (un)satisfactory for account to her or him hold and politician a judge would they that way same the in Charter inmind. amended, or reformulated, all with the interests of groups protected by the interests. group different consider to incentive elites give They symbols. mere than more emphasizes. Hiebert Janet as sensitively, Charter the treat all service, public the of culture the in that reasons such actors.” political to transmitted cues the “change claims, Cairns Constitutions, apt. seems Experiment” Constitutional Canadian “The in assessment Cairns’ minorities. of considerate and aware more large writ departments and bureaucrats made has constitution the to Charter the of constitutional structure. changed the to responding indeed are governments courts, power the counter the to for also but law, the before legitimacy of sake are not. the for that sense, those nullifies or modifies and sensitive, Charter are that those vindicates it Charter; the to proposals policy departments’ other sensitizes staff Its role. new a assumed has Justice of Department Minister,Prime the of power the to pose courts the that threat new the the centre.” the from govern to ability executive’s political the on constraints serious as review] and power [judicial seen has Charter] [the by introduced environment policy “new the that argues Kelly James entrenchment. institutional Charter’s the to response in behaviour policy claims ofinterestgroups. Court has become judicially “activist” and uses the Charter to advance the government legislation. suspend or invalidate, amend, to remedies with courts the provides also constitution the 24, section require In review. judicial constitution, in engages the court the that in enshrined institutionally now rules, These Citizens are capable of both judging and changing their institutions introduction the government, federal the of centre the Beyond their altered have governments power, continued of sake the For Recursive Validation andOpportunity: 46 oiis ee erte; ttts ee tuk down, struck were statutes rewritten; were Policies Canadians ShapingInstitutions 40 Indeed, critics have even argued that the Supreme 41 45 Agal, hre rgt are rights Charter Arguably, 42 Tocounter 44 43 It is for is It n this In Douville 27

48 The 52 Similarly, 49 Importantly, 47 50 Citizens, especially minorities, seek minorities, especially Citizens, 51 Perhaps no institution is as judged and watched by Canadians Likewise, Canada’s citizens are aware of federalism’s structure, Canadian citizens have demonstrated numerous times that they constitution is more than a symbol; real interests are at stake, and citizens know it. During Meech Lake, citizens feared that elites might overlook refuge and support in a constitution that they fear may be “subverted” by governments more responsive to power and numbers than to rights. “we now know that systems are deliberate acts of choice.” As he notes, many groups “demand affirmative action” and are critical of politicians constitution. the change to wish who issues to the allocation of federal powers itself. issues to the allocation of federal powers as the constitution. Speaking of the Canadian public, Cairns notes that conception of “the national interest” and regional interests. during the debate surrounding Quebec’s secession touched on the rules of federalism, from provincial secession to language referendum, topics During the Charter negotiations, citizens were aware of interest Premiers’ self and regionalizing tendencies. package The and the Premiers’ package was choice truly a choice between between a liberal Trudeau’s and this awareness allows them to judge and attempt to change it. Cairns documents how interest groups attempt government, provincial or federal, that can best represent to their interests. bolster the powers of the their original preference. This and during the referenda. calculation assembly, occurred even beyond the [...] criticisms of the specific proposed reform mattered.” citizens formed their views on electoral systems despite elite guidance; indeed, after the courses on electoral systems, many individuals retained citizens, although guided by elites, were not manipulated by them, critically and weighed the costs and benefits ofdifferent electoral “Satisfaction systems. with the existing electoral system influenced judgements institutions. electoral their change to attempting and judging of capable are assembly, citizens’ Columbia British the during that notes Fournier Patrick however, however, and citizens can nevertheless engage as in defined by recursive Benhabib validation by working through (and with) politicians’ self structure. change the institutional interest to constitutional negotiations from patriation to Meech Lake. Their ability to to ability Their Lake. Meech to patriation from negotiations constitutional change expected, these be institutions to is is ultimately institutions constrained change by to self ability serving elites. citizens’ on constraint a Such best represents their interests, and the constitution and Charter during the 28 Douville their interests while they negotiated the Charter, and Cairns warned that warned Cairns and Charter, the negotiated they while interests their epe Ol b camn t hv spot ad tepig o anr it, garner to attempting and support, have to claiming by Only people. the of interests the of terms in claims its couch to had government each amendments, constitutional during example, For federation. Canadian the within support popular and legitimacy for quest government’s Canadian institutional change. of Canadian institutions in order to stop elites from- or push them towards- suggests that Canadians can and have worked through the power incentives citizens must use Benhabib’s mechanism of recursive validation. Evidence differently,Phrased rules. and interests established the change to order in framework: citizens must work through the established interests and rules institutional an within place takes change for action Democratic fashion. neo-institutional a in so do must they though institutions, political their their of prisoners permanent are citizens political institutions? Arguably it does not, for citizens can still change on that mean power for desire which setthereferendumthresholdtoohigh. Columbia’sgovernment, British their by rejected but elites, by mobilized beyond was largely reasons for control.” fluctuates [...] status constitutional their to accorded respect the that nutshell, a in “recognize, interest their of pursuit the for Charter the on depend who citizens minority the that at fact sighs Cairns doors. closed behind bureaucrats and politicians by discussed powers were Canadians different of of status constitutional the as division well as federal the which during affair, elitist an was Lake institutional reform process. There is no question, for example, that Meech this conflictofinterestbarredchange? Has place. first the in power their keep to them allow that institutions the maintain to wish who elites powerful the in clearly most itself manifests politicians can limit citizens’ ability to change institutions. This limitation present they that incentives the and anyreal Institutions occurring. from may prevent change interest of conflict this and institutions, the from power and authority to change the institutions are the ones who gain power the have who ones only The themselves. institutions the to due limited is “they mayberight.” h pbi’ pwr f eusv vldto i eiet n the in evident is validation recursive of power public’s The their to due institutions maintain to elites of incentives the Do the dominated elites reform, institutional at attempts all For While citizens judge their institutions, their ability to change them 54 The same logic explains why the electoral citizens’ assembly citizens’ electoral the why explains logic same The 53

55

Douville 29 In this case, 58 The fact that certain Canadian groups, groups, Canadian certain that fact The

56 59 Looking Back Likewise, popular power is evidenced in the 57 Canadian institutions themselves are a form of substantive political substantive of form a are themselves institutions Canadian From the perspective of recursive validation, the failure to secure For the constitution, examples abound of citizens exercising has sensitized politicians and bureaucrats to the interests of minorities. These minorities. of interests the to bureaucrats and politicians sensitized has institutions also meet the second condition of representation. Canadians different groups’- interests. Canada’s electoral system and federalism both federalism and system electoral Canada’s interests. groups’- different constitution The interests. national of cost the at interests regional to cater representation. They representation. meet the first condition of representation with flying colours. Because they guide politicians’ quests for power, they behaviour in such politicians’ modify a way that amplifies different types of- and

change. British Columbians were off the mark by less than five. When the When five. than less by mark the off were Columbians British change. opportunity comes next, chances are that five percent may indeed change their minds. to cater to the public’s desires in regard to electoral reform. The hurdles for reform in British Columbia were, bluntly put, far too high: voters had to reach a minimum threshold of sixty percent support to enact electoral rather a small step in the broader, grander process towards change. The fact that reform received nigh on sixty percent of that voter in support order means to remain legitimate, the government will eventually have better represented their interests. better represented change in British Columbia for electoral reform is not truly a failure, but citizens were the ultimate deciders, and calmer periods, citizens still exercised a constrained form of control by attempting to the elite. During bolster the legitimacy and power of the level of government that they felt change their institutions. through structure federal the change not dared Quebecois Parti the that fact secession without clear support from population. Quebec’s control over their institutions through recursive validation. minority outcry, lobbying, and The fervent publications in defence of public various interests that followed Meech Lake demonstrates that citizens can and do over constitutional reform), but citizens nevertheless exercised agency to secure change. such such as women, for pressured Trudeau more recognition in the Charter is Trudeau Certainly, institutions. change to ability citizens’ of evidence also used this participation as a lever to bolster his (and legitimacy thus power could governments be successful. be governments could 30 Douville judge and attempt to change institutions. Citizens have lobbied, published 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 have neverthelesschangedtheirinstitutionsthroughrecursivevalidation. with elites who benefit from institutional structures, unsatisfied Canadians electoral system. While the power to change institutions ultimately resides the influence yet may and systems, Canada’sconstitutional in and federal on, and critiqued institutions to either cause or prevent institutional change Ibid.,109. Ibid.,126. Ibid.,121. Society inCanada 1921-1965,” ed.Douglas Williams, Alan Cairns,“TheElectoralSystem andthePartySysteminCanada, Benhabib, 37. Means ofConsumption George Ritzer, Legitimacy,” SeylaBenhabib,“DeliberativeRationalityandModelsof Democratic Ibid.,147. Sartori,32. (Peterborough: BroadviewPress,1999):70. Various Authors, ed.Milner, Henry, Sartori,54. Pitkin,224. Machiavelli,114. Sartori,xi. (Winter, 1994):17-19. Sheldon Wolin, “FugitiveDemocracy,” Machiavelli,60. New York UniversityPress,1994):143. GiovanniSartori, Pitkin,213. December 152010,page58. Bickers etal.,ProjectGutenberg, www.gutenberg.org, accessed NiccolòMachiavelli, Pitkin,145. Pitkin,117. California Press,1972):116. HannaPitkin, Constellations The ConceptofRepresentation Enchanting aDisenchantedWorld: Revolutionizingthe (Toronto: McClelland&Stewart,1984): 114. Comparative ConstitutionalEngineering The Prince (Newbury:PineForge Press,2004):55. Endnotes , Vol. 1,No.1(Winter, 1994):38. , trans. William Marriot,eds.John Constitution, Government,and Making EveryVote Count Constellations (London:Universityof , Vol 1. (New York:

No. 1 Douville 31 , Vol. Vol. , (Toronto: (Toronto: , Vol.41. No. 4 (Winter, No. 4 (Winter, Vol.41. , , Vol. 10, No. 4 (Winter, (Winter, 4 No. 10, Vol. , ,Vol. 42, No. 4 (Winter, 42, No. 4 (Winter, ,Vol. , Vol. 63, No. 3 (Winter, 1969): 63, No. 3 (Winter, Vol. , Constitution, Government, and Constitution, Government, Institute for Research on Public Policy on Public Institute for Research Canadian Politics and Government in the Charter Canadian Politics and Government Polarized Pluralism in the Canadian Party Pluralism in the Canadian Polarized (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1989): 146. (Toronto: Canadian Public Administration Canadian Public (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1991): 174. McClelland (Toronto: Constitution, Government, and Society in Canada Constitution, Government, and Society Disruptions: Constitutional Struggles from the Charter to Disruptions: Constitutional Struggles from Canadian Journal of Political Science Journal of Political Canadian Canadian Journal of Political Science Political of Journal Canadian 72. (Toronto: Thomson Nelson, 2006): 14. Thomson Nelson, 2006): (Toronto: Heather MacIvor, Heather MacIvor, Era Graham Allison, “Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis,” Models and the Cuban Missile Allison, “Conceptual Graham Hiebert, 28. Janet Hiebert, “Wrestling With Rights: Judges, Parliament, and the Rights: With Janet Hiebert, “Wrestling Making of Social Policy,” 5, No. 3 (Spring, 1999): 7-9. Ibid., 15. Ibid., 34. Activism and the Charter of Rights and “Bureaucratic James Kelly, Freedoms,” 1998): 485. 481. Kelly, ed. Douglas The Canadian Constitutional Experiment,” Cairns, Williams, McClelland & Stewart, 1989): 250. Ibid. Ibid., 162. Cairns, “Governments and Societies,” 150. Cairns, “Governments Ibid., 149. Ibid., 145. Canadian Federalism,” ed. Douglas Alan Cairns, “The Other Crisis of Williams, Meech Lake 159. Cairns, “Governments and Societies,” Ibid., 160. Ibid., 164. Ibid., 152. Review American Political Science The 711. Richard Johnston and Janet Ballantyne,” Geography and the Electoral and the Electoral Geography Ballantyne,” and Janet Johnston Richard System,” 1977): 854. “ Richard Johnston, System,” 2008): 826. of Canadian and Societies Cairns, “The Governments Alan Williams, Federalism,” ed. Douglas Society in Canada Ibid., 162, 165. Ibid., Ibid., 46 45 44 42 43 40 41 37 38 39 34 35 36 33 29 30 31 32 28 27 26 24 25 23 32 Douville 47 ---. “TheElectoralSystemand thePartySysteminCanada,1921-1965,”ed. ---. “CitizensandGovernmentsinConstitutionMaking,”ed. Douglas Cairns, Alan, “TheCanadianConstitutionalExperiment,”ed.Douglas Williams, Benhabib, Seyla,“DeliberativeRationalityandModelsof Democratic Allison, Graham,“ConceptualModelsandtheCubanMissileCrisis,” 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 PatrickFournieretal., Toronto: McClelland&Stewart,1989. Douglas Williams, Toronto: McClelland&Stewart,1991. Disruptions: ConstitutionalStruggles from theChartertoMeechLake McClelland &Stewart,1989. Constitution, Government,andSocietyinCanada Legitimacy,” American PoliticalScienceReview Cairns,“GovernmentsandSocieties,”157. Ornstein,759 Ibid.,253. Cairns,“ConstitutionalExperiment,”252. Fournier, 92-105and133. Ibid.,123. Ibid.,124. Charter toMeechLake Douglas Williams, Alan Cairns,“CitizensandGovernmentsinConstitutionMaking,”ed. Cairns,“ConstitutionalExperiment,”233. 759-765. Canadian JournalofPoliticalScience the QuebecReferendum: A CommentaryontheStateinCanada,” MichaelOrnsteinandH.Michael,“ElitePublicOpinionbefore Ibid.,237-243. Cairns,“ConstitutionalExperiment,”246. University Press,accessedDecember152010,page134. Assemblies onElectoralReform Constellations Disruptions: ConstitutionalStrugglesfrom the Constitution, Government,and SocietyinCanada (Toronto: McClelland&Stewart,1991):125. When CitizensDecide:Lessonsfrom Citizen’s Works Cited , Vol. 1,No.1(Winter, 1994). , manuscriptforOxford,Oxford , Vol. 63, , Vol. 14,No.4(Winter, 1981): No. 3(Winter, 1969). , Toronto: Williams, The , , Douville 33 , , , Toronto: Toronto: , , Vol. 5, No. 3 Vol. , Canadian Journal , Vol. 10, No. 4 (Winter, 1977). 10, No. 4 (Winter, Vol. , 2008). 41. No. 4 (Winter, Vol. , , London: University of California , Vol. 42, No. 4 (Winter, 1998). 42, No. 4 (Winter, Vol. , , manuscript for Oxford, Oxford , manuscript for Oxford, , trans. William Marriot, eds. John Bickers et Marriot, William , trans. , Vol. 14,No. 4 (Winter, 1981). 14,No. 4 (Winter, Vol. , Institute for Research on Public Policy Institute for Research When Citizens Decide: Lessons from Citizen’s Citizen’s Lessons from When Citizens Decide: The Prince , Newbury: Pine Forge Press, 2004. , Newbury: Pine Forge Polarized Pluralism in the Canadian Party System,” \ Polarized Pluralism in the Canadian Party Constitution, Government, and Society in Canada and Society Government, Constitution, Canadian Politics and Government in the Charter Era Canadian Politics and Government in the Enchanting a Disenchanted World: Revolutionizing the Means of Revolutionizing Enchanting a Disenchanted World: The Concept of Representation Toronto : Thomson Nelson, 2006. : Toronto Consumption Press, 1972. 2010. inCanada,” on the State Commentary A Referendum: of Political Science Canadian Public Administration Canadian Public accessed December 15 www.gutenberg.org, al., Project Gutenberg, (Spring, 1999). 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Williams, ed. Douglas Federalism,” Crisis of Canadian ---. “The Other ---. “The Governments and Societies of Canadian Federalism,” ed. Douglas ed. Douglas Federalism,” of Canadian Societies and Governments ---. “The 34 Douville Sartori, Giovanni, Young, Iris,“PolityandGroupDifference: A CritiqueofUniversalCitizenship” Wolin, Sheldon,“FugitiveDemocracy,” Various Authors, ed.Milner, Henry, London: OxfordUniversityPress,2003. Philosophy andDemocracy: An Anthology 1994). Broadview Press,1999. York UniversityPress,1994. Comparative ConstitutionalEngineering Making EveryVote Count Constellations ed. Thomas Christiano, , Vol 1.No.1(Winter, , New York: New , Peterborough: Foreword 35 de Émilie Horrocks-Denis D’Amour, P.Q. D’Amour, Jacques Godbout Jacques l’identité québécoise québécoise l’identité La Représentation de La Représentation dans 36 Horrocks-Denis être mis de l’avant par ce roman. ce par l’avant de mis être devrait Québécois des d’être l’enchantement de récit le anglais, Canada du et l’Académie de l’Église, de l’influence de Québécois des libération Canada. ainsi du Reste dissociant du se époque, cette à l’ampleur de pris ont qui séparatistes québécois, et/ou nationalistes mouvements aux s’associeront qu’ils et « un collectif comme québécois l’État percevront qu’ils suppose je d’éducation. manque de signe qu’un plutôt Québec, au français fait du d’affirmation 1960, et que leur usage du joual sera interprété par Godbout comme couramment le un joual, car il est apparu dans signe la province pendant les années religion la catholique. de progressif rejet leur manifestera D’Amour Thomas de et Mireille de religieuse l’identité de l’évolution que pose je société, catholique la sur clergé du l’emprise de détriment au l’État de l’expansion et modernisation la avec associée période Québec, au tranquille Révolution collectivisme parrapportàl’individualismeauQuébec. roman du protagonistes identité. leur de ambivalente et plurielle nature la que ainsi Québécois, des l’épanouissement célèbre québécoise. l’identité récit tragique soulignant la sensation de manque et de vide qui caractérise un est d’être l’empêchement de récit le Poirier, de terminologie la Selon l’empêchement de « le reflète québécoise l’identité de conception cette si déterminer D’Amour. Thomas et Mireille soit principaux, personnages deux ses de politique et linguistique religieuse, par véhiculée D’Amour, québécoise P.Q. l’identité de vision la est quelle découvrir de L’objetest travail. travail ce ce dans de québécoise identitaire question la société. d’une l’image question en remettre à aussi refléter, mais à seulement non représentations identitaires des personnages principaux d’un roman tendent T 2 l’identité individuelle et collective de l’être humain. l’être de collective et individuelle l’identité romanesque l’œuvre constitue un moyen cinématographique, puissant et efficace d’exprimer l’imaginaire et l’œuvre comme out tn dné u lhsor de l’histoire que donné Étant Par conséquent, le roman québécois servira d’outil d’analyse de d’analyse d’outil servira québécois roman le conséquent, Par d « de » 7 ’ur pr, e ri qe e du prongs parleront personnages deux ces que crois je part, D’autre 8 n e u a ri à ’dnié oiiu ds protagonistes, des politique l’identité à trait a qui ce En de Jacques Godbout, en examinant l’évolution de l’identité ’mniain t u rgè [u epe québécois] peuple [du progrès du et l’émancipation o d « de ou » 9 Bref, puisque la Révolution tranquille est liée à la à liée est tranquille Révolution la puisque Bref, 5 livre l rct e ’nhneet d’être l’enchantement de récit le l’inverse, À D’Amour,P.Q. 6 Enfin, l’étude du parcours identitaire des identitaire du parcours l’étude Enfin, ’nhneet d’être l’enchantement 10 3 De surcroît, à cause de l’orientation de cause à surcroît, De a aler, e atce hrhr à cherchera article cet ailleurs, Par ’mu, P.Q.D’Amour, visera à évaluer l’importance du l’importance évaluer à visera e iu drn la durant situe se ds Québécois. des » 1 De plus, les plus, De instrument récit » 4

Horrocks -Denis 37

21 Ce 15 Cette Enfin, 23 16 Ensuite, Ensuite, 12

11 Par ailleurs, l’identité 20 Son emploi du joual peut 13 En outre, quoique l’idéologie quoique outre, En 14 ». Somme toute, l’analyse du trajet 22 De plus, Thomas préfère initialement le 19 En somme, l’étude du personnage de Mireille révolutionnaire 17 Au départ, Godbout présente Thomas comme un 18 L’évolution identitaire de Mireille identitaire L’évolution Tel que prédit Tel par ma première hypothèse, la vision de l’identité Le parcours identitaire de Thomas D’Amour est plus complexe L’analyse de l’évolution identitaire de Mireille confirme la majorité la confirme Mireille de identitaire l’évolution de L’analyse québécoise des années 1960 et 1970 qui définie est notamment exprimée par par Mireille se une rupture avec le catholique. clergé Identité religieuse au récit de l’enchantement d’être des Québécois. au récit de l’enchantement d’être des du roman, elles finissent pas se perdre dans l’identité plurielle et collective et plurielle l’identité dans perdre se pas finissent elles roman, du québécoise qu’il épouse en définitive. d’être l’empêchement de récit du passage son révèle Thomas de identitaire langage de plus en plus populaire au fil du récit. politique de Thomas devient explicitement nationaliste à la début fin du au livre. relief en mises soient Thomas de idiosyncrasies les que bien Enfin, attachement à la religion catholique, ainsi que son respect pour celle-ci, sous l’influence de Mireille. langage soutenu ou courant au langage familier; toutefois, il adopte un polymorphe, c’est-à-dire qu’elle se transforme considérablement à mesure à considérablement transforme se qu’elle c’est-à-dire polymorphe, que le récit avance. être profondément religieux, mais ce dernier renie progressivement son que celui de Mireille, mais appuie tout de même les hypothèses ci-dessus. hypothèses les même de tout appuie mais Mireille, de celui que Contrairement à celle de Mireille, l’identité de Thomas est instable et révèle que son identité demeure relativement uniforme et constante tout de l’enchantement de récit le reflète identité cette que et roman du long au l’être des Québécois. au gouvernement québécois pendant la Révolution Mireille attribue tranquille. davantage d’importance à son identité collective son identité qu’à individuelle. donc être perçu comme « comme perçu être donc de Mireille soit favorables d’opinions prépondérance nationaliste, la de raison en surprenant est elle résultat est explicitement antiétatique. religion catholique en la parodiant fréquemment dans le roman. le dans fréquemment parodiant la en catholique religion soutenu, ou courant langage qu’un plutôt familier langage un favorise elle malgré le fait qu’elle soit éduquée et cultivée. de Thomas prévaudra sur leur identité individuelle. leur identité sur prévaudra Thomas de de ces hypothèses. Tout d’abord, Mireille manifeste son mépris pour la collectiviste des Québécois, je pose que l’identité collective de Mireille et Mireille de collective l’identité que pose je Québécois, des collectiviste 38 Horrocks-Denis rupture est révélée lorsque ce personnage parodie l’enseignement moral et d’un nationalisme ethno-religieux à un nationalisme civique, ce dernier ce civique, nationalisme un à ethno-religieux nationalisme d’un transition leur avec Québécois des religieuse l’identité de transformation foi. àla la à rapport francophones leur lesQuébécois de sur révision catholique clergé du l’influence social. desa faveur en déconfessionnalisation québécois et de del’État son intervention grandissante dans rôle le du domaine redéfinition la par refus ce l’Église. de dedemeurer l’emprise tranquille sous de laRévolution des Québécois refus le reflète catholique religion la à et morale la à Mireille de l’opposition haut, plus religion. la de sacré caractère le conteste personnage […] Crème Saint mineur le s’écrie Mireille corrige, qu’elle Thomas de liturgique quasi l’œuvre par outrée exemple, « situe se qui du québécois, abondant emploi sacre son par catholique religion la de rejet son articule Mireille outre, En religion. la de l’étude par que plutôt sexuel, l’acte de interlocuteur son invitant en « découvrir Québécois à des sexuelle l’ouverture à et semble rejeter les limites imposées par la religion catholique à la libération « phrase la de typographie dudiscours la par accentué est Seyfrid, selon qui, religieux inaltérable et inflexible l’aspect particulièrement dénonce femme Cette reçue. a qu’elle catholique l’éducation de moque se qu’elle démontre Mireille, de dialogique monologue un comprenant passage, Ce religieux : Parcquelecielétaitfermédepuislepéchéd’Adam MOI !» l’Auteur ostidtexte catéchisme ton bien connais Tu Mireille. petite ma bravo bien Hé […] bénissons maintenant Parcequelecielétaitfermédepuislepéchéd’Adam. Tous ensemble Sauveur du venue la enfers, les dans attendaient, justes des « 30

Justement, dites-moi, ma petite Mireille, pourquoi les âmes les pourquoi Mireille, petite ma dites-moi, Justement, ’ur pr, e atus trbet a iiuin rdel de graduelle diminution la attribuent auteurs ces part, D’autre Sit ihl e Saints des Michel Saint ! 24 le Paradis perdu Paradis le

: « : Nu vu aoos Ô hit e nu vous nous et Christ, Ô adorons, vous Nous : ! Wouo » 27 et ecaain ase osetnr qe le que sous-entendre laisse exclamation Cette ! T’as rien compris. Le Paradis perdu, c’est perdu, ! Paradis Le compris. rien T’as ! Ya! limites des Cet eà ui am atpne, ton penser, fait me ça quoi à ce C’est ! 29 ’n pr, elva e Biy expliquent Boily et Belliveau part, D’une » ou à atteindre l’extase par l’entremise par l’extase atteindre à ou » nr l jrn t e blasphème le et juron le entre 31 e ucot Mnesh asce la associe Mendelsohn surcroît, De Sit hlpe d’Abotsford Philippe Saint ! ! Saint Siméon Saint ! ». 25 28 e ls Mireille plus, De Tel mentionné que ! Saint Jacques Saint ! ». ? 26 Par ! Horrocks -Denis 39 » Les 41 un acte acte un D’autres 37 » français contre révolutionnaire Enfin, l’évolution 32 Les adeptes de la théorie la de adeptes Les 39 » anglophones du pays… colonisés ». Néanmoins, Mireille n’attribue 42 ». Le joual constituerait donc « donc constituerait joual Le 38 colonisateurs Ceci confirme ma deuxièmehypothèse. Hobbs explique que, paradoxalement, en

36 40 35 », afin de se protéger contre l’anglicisation. Puisque Mireille appréhende la religion catholique » anglais. 33 ; ainsi, elle représente la réalité linguistique de la société la de linguistique réalité la représente elle ainsi, ; Ceci explique possiblement pourquoi ce personnage 34 est enrichi par les québécismes et nuancé d’une espèce de Mireille adopte le joual comme langage de prédilection et célèbre le célèbre et prédilection de langage comme joual le adopte Mireille colonisateurs le poison de l’anglais comme les antagonistes principaux des Québécois français. Tout de même, de Tout français. Québécois des principaux antagonistes les comme je pose que le parler populaire de ce personnage est « révolter contre l’autorité des « En fait, au cours du récit, elle ne représente jamais les Canadiens anglais personnage « révolte par son usage des anglicismes pas explicitement son assimilation de mots anglais à son intention de se « conception cette appuient Mireille de langage du analyse mon de résultats positive du joual québécois. En effet, Coates croit que le langage de ce les « anglais lexique du relevant phrases des et locutions des mots, des intégrant sorte quelque en absorbent francophones Québécois les vocabulaire, leur à les Canadiens et les Américains anglophones Américains les et Canadiens les de la décolonisation partagent cet avis, affirmant que le joual représente un outil de provocation et de résistance des « le joual ne comprend pas de constructions syntaxiques incorrectes, même anglicismes. plusieurs comporte s’il conscient de révolte contre une domination culturelle et existentielle par Certains membres de culture. de l’élite et d’éducation manque d’un découle joual intellectuelle du l’usage du Québec prétendent que rejettent cette vision du parler populaire des Québécois francophones, car pays au français fait québécoise des années 1960. d’oppression des Québécois. Identité linguistique québécoise en partie au clergé catholique, majoritairement francophone, de la province. source comme Québec du anglophone l’élite explicitement pas n’identifie l’Église catholique. comme une institution freinant l’affranchissement individuel et collectif nation la de dominance la impute qu’elle déduire peut l’on Québécois, des de l’identité religieuse de Mireille évoque d’être des le Québécois, car récit elle présente de positivement la l’enchantement libération de personnage, ce qui symbolise la société québécoise, de l’ordre établi par étant étant plus propice à leur émancipation collective. 40 Horrocks-Denis pour lesraisonsprésentéesci-dessous. ubci depoe u lnae ouar, tn dné u l langue la que donné étant populaire, langage un d’employer québécois qu’il n’est pas malade Mireille a coécrit avec Thomas, elle refuse de « « un comme joual du conception leur notamment répudie Elle québécois. les préjugés de l’élite intellectuelle francophone envers le parler populaire conteste personnage ce plus, familier.De registre du savoureux et vivant exaspère Mireille; alors, elle préconise l’adoption du lexique coloré, naturel, […] de la gorge un mot juteux, […] un mot de rue, un mot bon, pas un bon mot envie de « Thomas et des académiciens en général. « écrits ses dans obscures culturelles et littéraires références de inclusion anti-intellectualisme. son de plutôt queparignorance. parle! qui guenon volé aurions nous et oiseaux les choisir pu aurions langue nous d’éternité, goutte une de registre du aisément languesoutenu de registre familier au passe Mireille que démontre suivant personnage Thomas. de roman ce du rédaction la à participer à l’amène de littéraire l’imagination et linguistiques « compétences un comme Thomas de manuscrit du « un en brio. avec mots des manipuler à aptitude son manifeste secrétaire la de parler le C’est-à-dire, du français par Mireille transparaît au travers de sa créativité linguistique. à corriger des fautes d’orthographe dans les textes de Thomas. orthographiques et grammaticales du français, car elle réussit à identifier et Nerval. de poème un à allusion une « exemple, par perçoit, Elle littéraire. culture sa de témoigne D’Amour Thomas de l’ouvrage dans apparaissant en et lettres sciences. en diplôme un obtenu a puisqu’elle instruction, mauvaise problème de langage pour faire cultivé ». ! Mais non Mais ! 53 Le caractère terne, rigide, ennuyeux et artificiel du registre soutenu Par ailleurs, Mireille favorise l’usage du langage familier en raison d’une pas résulte ne Mireille par joual du l’emploi Toutd’abord, piano à lettres à piano 43 a aaié e iele e eée ls ééecs textuelles références les repérer de Mireille de capacité La crucifier l’imparfait du subjonctif ! On s’est fourré s’est On ! » » 49 46 51 Bref, ce personnage parle le joual par préférence, par joual le parle personnage ce Bref, a eepe el tasom l mcie écrire à machine la transforme elle exemple, Par . Elle dénonce aussi le puritanisme et le snobisme de ». ». 54 » et elle définie le produit de sa dactylographie sa de produit le définie elle et » 55 Lors d’un entretien à la radio à propos du livre que Au contraire, elle revendique le droit du peuple 50 a tndcyo erce Toa son Thomas à reproche sténodactylo La ! Epis c’est pour ça que t’es rienk’une t’es que ça pour c’est Epis ! 44 De plus, Mireille connaît les règles les connaît Mireille plus, De : « : 52 e rne e ténèbres des prince le Leur langage soutenu lui donne Nous sommes la salive de Dieu, de salive la sommes Nous tapuscrit » et de leur « soigner son langage ». 47 ’ur pr, les part, D’autre 48 Enfin, l’extrait Enfin, fourrer au fond 45 La maîtrise comme » » « vu Horrocks -Denis 41

58 62 ! La », soutenant » que les Québécois Québécois les que » Bon j’ai mon voyage Le besoin des Québécois de 60 En outre, Taylor pose que le : « 61 Paradoxe de Tocqueville En d’autres mots, Mireille subordonne le

56

57 nationale naturelle richesse une

63 Par exemple, l’indignation de la secrétaire, en raison de 64 Selon Dion, la langue est devenue le seul élément distinguant Les résultats de mon analyse de l’identité politique de Mireille

L’analyse L’analyse de l’évolution identitaire de Mireille au niveau 59 l’exploitation du peuple québécois par l’élite intellectuelle et économique de la province, révèle son égalitarisme indiquent qu’elle embrasse une idéologie égalitariste et nationaliste à la fin du roman. Identité politique liés. Mireille représente cette corrélation, étant donné qu’elle revendique le droit des Québécois de préserver la langue française idées nationalistes. et défend leurs est fondamentale à leur capacité individuelle et collective d’expression, de d’expression, collective et individuelle capacité leur à fondamentale est réalisation et de reconnaissance, justifierait leur idéologienationaliste. Ainsi, la langue française et le nationalisme québécois sont intimement que le rapprochement des cultures, causé par l’avènement de la modernité, la de l’avènement par causé cultures, des rapprochement le que résulterait en la hausse du nationalisme. désir des Québécois de protéger et de promouvoir la langue française, qui se différencier des membres du Reste du Canada en affirmant leur caractère leur affirmant en Canada du Reste du membres des différencier se situation Cette nationalistes. sentiments leurs alimenté donc a francophone se conforme aux prédictions du « et 1970. les Québécois français des Canadiens culturelle qui s’est produite à cette époque. anglais depuis la convergence La langue française est devenue le pôle principal de l’identité individuelle l’identité de principal pôle le devenue est française langue La et collective des Québécois suite à l’affaiblissement de leur croyance en et/ou de leur pratique de la religion catholique pendant les années 1960 linguistique nous permet d’appréhender l’importance qu’a acquise la langue la acquise qu’a l’importance d’appréhender permet nous linguistique des consolidation la à et québécoise l’identité de définition la à rapport par tranquille. Révolution la de lors séparatistes et nationalistes mouvements visant la liberté linguistique des Québécois, Godbout évoque le récit de d’être. leur enchantement confirme ma supposition que ce personnage, agissantcomme de la le miroir société québécoise, serait davantage collectiviste qu’individualiste. Enfin, en décrivant le joual de Mireille comme un puissantacte expressif peuvent peuvent exploiter à leur guise. droit individuel des décideurs québécois de choisir un langage soutenu au droit collectif des citoyens d’opter plutôt pour un langage populaire. Ceci française représente « représente française 42 Horrocks-Denis complicité des élites sur le dos du prolétariat le at rue ’n oinain utrle aatg collectiviste davantage culturelle orientation d’une preuve fait elle de Québécois des l’autorité religieuse, collectif linguistique et politique de la province. et individuel l’affranchissement à accorde l’enchantement de l’être des Québécois, en raison de l’importance qu’elle Québécois formentunesociété distincteauseinduCanada. les que démontrer de désir leur de et valeurs de ensemble leur de raison en Canada, du Reste du membres les que progressives et égalitaires plus politiques des soutenir à tendance ont québécois nationalistes les à-dire, et la social-démocratie au Québec, proposé par Béland et Lecours. nationalisme le l’identité, entre causalité de lien le appuie personnage ce Québécois. Enfin, l’aspect progressif et égalitaire de l’identité politique de encore la validité de mon hypothèse concernant l’orientation culturelle des la nation québécoise. de identitaire conception la positivement renouveler à tend puisqu’il unicité. son Bref, et le discours égalitaire de liberté Mireille rappelle du récit sa de l’enchantement, limiterait qui politique étiquette toute elle rejette marxiste, servitude. paraître puisse la Mireille dans de politique maintiennent l’idéologie Quoique les qui identitaires problèmes leurs « anglaise les donc « Québécois invite Elle émancipation. leur inhibe et culture leur appauvrit province la de politique et économique religieuse, l’autorité à Québécois des l’assujettissement que sous-entendre laisse elle part, D’autre valeur. sa pas détermine ne personne d’une l’emploi car professionnels, secteurs oké secrétaire, qu’une important plus pas c’est écrivain, Un […] ensemble tous overaller faire duQuébec citoyen aux collective l’identité dereconstruire responsabilité la confie du peuple. l’émancipation de principal véhicule le était comme dernier perçu ce généralement où époque une à déroule se récit le puisque québécois, de personnages les que hypothèse mon contredire semble Ceci langue. leur soit quelque province, la de décideurs aux plutôt mais anglais, Canadiens ce personnage n’attribue pas l’oppression de la population québécoise aux Ecrivains ’mu, P.Q. D’Amour, 66 En somme, le parcours identitaire de Mireille reflète le récit de le de récit le reflète Mireille de identitaire parcours le somme, En Au contraire, pendant une émission littéraire à la radio, Mireille radio, la à littéraire émission une pendant contraire, Au ! Capitalistes to get an overhaul an get to s à se faire overaller faire se à « : 70 evlt terminée Servilité uaet n cneto pstv d gouvernement du positive conception une auraient En outre, ce discours est aussi collectiviste, démontrant ? ! Tous des exploiteurs » 67 D’une part, elle critique la hiérarchisation des hiérarchisation la critique elle part, D’une »), c’est-à-dire d’examiner et de résoudre de et d’examiner c’est-à-dire »), » (traduction incorrecte de l’expression de incorrecte (traduction » O se v à choppe à va s’en On ! ! Ostid bourgeoisie de lettres ! » 65 Cette citation prouve que 72 73

Par ailleurs, Pu se Pour ! 71 C’est- 69 68 !

Horrocks -Denis 43

» 80 83 Zappe Comme En voici 77 En fin de 76 ». 79 À l’opposé de 75 L’embarras qu’éprouve 78 ». Thomas emploie donc un terme du 81 Puisque que l’adhérence de Thomas » 82 », et le manie de manière à démontrer qu’il démontrer à manière de manie le et », L’Histoire L’Histoire sainte hostie au petit catéchisme, j’ai entrepris une collection d’hosties collection une entrepris j’ai catéchisme, petit au [c]eux qui se repentiraient auraient le pardon de Dieu, et le : « : L’évolution identitaire de Thomas D’Amour de identitaire L’évolution 74 : « Le parcours de l’identité religieuse de Thomas D’Amour appuie L’évolution L’évolution de l’identité linguistique de Thomas confirme ma Identité linguistique l’empêchement d’être au récit de l’enchantement d’être des Québécois. l’empêchement d’être au récit de l’enchantement se moque maintenant du sacré. aux préceptes de récit du de passage un comme religieux l’Église identitaire parcours son j’interprète compromettait son émancipation sexuelle, variées que je gardais dans un vieil album de philatélie, osties osties foquées toastées osties dchin […] « soit religieux, lexique ainsi le trajet identitaire de plusieurs Québécois des années 1960 et 1970. et 1960 années des Québécois plusieurs de identitaire trajet le ainsi rejet son évident rend Thomas de vocabulaire le dans sacre du L’apparition religion la de Thomas lorsque Mireille se moque de sa croyance suite à cette révélation le mène à modifier progressivementsuivant son catholique, religion la identitéen foi sa religieuse. à renoncer semble Thomas compte, Par exemple, il est gêné d’avouer à son amoureuse que, s’il était condamné était s’il que, amoureuse son à d’avouer gêné est il exemple, Par livres, deux que apporter n’y pouvait qu’il et tropicale île une sur s’isoler à son premier choix serait « l’on décèle à la lecture de ce passage, exaspère Mireille, en raison de son opposition à l’influence du clergé catholique entre dansle degré de religiosité de Thomas Mireille contrarie et ce de dernier. la province. L’écart un extrait jardin délicieux serait distribué comme dragées au baptême je l’ai signalé plus tôt, l’aspect quasi liturgique du roman que de l’auteur, de ses écrits, particulièrement au travers de son roman intitulé « qui comporte six chants à caractère religieux, explorant, entre autres, la relation entre l’être humain et Dieu et la condition de l’âme. sociale des Québécois pendant la Révolution tranquille. Mireille, la religion occupe une place importante dans la vie de Thomas au début du roman. La foi catholique de Thomas transparaît au travers ma supposition première que l’attachement de ce personnage à la religion catholique diminuerait au cours du récit, traduisant ainsi une réalité québécoise. Identité religieuse qu’individualiste, embrassant et représentant les valeurs de la communauté communauté la de valeurs les représentant et embrassant qu’individualiste, 44 Horrocks-Denis exèe yohs, ot ui aotri porsieet e joual, le progressivement adopterait qu’il soit hypothèse, deuxième e agiims t e sce, as us ds ex e os cme le comme mots, de jeux démontre cedialogue entre Thomas etMireille: des aussi mais sacres, des et anglicismes des son Le nouveau mode ded’expression de ce personnage incorpore non futilitéseulement la de conscient éducation formelle aussi devient Il secrétaire. simple une comme considérait qu’il Mireille, de égalitariste l’idéologie et caractère que jme suis fait chier pour rien Ostie D’Amour, Thomas pense classique, cours son faire de peine la pas la participation, la démocratie, le comité des secrétaires citoyennes, c’était laisse amoureux son sur Mireille suivante qu’exerce l’influence deviner citation La québécois. peuple d’épouser du afin valeurs sublime, les et et parler littéraire le langage son délaisser à peu à peu québécoise. collectivité la de membre et qu’individu tant en s’épanouir de l’empêche qui détresse de et d’anxiété Mireille interprète l’ambivalence identitaire de Thomas comme une source promener toute ta crisse de vie le corps dans un sens, la tête dans coup l’autre d’Europe à l’université grand le culture ta avec fendant t’es que calvaire, secrétaire sa de colère la suscite d’origine province sa à étrangères pureté d’une et culture d’une inspiré discours Son œuvres. ses dans référence fait il auxquelles européennes, culture la et littérature sourit la Il l’attend. qui regarde longuement, il nue, la désire, toute mais aussi française, il regarde littérature son jardin québécois, la que […] loin, au a, suivant l’extrait dans apparent est déchirement Ce québécoise. « étant comme conçoit qu’il France, la de culturelles et linguistiques normes aux comparativement àceluideMireille. artificiel, voire ridicule. De plus, ce langage manque d’éclat et d’originalité soumis céder pas ne jamais à de voir nous de rêvaient qui archanges raison des mielleux arguments aux avions nous que prouver pour pièces toutes de roman son de version première la registre soutenu, particulièrement à l’écrit. Voici une phrase comprise dans tranquille. Révolution la pendant reflétant ainsi l’importance grandissante de ce parler populaire au Québec » supérieures ». 87 Par ailleurs, Thomas est déchiré entre son désir de se conformer se de désir son entre déchiré est Thomas ailleurs, Par u éu d rct lérvi sml dvnae tié a la par attiré davantage semble l’écrivain récit, du début Au . 85 Le style lyrique et recherché du langage de d’auteur le rend le d’auteur de langage du recherché et lyrique style Le ; alors, il utilise le joual pour exprimer son indignation. » à celles du Québec, et celui de s’intégrer à la société la à s’intégrer de celui et Québec, du celles à » ? C’est un maudit torticolis ça. Mais vas-tu te ! 84 » Au début du récit, Thomas emploie le emploie Thomas récit, du début Au : « : 90 Thomas est abasourdi par la force de 86 [il] nous faudra créer [des enfants] [des créer faudra nous [il] 89 Par conséquent, elle l’amènera elle conséquent, Par ! […] T’as attrapé un attrapé T’as […] ! : « : : « : Sacrament de Sacrament la cogestion, la : « : il n’y il ? » 88

Horrocks -Denis 45

la 101 ? Il dénonce 94 La découverte Ce personnage 92 98 Par conséquent, ».

95 97 Cette vision utilitaire Ce personnage adopte 99 96 91 Ce personnage comprend finalement que 93 », rappelant le refus de l’Académie française ». Spécifiquement, il revendique comme Mireille, le », l’auteur parvient à manipuler les mots et les sonorités l’impérialisme de la langue française dont la force centrifuge force la dont française langue la de l’impérialisme muse Selon cette Taylor, politique n’affirme pas le fait que la langue Les résultats de mon analyse de l’identité politique de Thomas Par contre, bien que Thomas loue la liberté linguistique, il s’oppose il linguistique, liberté la loue Thomas que bien contre, Par Comment Comment tu veux que je pense, si t’arrêtes pas de parler 100 ! la Merveille Mireille chutu da Muse ? l’Auteur, - Heille, bien gros. » oui, m’amuse - M’amuse, « qu’écrire, c’est aimer. C’est aimer un langage […] D’Amour appuient mes trois hypothèses quant à l’orientation culturelle, Identité politique Puisque Thomas semble nier le droit des Québécois de parler l’anglais et linguistique liberté la de l’étendue soutenu, registre du l’usage stigmatiser qu’il prône est suspecte. de communiquer avec les institutions fédérales dans choix. la langue de son française forme la base de l’identité et du nationalisme des Québécois. assumant plutôt une valeur purement utilitaire. du langage évoque celle de Trudeau, qui bilinguisme officiel au a Canada afin d’assurer implanté le droit de chaque une individu politique de au bilinguisme, particulièrement à la littérature bilingue. prétend que la langue perd sa valeur intrinsèque dans un univers bilingue, confirmant ainsi l’une de mes hypothèses reflétant roman, du fin la à stable et saine plus devient linguistique identité de recherche. En outre, son des Québécois. ainsi le récit de l’enchantement d’être liberté de langage droit collectif des Québécois de parler le joual. donc une orientation culturelle collectiviste, plutôt qu’individualiste, casse les particularismes de reconnaître la juste Thomas valeur rejette du la joual québécois. rigidité linguistique, célébrant à l’inverse la « ses problèmes identitaires liés à la langue française provenaient de assimilation son du puritanisme propre au milieu universitaire. « autres entre « de Thomas du bonheur d’écrire et de jouer avec les mots contribue à son épanouissement personnel. Grâce à « pour leur donner un sens nouveau et humoristique. Il réalise ainsi 46 Horrocks-Denis l’idéologie politique et l’image globale de la société québécoise qui sont qui québécoise société la de globale l’image et politique l’idéologie et Mireille : de Thomas transparaît au travers du dialogue suivant entre Tarzan/Thomas positive. manière de contradictoires parfois et multiples identités leurs perçoivent derniers ces lequel selon Québécois, des d’être l’enchantement de récit le reflète il Alors, bilingue. héritage son de issue identitaire ambivalence fonne le ça trouve je moi Kebek, Le zouave. le bommer, camper, jumper, faire de de de de fini « d’origine: province sa dans enracinée donc Mance Jeanne de et Durham Lord de « devient Tarzan, dernier ce lequel dans Thomas, de roman du finale Québécois. des l’être de partie dernière collectivisme. au liée est qui liberté la de positive conception la de dangers des l’un est individuel. caractère son Selon Seyfrid, la démultiplication de l’identité de Thomas nie son unité et […] échange un suis je prix, un suis je cri, un suis je […], carottes « question la à répond lorsqu’il aussi apparaît personnage du culturelle orientation québécoise. société la de l’identité emprunte personnage « mots les entre l’équivalence Thomas de collectivisme le évidente manière de révèle l’épilogue L’épigraphede Québécois. des l’être de l’enchantement de récit le sorte la de rappelant roman, du fin la à positive manière de dépression, et d’anxiété forme une assume son ambivalence identitaire, qui était initialement présentée comme plus collectiviste à mesure que le récit progresse. Spécifiquement, Thomas en plus de devient il québécoise, collectivité la de l’état de peu préoccupe véhiculés par enseignait àl’école, avaitcomplètement oublié[…] la nous qu’on celle […], l’Histoire, que peuple petit le […] neige d’aimer pays, ce d’habiter décidé a qui peuple petit ce de […] gagner de d’exister,jouer, de décidé « ot n ei pul qi ae u u blo, ac q’l a qu’il parce ballon, un sur tape qui peuple petit un Tout n exèe iu l dsor d Toa DAor as la dans D’Amour Thomas de discours le lieu, deuxième En 111 : « : La pertinence de ce récit pour comprendre l’identité politique l’identité comprendre pour récit ce de pertinence La qui suis-je qui en réalité, je me parle à Toulmonde à parle me je réalité, en D’Amour, P.Q. 107

’mu, P.Q.D’Amour, 108 ? ». Pendant cet « cet Pendant » de la manière suivante manière la de » 110 106 Ce personnage célèbre sa québécitude et son et québécitude sa célèbre personnage Ce Cela démontre que la perte de l’individualité de perte la que démontre Cela 102 En premier lieu, quoique ce personnage se me vqe e éi d lecatmn de l’enchantement de récit le évoque » et « et » Act ». 109 Toulmonde », Mireille compose la version la compose Mireille », L’identité de Thomas devient Thomas L’identitéde c’est ici que je m’arrête, j’ai m’arrête, je que ici c’est ; nous, on fait partie fait on nous, ; : « : ». Cette citation établit citation Cette ». je suis un bouquet de bouquet un suis je », indiquant que ce que indiquant », 104 La nouvelle La ». fils 105 103

Horrocks -Denis 47 ? a décidé de décidé a , 126- » qui « qui » ». C’est-à-dire, les : RÉ-VO-LU- : Au début du récit, 117 D’Amour, P.Q. D’Amour,

116 un petit peuple petit un À première vue, l’intégration de ce (Godbout, 114 112 » », Thomas traduit le dynamisme du discours Par contre, il se libère progressivement de ses enfanté m’avez vous que est-ce pourquoi : 118 » que forment les Québécois et à leur amour pour la à la fois nostalgique et moderniste Par contre, ce nationalisme est aussi moderne, puisqu’il 115 L’évolution identitaire de Thomas L’évolution se distingue donc par son Bien que le message politique de ce personnage soit un appel un soit personnage ce de politique message le que Bien 119 113 Somme toute, le trajet identitaire de Thomas D’Amour est plus petit peuple On lui répondra, d’abord par amour et ensuite pour nous aider à faire cet ostie de Pays. 127) TION-RÉVOLUTION. TION-RÉVOLUTION. - Le nôtre chantera pareil, et puis il ira à l’université, et quand demandera nous il chanter à mis sont se enfants [l]es […], Tarzan, - des Québécois, ainsi que l’individualisme au collectivisme. tranquille. passage de l’histoire de l’empêchement à celle de l’enchantement d’être collectivité québécoise. contraintes et Révolution la adopte de lors finalement Québécois des une majorité la de identité celle reflète religieuse,qui politique linguistique et multiples et polymorphes l’émancipation de Thomas est au entravée par son dévouement à la religion fil ducatholique, son emploi roman. d’une langue soutenue et son éloignement de la politiques plus progressives et égalitaires. complexe que celui de Mireille, à cause de son adoption d’identités la convergence culturelle qui s’est produite au Canada entre les années 1960 et 1970. tend à obtenir plus de pouvoirs pour le Québec, dans le but d’adopter des québécois est « nationalistes québécois ont tendance à recourir aux mythes fondateurs de la province, afin de prouver le caractère distinct de leur province, malgré fondée la théorie de la résistance. Thomas/ duo du révolutionnaire discours au obsolète et stéréotypé lexique Mireille semble étrange. Par contre, Dion explique que le nationalisme à la modernité, il comporte aussi des références au passé. Les allusions au « neige, notamment, rappellent l’idéologie de la survivance sur laquelle est des nationalistes Québécois, ainsi que leur enthousiasme par rapport au progrès et à la modernisation de tranquille. leur province pendant la Révolution En dépeignant les Québécois comme « comme Québécois les dépeignant En jouer, d’exister, de gagner 48 Horrocks-Denis 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 du Québec,évoquelerécitdel’enchantementl’êtredesQuébécois. discours de Mireille collectivistes. et de Thomas, célébrant la renaissance et la sont libération Thomas et Mireille mouvement époque, cette au de s’attacher par et catholique nationaliste. héritage leur rejeter par « notamment familier, langage un favoriser tranquille. Révolution la de Québécois des comportement le et idées les valeurs, les vers progressivement convergent elles l’histoire, de début au divergent ma recherche démontrent que, quoique les identités de Mireille et Thomas personnages principaux, soit deux Mireille et ses Thomas de D’Amour. politique Les et résultats de linguistique religieuse, l’identité de l’évolution l’identité québécoise de vision la est quelle déterminer de était travail ce de but Le recherche. de travail ce dans l’identité Québécois de des collective et et individuelle l’imaginaire de d’analyse instrument comme roman le société. d’une enjeux les et aspirations Nouveau-Brunswick (1960-1967),»Recherches sociographiques46, tranquilles ? Transformations politiques etsocialesauQuébec 2010) ;JoelBelliveau etFrédéricBoily, «Deuxrévolutions BelandLecoursNationsandNationalism2006.pdf (accédéle5janvier, Nationalism 12,no.1(2006) : 81,http://www.danielbeland.org/pubs/ welfare state:QuébecandCanadian Federalism,»Nationsand DanielBélandet André Lecours,«Sub-state nationalismandthe Idem.,11, 18,32,34,37. Idem.,11, 18,32-35,37. Poirier, «Lecinémaquébécoisetlaquestionidentitaire,»12. Seuil, 1972). JacquesGodbout,D’Amour, P.Q. (Paris:HurtubiseHMH/Éditionsdu Idem. revue/rs/2004/v45/n1/009233ar.pdf (accédéle5janvier, 2010). Recherches sociographies45,no.1(2004):12,http://www.erudit.org/ confrontation entrelesrécitsdel’empêchementetl’enchantement, » ChristianPoirier, «Lecinémaquébécoiset laquestionidentitaire.La les intérêts, les généralement révèle romanesque L’œuvre 122 véhiculée par 123 Spécifiquement, ces personnages finissent tous les deux par deux les tous finissent personnages ces Spécifiquement, Puisqu’ils épousent l’identité de la communauté québécoise D’Amour, P.Q. Conclusion Endnotes de Jacques Godbout, en explorant 120 ’s puqo ja employé j’ai pourquoi C’est e oa révolutionnaire joual le 124 n ur, le outre, En 125 121 »,

Horrocks -Denis 49 monde, » 552, 556-559. Deux révolutions tranquilles ? » 14-16, 30 ; ex. « Belliveau et Boily, iderudit/201263ar (accédé le 2 avril, 2010). 125-141. P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, et vision carnavalesque du Seyfrid, « Polyphonie, plurilinguisme monde, » 551, 557. Idem., 556. Thomas par exemple, le langage à caractère religieux de Comparer, 23-28, à son langage profane dans P.Q., dans Godbout, D’Amour, 109-110. P.Q.,81, Godbout, D’Amour, Godbout, Thomas dans par exemple, le langage soutenu de Comparer, langage familier dans Godbout, D’Amour, 23-25, à son P.Q., D’Amour, Seyfrid, « Polyphonie, plurilinguisme et Brigitte Voir ; 114 P.Q.,81, de Jacques God P.Q. vision carnavalesque du monde dans D’amour, et Images 21, no. 3 (1993) : 549, http://id.erudit.org/ Voix bout, » Politics 13, no. 2 (2007): 202, http://dx.doiorg/10.1080/1353711070012 17-18. 2010); Belliveau et Boily, 93070 (accédé le 5 janvier, et vision carnava lesque du Seyfrid, « Polyphonie, plurilinguisme Charles Taylor, « Shared and Divergent Values, » dans Options for a Values, and Divergent « Shared Taylor, Charles of : University Brown (Toronto et D. Watts New Canada, éd. R. Press, 1991) : 61, 66-67, 71. Toronto 43. 29-30, 32, 35, P.Q., Ex. Godbout, D’Amour, québécoise, » 76-79 ; ex. Coates, « Le Joual comme revendication 29-32, 151. P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, québécoise, » 76. Coates, « Le Joual comme revendication 155-157, 127-141. P.Q., par exemple, Godbout, D’Amour, Examiner, : Institutional Anderson, « Federalism and Secessionism Lawrence » Nationalism and Ethnic Influences on Nationalist Politics in Québec, de Léon Dion, éd. R. Hudon et R. Pelletier (Québec : Presses de Hudon et R. Pelletier (Québec : Presses de Léon Dion, éd. R. 1991) : 296-303. l’Université Laval, comme revendication québécoise, » 77. Coates, « Le Joual le 5 janvier, 2010). le 5 janvier, : québécoise comme revendication Coates, « Le Joual Carrol F. 1 Review 52, no. The French » Jacques Godbout, de P.Q. D’Amour, 2 (accédé le : 73-79, http://www.jstor.org/stable/389525 (octobre 1978) avril, 2010). 78, the welfare state, » nationalism and Lecours, « Sub-state Béland et « Deux révolutions et Boily, tirées de Belliveau 92 ; citations la Stéphane Dion, « Le nationalisme dans tranquilles ? » 17-19; contemporain et le paradoxe de culturelle : le Québec convergence en l’honneur intellectuel : mélanges » dans L’engagement Tocqueville, no. 1 (2005) : 14-18 http://www.id.erudit.org/iderudit/012088ar (accédé (accédé http://www.id.erudit.org/iderudit/012088ar (2005) : 14-18 no. 1 23 21 22

20 18 19 17 15 16 13 14 11 12 10

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45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 Godbout, D’Amour, P.Q., 29-30,32,35,43. Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 15,25. Idem.;Coates, «LeJoualcommerevendication québécoise,»76. Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 25. Idem. Hobbs,«Del’oppositionàl’ambivalence, »102. janvier, 2010). start.do?prodId=EAIM&userGroupName=crepuq_mcgill (accédéle5 Studies 35(printemps,été2003) :102,http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/ théorie postcolonialeetl’écrituredelarésistanceauQuébec, »Québec Idem.,78;SandraHobbs,«Del’oppositionàl’ambivalence :la Idem. Idem.,74. Idem.,79. Coates,«LeJoualcommerevendicationquébécoise,»73-74. Godbout, D’Amour, P.Q., 155. Québécois parl’éliteéconomiqueetintellectuelledelaprovince dans Voir, parexemple,l’exposédeMireillesurl’exploitationdes ntID=3730497827051 (accédéle5janvier, 2010). lc3257302610011.tp3730497750051//RelativeResourceManager?conte 2004) :917-918,https://mycourses.mcgill.ca:443/webct/urw/ Science /Revuecanadiennedesciencepolitique37,no.4(décembre in IrishandQuebecNationalism,»CanadianJournalofPolitical ans (1756-1763). Voir GarthStevenson,« The Politics of Remembrance Québécois francophonesàl’élitebritanniquesuitelaGuerredesept clergé catholiqueétaitenpartieresponsabledel’assujettissementdes Stevensonsemblepartagerl’opiniondeMireille,indiquantquele 34, 37. Poirier, «Lecinémaquébécois etlaquestionidentitaire,»11, 18,32, org/10/1080/13537110208428670 (accédéle5janvier, 2010). Ethnic Politics8,no.3(2002):73,http://www.dx/doi/ attachment :Quebecandnationalistmobilization,»Nationalism MatthewMendelsohn,«Measuringnationalidentityandpatternsof Idem.,15-17. Idem.,17-21. BelliveauetBoily, «Deuxrévolutionstranquilles?»14-16,30. Coates,«LeJoualcommerevendicationquébécoise,»77-78. Idem.,77;Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 32. Coates,«LeJoualcommerevendicationquébécoise,»76. monde, »550. Seyfrid,«Polyphonie,plurilinguismeetvisioncarnavalesquedu Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 29-30. Horrocks -Denis 51 Idem. 78. Coates, « Le Joual comme revendication québécoise, » 77. Poirier, « Le cinéma québécois et la question identitaire, » 11, 18. « Le cinéma québécois et la question identitaire, » 11, Poirier, and the welfare state, » 78, Béland et Lecours, « Sub-state nationalism 81-82, 92. Dion, « Le nationalisme dans la convergence culturelle, » 304. Dion, « Le nationalisme dans la convergence Idem., 291-295, 301, 304. Do Nations Have to Become States ? » 40-41, 48-58. Why Taylor,« 127-141, 155-157. P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, Idem. Idem., 152. « Deux révolutions tranquilles ? » 17-19. Belliveau et Boily, 155-156. P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, québécoise, » 75-77. Coates, « Le Joual comme revendication 152. P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1993) : 40-41, 48-50, 53-55. University Press, 1993) : McGill-Queen’s ; « Deux révolutions tranquilles ? » 15-17 Belliveau et Boily, Why Do Nations Have to Become States ? » 53-55. Taylor,« 73, 79. « Le cinéma ; Poirier, 151, 154-156 P.Q., Ex. Godbout, D’Amour, identitaire, » 32. québécois et la question culturelle, » 294 ; Pascal dans la convergence Dion, « Le nationalisme The « Nationalism and Protest : Traisnel, Dufour et Christophe Group Politics and Social Sovereignty Movement in Quebec, » dans (Peterborough : Broadview Movements in Canada, éd. Miriam Smith Why Do Nations Taylor,« Press, 2008) : 251-252, 254-255 ; Charles the Solitudes : Essays on Have to Become States ? » dans Reconciling (Montréal : Taylor éd. C. Canadian Federalism and Nationalism, Idem., 154. Idem., 151. » « Le Joual comme revendication québécoise, Idem.,156; Coates, Ducharme, Blais et Godbout, » The French Review 67, no. 1 (octobre (octobre 67, no. 1 Review The French » et Godbout, Blais Ducharme, 2010). (accédé le 2 avril, http://www.jstor.org/stable/397786 1993) : 89, » 77. québécoise, Le Joual comme revendication Coates, « 148-150. P.Q., D’Amour, Godbout, Idem., 49. Blais chez Ducharme, et théâtralisation « Dialogue Nardout-Lafarge, » 89. et Godbout, 14, 95-96. P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, Idem., 67. Idem. Elizabeth Nardout-Lafarge, « Dialogue et théâtralisation chez et théâtralisation « Dialogue Nardout-Lafarge, Elizabeth 72 73 70 71 67 68 69 63 64 65 66 60 61 62 59

57 58 54 55 56 51 52 53 49 50 47 48 46 52 Horrocks-Denis 74 100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 Seyfrid,«Polyphonie,plurilinguismeetvisioncarnavalesquedu Just Society, éd. T. Axworthy (Markham : Viking, 1990):367-368. Pierre Elliott Trudeau, « The Values of ajustsociety, »dans Towards a 47, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1048325 (accédéle5janvier, 2010); American Academy ofPoliticalandSocial Science538(mars1995): LouisBalthazar, «Quebecandtheidealoffederalism,» Annals ofthe Idem. Idem.,152-155. titaire, »11, 18,32,34,37. Idem.;Poirier, «Lecinémaquébécoisetla questioniden Idem. Idem.,154-155. Idem.,153-155. Idem.,121-140,152-155. Idem.,154. Idem.,103 Idem.,114. bout, D’Amour, P.Q., 75,81,86,88. ajoutée). Thomas reconnaîtaussi«[qu’ilest]un peu perdu». Voir God chez Tarafa pleurantauborddelafontaine[…]»(miseenrelief […] commelecridéchirantd’unechansonandalouse,quivientde D’Amour devenaitsoudain Thomas Justman,tuvois,sansprévenir, Lenarrateurpremierdel’histoirepartagecepointvue:« Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 95-96. Idem.,115. et Godbout,»89. Nardout-Lafarge, «DialogueetthéâtralisationchezDucharme,Blais Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 23. monde, »549. Seyfrid, «Polyphonie,plurilinguismeetvisioncarnavalesquedu Coates,«LeJoualcommerevendicationquébécoise,»73-79; cinéma québécoisetlaquestionidentitaire,»11, 16-18,32-37. Ex.Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 29-30,82,109-110, 112; Poirier, «Le Coates,«LeJoualcommerevendicationquébécoise,»76. Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 21-60. BelliveauetBoily, «Deuxrévolutionstranquilles?»14-16,30. Idem. Idem.,109-110. Idem.,26. Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 21-60. BelliveauetBoily, «Deuxrévolutionstranquilles?»14-16,30. monde, »556-557. Thomas Horrocks -Denis 53 115. 125-141. 114, Idem., 81, 109-110, Seyfrid, « Polyphonie, plurilinguisme et vision carnavalesque du Seyfrid, « Polyphonie, plurilinguisme monde, » 552, 555-559. 23-28, 67, 95-96, 113- P.Q., par exemple, Godbout, D’Amour, Voir, du Québec qui domine dans les écoles québécoises. À ce sujet, voir du Québec qui domine dans les écoles « Mémoire et récit de l’aventure Jocelyn Létourneau,et Sabrina Moisan, : coup de sonde, historique du Québec d’héritage canadien-français The Canadian » amorce d’analyse des résultats, questionnements, : 325-358, http://muse.jhu.edu/ Historical Review 85, no. 2 (juin 2004) login?uri=/journals/canadian_historical_review/v085/85.2letourneau. 2010). pdf (accédé le 5 janvier, culturelle, » 303, 306. Dion, « Le nationalisme dans la convergence nationalism and the Idem., 303; Béland et Lecours, « Sub-state welfare state, » 78. Kwaterko, « Le Roman québécois et ses (inter)discours, » 6-7. Kwaterko, « Le Roman québécois et ses » 100-101. Cet Idem.; Hobbs, « De l’opposition à l’ambivalence, et mélancolique de l’histoire extrait se réfère aussi à la vision tragique Taylor, « Shared and Divergent Values, » 67-71. » 67-71. Values, Divergent « Shared and Taylor, 120-141. P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, son texte intitule les trois premières parties de Idem., 120. Godbout et employant l’anglais de manière ironique Act[s] », comme des « Hobbs, « De Voir conforme à la théorie de la décolonisation. l’opposition à l’ambivalence, » 102. 126. P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, « Le cinéma québécois et la question Idem., 120-127; Poirier, identitaire, » 12. 126-127 P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, Idem., 130-131. du plurilinguisme et vision carnavalesque Seyfrid, « Polyphonie, monde, » 552. Étant donné que l’idéologie nationaliste, séparatiste et felquiste de et felquiste séparatiste nationaliste, l’idéologie donné que Étant sur l’identité la section portant déjà été examinée dans Thomas a cette section, en sera pas réévaluée dans Mireille, elle ne politique de à ce projet. d’espace associées limites de temps et raison des Idem., 126-143 ; Poirier, 88 v. 75, 81, 86, P.Q., D’Amour, Godbout, 37 ; 18, 32, 34, » 11, identitaire, québécois et la question « Le cinéma du et vision carnavalesque Polyphonie, plurilinguisme Seyfrid, « monde, » 551-552. plurilinguisme 143 ; Seyfrid, « Polyphonie, P.Q., Godbout, D’Amour, du monde, » 552. et vision carnavalesque Taylor,« Why Do Nations Have to Become States ? » 56. States ? » Become Have to Do Nations Why Taylor,« 119 117 118 115 116

113 114 111 112 110 107 108 109 105 106 104 103 102 101 54 Horrocks-Denis 120 Dion, Stéphane. «Lenationalismedanslaconvergence culturelle:leQuébec Coates, CarrolF. «LeJoualcommerevendication québécoise:D’Amour, P.Q. Belliveau, Joel,etFrédéricBoily. «Deuxrévolutionstranquilles? Béland Daniel,et André Lecours.«Sub-statenationalismandthewelfare state: Balthazar, Louis. « Quebec and the ideal of federalism. » Annals of the American Anderson, Lawrence.«FederalismandSecessionism:InstitutionalInfluences 125 124 123 122 121 Poirier, «Lecinémaquébécoisetlaquestionidentitaire,»12. contemporain et leparadoxede Tocqueville. »DansL’engagement 2010). 1978) :73-79.http://www.jstor.org/stable/389525 (accédéle2avril, de JacquesGodbout.» The FrenchReview52,no.1(octobre 2010). (2005). http://www.id.erudit.org/iderudit/012088ar (accédéle5janvier, Brunswick (1960-1967).»Recherchessociographiques46, no.1 Transformations politiquesetsociales auQuébecetNouveau- 2010) BelandLecoursNationsandNationalism2006.pdf (accédéle 5janvier, (2006).http://www.danielbeland.org/pubs Québec andCanadianFederalism.»NationsNationalism 12,no.1 jstor.org/stable/1048325 (accédéle5janvier, 2010). Academy ofPoliticalandSocialScience538(mars1995).http://www le 5janvier, 2010). no. 2(2007).http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/135371107001293070 (accédé on NationalistPoliticsinQuébec.»NationalismandEthnic13, québécois etlaquestionidentitaire,»11, 18,32,34,37. Ex.Godbout,D’Amour, P.Q., 120-141;Poirier, «Lecinéma Taylor, «SharedandDivergent Values, »61,66-67,71. D’Amour, P.Q., 127-141,155-157. Coates,«LeJoualcommerevendicationquébécoise,»76;Godbout, et ses(inter)discours,»3-7. D’Amour, P.Q., 127-141,152-157;Kwaterko,«LeRomanquébécois Joual commerevendicationquébécoise,»73-79;ex.Godbout, et Lecours,«Sub-statenationalismandthewelfare,»81;Coates,Le BelliveauetBoily, «Deuxrévolutionstranquilles?»14-18;Béland Idem. Bibliographie . Horrocks -Denis 55 D=3730497827051 (accédé le 5 janvier, 2010). D=3730497827051 (accédé le 5 janvier, canadienne de science politique 37, no. 4 (décembre 2004). https:// canadienne de science politique 37, no. mycourses.mcgill.ca:443/webct/urw/lc3257302610011. tp3730497750051//RelativeResourceManager?content Recherches sociographies 45, no. 1 (2004), http://www.erudit.org/ Recherches sociographies 45, no. 1 (2004), 2010). le 5 janvier, (accédé revue/rs/2004/v45/n1/009233ar.pdf et Images 21, Voix de Jacques Godbout.» P.Q. monde dans D’amour, (accédé le 2 avril, no. 3 (1993). http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/201263ar 2010). Science / Revue Nationalism. » Canadian Journal of Political confrontation entre les récits de l’empêchement et de l’enchantement. » confrontation entre les récits de l’empêchement roupName=crepuq_mcgill (accédé le 5 janvier, 2010). (accédé le 5 janvier, roupName=crepuq_mcgill and and nationalist mobilization. » Nationalism attachment : Quebec Ethnic Politics 8, no. 3 (2002). http://www.dx/doi/ 2010). le 5 janvier, (accédé org/10/1080/13537110208428670 1993). http://www. The French Review 67, no. 1 (octobre et Godbout. » (accédé le 2 avril, 2010). jstor.org/stable/397786 l’écriture de la résistance au Québec. » Québec Studies 35 (printemps, au Québec. » Québec Studies 35 l’écriture de la résistance été 2003). http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/start.do?prodId=EAIM&userG Pelletier. Québec : Presses de l’Université Laval, 1991, 296-303. Laval, de l’Université : Presses Québec Pelletier. Politics and Social » Dans Group Movement in Quebec. Sovereignty : Broadview Smith. Peterborough in Canada, éd. Miriam Movements Press, 2008. 1972. intellectuel : mélanges en l’honneur de Léon Dion, éd. R. Hudon et R. R. Hudon Dion, éd. de Léon l’honneur en : mélanges intellectuel

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Québec in Montréal, in Montréal, Cameron McKeich Cameron Pure Haine? Barney’s Version Barney’s Reading 58 McKeich n ieaue los o a udrtnig f o AgoQee texts Anglo-Quebec how of like understanding an for allows literature ornegative, in aspositive thequébécois and loyalties conflicted of foregrounding the Instead, stereotypical. or truthful orcritiquing Quebec of Richler, novels, figurations his “rehabilitating” his from of non-fiction impasse his the separating beyond conceptually move to us enables generated byRichler’s polarizing“extratextual”mediapersonality. Version Barney’s location, cultural marginal its from profit to order in readership Quebec criteria that Brossard’sAnglo-Quebec literature must make itself of interest to a francophone Nicole of basis the on Evaluated themselves. the works of interpretation colour to tends identity class and linguistic ethnic, author’s the means identity” with has “obsession literature’s Harel Quebec called Simon separating what of impossibility Richler-the-novelist: the from with Richler-the-essayist congruent is This act. political a of minority writing tends to bestow upon it a status of being status marginalalways-already The particularities. productive its and of writing” “minority conception Deleuzoguattarian a upon premised as literature Quebec both Quebec society at with large as well engagements as the literature’scorpus of “la Anglo-Quebec littérature québécoise”. of understanding an enrich nevertheless can Québec” du adversaires farouches plus des “l’un into the processes by which an author described by Francine Bordeleau as de Barney 1997 novel, the contested category of Anglo-Quebec literature? Reception of Richler’s to relate works satirical) (usually fictional popular Richler’s do then How and circles. academic both in Quebec in writing English of discussion any from absent rarely is name his that is hypervisibility this of result the Indeed, Quebec. in especially but Canada, throughout career five-decade his during figure oft-maligned controversial, a him made has non-fiction anti-québécois.” et irrespectueux borné, unilingue yeux de plusieurs francophones du Québec, l’incarnation de l’anglophone Mordecai Richler”. A Barney’sVersion Finally and most importantly, Harel’s theory of conflicted loyalties Barney’sVersion iie Country Divided pamphlet du 1992 en parution la “depuis stated, has Lapointe Martine-Emmanuelle s ) by francophone critics and journalists offers important insights Barney’s Version a be wll scesu, agl de o interest to due largely successful, wildly been has 1 Adds Yan Hamel:“MordecaiRichlerestdevenu,aux can perturb the stories a society tells about itself. about tells society a stories the perturb can u pru d sadl etue ’eve de l’oeuvre entoure scandale de parfum un , accords with Lianne Moyes’ model of Anglo- of model Moyes’ Lianne with accords (translated into French in 1999 as h Canada! Oh h ubc Rqim o a for Requiem Quebec! Oh 2

ihe’ polemical Richler’s Le monde 3 McKeich 59 . In 6 His anti- 5 , does fit within shares with many and Richler not as stumbling Barney’s Barney’s Version Barney’s Barney’s Version Barney’s Version Barney’s Anglo-Quebec in Transition Anglo-Quebec in This foregrounding of proximity and difference provides

4 Born in Montreal in 1931 and old enough to remember the ‘golden the remember to enough old and 1931 in Montreal in Born Rather than distancing itself from Richler for the sake of Leith’s paradigm Leith’s Anglo-Quebec of literature in that it “shows an interest in relations between francophones and non-francophones” distinct from yet-marginal yet-marginal Anglo-Quebec to achieve prominence throughout Canada and internationally, his final work, aspirations and a greater affinity with Quebec, or with Montreal, than with than Montreal, with or Quebec, with affinity greater a and aspirations newer the from distinct is Richler suggests Leith While Canada. of rest the generation in that he was one of the last English writers from the not- are not threatened by it, and do not mourn their new cultural and political position, described as “muted, made invisible, [and] marginalized.” fact, this group of writers tends to share an openness to francophone sovereignist position places him at from migrated whom of many writers, odds Anglo-Quebec contemporary about with an emerging consensus status, minority their accept them of many that suggests which elsewhere, English Canadian canon (his first novel having been published in 1955), Richler occupies a complicated position within an Anglo-Quebec milieu described as being in a transitional and uncomfortable state. years’ of the 1940s, 50s and 60s, in which Montreal writers dominated the dominated writers Montreal which in 60s, and 50s 1940s, the of years’ necessary contextualization of the lived experiences of francophones and anglophones in Montreal. métropolitains, autrefois ignorés, dont la proximité est fort troublante […] troublante fort est proximité la dont ignorés, autrefois métropolitains, langues de conflits de scénographie la et jeu de aire une fois la à est ville La et de cultures.” challenge dominant constructions of literary and socio-political identity in Quebec. As a Montreal culturels espaces “d’autres of portrayal the fiction novel, Anglo-Quebec of works incorporation into the Quebec canon and greater acceptability amongst Anglo-Quebec francophones, literature ought to embrace Richler and his own works’ subversive potential as fiction-from-the-margins, in order to blocks, nor as regrettable breaks from the norms of polite dialogue, but history into Quebec literary interventions useful and necessary instead as borders forces a recognition of the social and political heterogeneity which heterogeneity political and social the of recognition a forces borders is often absent from prevailing narratives. Harel’s claim that conflict is healthy allows us to read Richler’s Richler’s oppositional stance toward Quebec nationalism from within its 60 McKeich works writtenelsewhereinCanada. divide alluded to by Leith plays out on the textual level and as to whether to as and level textual the on out plays Leith by to alluded divide que majorité.” tant en reconstituer se pour fiction la utiliser à cas, majorité, certains dans la et de langue que tant en l’anglais pratiquer à persiste elle 80, années les et 70 années des fin la pendant minorité une comme concevait se qu’elle fait le malgré que est Québec au anglaise langue de (littéraire) anglais.” Québec est déterritorialisée: elle est produite au Québec dans la langue du Canada au anglaise langue de l’écriture québécoise, ni canadienne, “ni force innovatrice.” une potentiellement culturelle reconnaissant lui en minorité processus d’une notion un la groupes, transforme processus qui entre un productive aussi d’interférence et mais rencontre marginalisé), de groupe un comprise (souvent minorité que tant en reconnaitre se de minorité, une devenir de processus Guattari. and Deleuze theorists post-structuralist the by posited “déterritorialisation” its specificity was adapted from the concepts of “devenir minoritaire” and position inthisinterventionistdiscourse. changing the public. plurilingual a to privileged a occupy works literary Anglo-Quebec which in one be therefore position of anglophones in Quebec is debated, re-worked may and re-presented literature of arena The adversaires.” Mordecai Richler par ceux qui furent autrefois ses plus violents Gail la Scott, de Robert Majzels, la reconnaissance de l’oeuvre de de nom) de romans les substituer faudrait il … Français, le et l’Anglais même du entre Révolution finir à lutte la À héritages, et alliances nos de complexité la (comme acceptation une tranquille incarne Il cité. de droit a nouveau’ ‘l’anglo contexte, ce Dans langues. d’autres bien l’expression contraire, pas, au n’exclut français en vivre de fait le où minoritaire univers un humaine, échelle à démesures de et conflits des cité “À la revendication récente d’un Montréal francophone… une One of the most influential accounts of Anglo-Quebec writing and 10 11 utemr, ue e cnrdcin d l communauté la de contradictions des “une Furthermore,

een is h ky o nesadn hw h generational the how understanding to key the lies Herein Minority Becoming, Writing eei mnrtie n dsge a smlmn un simplement pas désigne “ne minoritaire Devenir 8 7 9 As a result of being accepted as accepted being of result a As McKeich 61

à Barney 14 12 13 Barney’s Barney’s se présente sous la forme d’un lieu ruiné où les anciens les où ruiné lieu d’un forme la sous présente se Moyes gives credence to the heterogeneity of Anglo-Quebec monuments ne sont plus que les spectres d’eux-mêmes.” monuments ne sont plus que les spectres repères et des signes facilement reconnaissables, a endossé une endossé a reconnaissables, facilement signes des et repères nouvelle identité; pire, le Montréal contemporain de Version “Tout se passe comme si Barney Panofsky se trouvait exilé dans exilé trouvait se Panofsky Barney si comme passe se “Tout son propre lieu, étranger au sort d’une collectivité à laquelle il ne peut plus appartenir. La ville, qui étalait autrefois des Montréal de Richler, il n’y a pas assez de changements.” Montréal de Richler, parler d’eux-mêmes en tant que minorité, de la Montréal de représentation Richler est […] de interchangeable MacLennan avec produite celle des les années 40-50 […] Dans le “Bien qu’elle soit produite dans les années suivant la Révolution la suivant années les dans produite soit qu’elle “Bien tranquille, à un moment ou les Anglophones commencent septuagenarians who tiptoe about in premier” in fear the midst of a community of gripped by “panic” and a city our that separatist provincial implying that all those capable of leaving will undoubtedly do so. do undoubtedly will leaving of capable those all that implying describes his apartment building as a “fortress for besieged Anglophone status of anglo-Montreal or the subject position of “un anglo nouveau” is epitomized by assertions like the following: “Soon the only poor,” the and infirm, the English- old, the be will Montreal in left people speaking Barney’s Barney’s melancholic attitude and reluctance to accept the transformed analysis and places it within the category of an expression of refusal of minoritarian becoming: Lapointe’s Lapointe’s reading of Barney’s Version agrees to the terms of Moyes’ of an ascendant majority may be the source of some reluctance québécois to critics’ acknowledge Anglo-Quebec literature, especially generation: Richler and the earlier that of writing, noting that acceptance of marginality is not universal amongst Anglophone writers living and working in using Quebec. language as She a suggests strategy to that resist marginality and attack the power the French language and québécois self-determination, or if they exist in a a in exist they if or self-determination, québécois and language French the web of relationality. more complicated Anglo-Quebec Anglo-Quebec texts may be interpreted as threatening to or deferent to 62 McKeich “like me, is diminishing day by day.”by day diminishing is me, “like ede ope e œve d lnu agas qi pr er circulation leur par qui, anglaise langue de œuvres des compte rendre majority.” francophone the to relevance and interest, their foresaw: Brossard terms the in precisely assessed is writers English of Richler,role including “the writers anglophone to attention” critical “serious devotes the encyclopedia, while that notes dans le mesure ou il se sent concerné et interpellé.” s’intéresse ne majoritaire le Or intéresser. s’y de besoin le sent intéresser, s’y bien veut majorité la où mesure la dans uniquement on to argue that “La littérature minoritaire déborde de l’espace minoritaire littéraires.” courants ses de provocation la ou pertinence la “par is that a minor corpus can be distinguished by the quality of its works and analyze the position of Anglo-Quebec writing. Her answer to to this question which with examples compelling particularly works Richler’s makes sien?” le normalement serait qui celui arrive-t-elle minoritaire littérature political questionsofQuebecsociety. unsettled the refract and reflect therefore novels Anglo-Quebec in found incongruities, conflicting portrayals and sense of strangeness which can be trouve, ils désignent cette culture comme secondaire, périphérique.” culture qu’on ma présentée comme mienne, exclusivement -, et quand j’en la de ou – culture ma de signes des rarement rencontre j’y troublés: plus MacLennan ou de Mordecai Richler m’inspire évidemment des sentiments Hugh de Montréal “le Montreal, in set novels francophone to Compared québécoise, la vraie littérature québécoise… celle qui s’écrit en français.” canon: “Le roman Quebec the with works Richler’s of reference incommensurability supposed the frequent to makes Marcotte Gilles critic renowned québécoise, unanimous. from the to attributed is heterogeneity of anglophone community, especiallyitsyounger, morebilingualmembers. degree certain a Nevertheless, unfolding. conflict the of reality the to them whose blinds correctness liberals political sentimental as dismissed are archetype anglo’ ‘new the Nicole Brossard’s reflections upon the question of “Comment un “Comment of question the upon Brossard’sreflections Nicole Acceptance of Anglo-Quebec writing as a coherent category is far 20

h atos rm ter ol hsy “os vn tné de tenté avons “Nous thusly: goal their frame authors The In his refutation of the existence of la littérature anglo- littérature la of existence the of refutation his In à Addressing aFrancophone Public la Richler… n’au aucun droit de cite dans la littérature itie e a ieaue québécoise literature la de Histoire à occuper un espace culturel autre que autre culturel espace un occuper 15 18 Characters who do correspond to correspond do who Characters

are instructive in explaining what explaining in instructive are 19

Robert Schwartzwald à l’autre que l’autre a new a , She goes She 17

The 16

McKeich 63 . , we can we , Although Although

21 Barney’s Version Barney’s He mocks Sherry Simon’s 22 to ‘re-educate’ themselves about the anglos who can be incorporated into le plan le into incorporated be can who anglos Le Devoir only Is Anglo-Quebec Literature “Post-Richler”? Literature Anglo-Quebec Is For McGimpsey, Richler is not an embarassment, but instead one For McGimpsey, David McGimpsey criticizes the recurring trope in designations affect affect and anglo resentment in the character of Barney are re-valorized in terms of their shattering of the idealized and artificial assertion of proverbial closet, but one of its greatest assets. Under this rubric, Richler’s Richler’s rubric, this Under assets. greatest its of one but closet, proverbial controversial non-fictional writings and personificationhis of negative By taking up injunction Harel’s to adopt conceptions of cultural space as characterized by conflict and abandoning the valorization of harmonious dialogue, Richler is no longer the skeleton in Anglo-Quebec literature’s francophones. Setting aside Brossard’s preference for experimental works, experimental for preference Brossard’s aside Setting francophones. Richler may be one of the few anglophone writers who comes remotely close to satisfying her criteria in terms of cultural relevance and impact. culturel? of the Anglo-Quebec few writers who has written anything of interest to minoritaire suggest that anglophone writers might only achieve acceptance achieve only might writers anglophone that suggest minoritaire position? minoritarian acceptable an from write they that condition the on the anglos’ ‘new the Are Anglo-Quebec literature whose offensive of convinced remarks be to are francophones if and rehabilitated) (or expunged be must tainted persona devenir of conception Moyes’ Does writing. Anglo-Quebec of validity the invocation to readers of diversity of contemporary Anglo-Quebec writing in addition to Richler. Simon’s comments suggest a ‘reading’ of Richler as a spectre haunting Richler is the first item on the menu. The English writer in contemporary Montreal can either follow in his footsteps or be noted for how he or she is ‘miles away’ from his ‘extreme’ views.” of Anglo-Quebec contemporary writers as the antithesis of Richler: “The new generation is allegedly ‘beyond’ Richler, but somehow, some way, Quebec writing for a mainstream francophone audience. a mainstream francophone audience. Quebec writing for nevertheless nevertheless trace a lineage of (media-facilitated) francophone interest in the novel, both in its original English, and in translation two years later The novel serves as an accessible and visible manifestation of Anglo- plus significatives du point de vuedes lecteurs francophones. Brossard might have hoped the interpellation of French-Canadian readers in takes it form the than confrontational less was grâce aux traductions et par leur retentissement critique, se sont avérées les avérées sont se critique, retentissement leur par et traductions aux grâce 64 McKeich (linguistic) peacein1990’s Montreal. nepeain f ihe t te oy f eotg caatrzd y the by characterized reportage of body the to Richler of interpretation de “l’un as him claims nevertheless but québécoise,” situation la de incompréhension son likewise finds it difficult to stomach Richler’s “absence totale de nuances, Richler.”lire de coupable] [parfois plaisir le bouder français font figure de personnages secondaires, ce n’est pas une raison pour Guy adds in another column that “même si, dans son oeuvre, les Canadiens she connection feels withhisworkasunemontréalaise: intense the works, Richler’s in strangeness radical a of Marcotte’sassertion of repudiation a and,in politics Richler’s for distaste nationalism. Writing for were vociferously critical of what he perceived to be the excesses book 1992 of and “Inside/Outside” Quebec article 1991 his are media francophone the in Richler of discussions qui appartiennent à sa propre communauté vis-à-vis des francophones.” ceux de d’ouverture manque au et réticences aux ici prend s’en Richler “ that generously Québec than those at which other commentators have arrived. to different conclusions about the contact between Richler and francophone œuvres de langue française.” restreindre légitimement la littérature issue de cette conscience aux seules de – impossible voire – difficile nous pour alors sera il l’éclatement, de et l’ouverture de plan le sur vraiment réalise se québécoise conscience la de littérature québécoise: “Si nous acceptons de reconnaitre que le mode d’être Version contend with what Richler’s works mean to Quebec. eve é dn lepi du Mnraas u aat aié à quelques ruesdechezmoi?” habité avait qui Montréalais d’un l’esprit dans née oeuvre Barney de monde Le roman, dernier son procuré suis me je professionnalisme, Par “De l’homme, je ne connaissais que le mal dont on en pensait… s lgtmt ojc o iqiy o smoe neetd n la in interested someone for inquiry of object legitimate a as h eehns n h ro wih otne o nmt many animate to continue which room the in elephants The to critics literary francophone first the of one was Hamel Yan Nuancing Richler, Thematizing Montreal à la différence de ce que l’on retrouve dans ses essais, ses dans retrouve l’on que ce de différence la nos ls rns écrivains.” grands plus La Presse … Comment avais-je pu ignorer une telle une ignorer pu avais-je Comment … 23

Hamel’s close-reading enables him to come 25 , Chantal Guy struggles to reconcile her Oh Canada! Oh Quebec Oh Canada! Oh 27

y dig nuanced a adding By 26 Hamel sees Francine Bordeleau Francine He suggests New YorkerNew Barney’s !, which !, 24 McKeich 65 28 situates them as the only He notes that traditionally: traditionally: that He notes Barney’s Barney’s Version 29 Hamel argues that the overwhelmingly positive portrayal of Harel also takes exception to the aforementioned separation of l’écrivain (bien évidemment discutable) d’une somme littéraire somme d’une discutable) évidemment (bien l’écrivain éblouissante.” hasard si l’oeuvre de Mordecai Richler est relue avec surprise et incrédulité. Tout se passe en effet critique comme acceptait si de le dissocier discours le point de vue editorial de identités dans le domaine des lettres d’un québécoises. La dénominateur quête commun qui assure literature québécoise semble la chose du passé. pérennité Ce n’est pas un de la zone de tensions, le milieu propice à l’émergence d’aspérités qui peuvent faire l’objet de ‘médiations’ fictionnelles.avons Nous sans doute octroyé un role excessif à la question des “Ainsi, le laboratoire de ‘la’ culture québécoise serait une la position qu’ils adoptent d’emblée envers Richler.” la position qu’ils adoptent qui les amènerait à mieux saisir la complexité du rapport que l’écrivain entretient par l’écriture et l’imaginaire à l’endroit de miner de risquerait qui mais francophone, québécoise l’identité l’homme, l’homme, ce qui leur permet de rendre hommage au romancier sans pour autant cesser de vilipenderl’essayiste. Ils font fiction de de la textes des approfondie analyse d’une l’économie sorte “Les critiques opposent artificiellement ces deux facettes de characters capable of passing d’être anti-québécois, moral Richler diffuse judgment pourtant, par on l’entremise Barney: de ses “accusé Solange and Chantal in Harel is not simply suggesting that Richler is brave views, to but voice that opposing this is at its core, a culture. normal and healthy process in any confront its well-worn and comforting stories about the colonial past: and comforting stories about the confront its well-worn Richler’s Richler’s political views and his fiction,arguing thatRichler’s works are among the it most popular is and discussed no accident examples of Anglo-Quebec writing – they challenge orthodoxies and force Quebec to in the Quebec literary milieu. literary Quebec in the polarities of outrage and admiration, Hamel hopes to re-evaluate his place place his re-evaluate to hopes Hamel admiration, and outrage of polarities 66 McKeich romans, une image de la Québécoise qui met en relief les culpabilités, les culpabilités, les relief en met qui Québécoise la de image une romans, d’écriture.” work. Richler’s lieu son et l’auteur entre s’établit qui in singulière “relation the is important tendencies opposed radically two discarding thus of place, notions of experiences and motifs same the of many by like works of reading a permits reassessment Lapointe’s cityscape. Montreal the of view nostalgic a and place to attention an namely both, in themes literature. to be worked through, which Harel argues ought to be addressed in Quebec opinions, his Richler nevertheless poses reject the question of a seemingly intractable conflict utterly or Barney with identify we Whether world. the knowing of ways his formed have Montreal in investments affective anglophone and francophone readers alike might apprehend how Barney’s which by method the actually is weakness, terms, a be to appears emotional first at which in sovereignty of framing Barney’s stances. political educating francophone and anglophone readers about each other’s clichéd separatism,” aresponsecommoninother American reviews. “lament for a multicultural Montreal now torn and depressed by Québécois racism of the PQ, which led reviewer John Updike to frame the novel as a alleged the to nod the i.e. opinions, and authority narrative Richler’s by opening of the narrative onto explicitly political questions remains framed blindspot when it comes to francophone Quebec. However, even this ideological brief substantively his reveals which engage stance a opinions, to political opposing with incapacity or unwillingness an demonstrates country?” own our have we shouldn’t why it’s risky, but course Of hole. round a into peg square a fit to trying back held been and itself, exhausted has [Canada] country this years hundred a in the PQ who are really racist, which is abhorrent to me, but for more than nationalist: “I’m seriously thinking of voting Yes this time. There are some conflicting viewpoint to Barney’s, one that is, significantly,a québécoise of presence the facilitate referendum 1995 the before intentions voting héros.” ses de ambivalences les et manquements Oh Canada! Oh Quebec! Oh Canada! Oh semble-t-il, le noeud et le point aveugle de l’argumentation de l’argumentation de aveugle me point le et noeud le semble-t-il, constitue, natal lieu au rapport le ambigu, et “Paradoxal Martine-Emmanuelle Lapointe attempts to demonstrate the shared of stance didactic the into literature force to wrong be would It 33 Lapointeelaboratesthat and Barney’sVersion 31 Barney’sresponse immature 30

Importantly,Solange’s as mutually informed mutually as 32 More and McKeich 67

35 “ne sont Barney’s Barney’s 34 36 As Harel argues, Quebec writers by insinuating that Barney and Richler share some Lapointe’s Lapointe’s designation of Richler’s non-fiction as haunted by a : fuir les non-francophones et les nouveaux arrivants.” fuir les non-francophones et les nouveaux en effet l’image de la métropole déchue où économiques les perspectives seraient feraient français moins du sauvegarde de politiques les et linguistiques avantageuses et où les lois quasi euphorique du spectrale, lieu devient l’arrière-plan nécessaire d’origine à l’élaboration emprunte de superpose se disparu Montréal ce À l’auteur. de l’argumentaire une forme “Habitée par le fantasme des de la échanges cohabitation pacifique culturels et fructueux, cette représentation années 1950 une forme de nostalgie du pays perdu ?” nostalgie du pays une forme de années 1950 communauté francophone et cet amour pour Montréal dont il se il dont Montréal pour amour cet et francophone communauté dessiner se voir pas ne outre, en Comment, toujours…? réclame dans les fréquentes évocations du Montréal dynamique des l’auteur. Comment concilier l’auteur. l’amertume qu’il nourrit contre la adequate excuse for) the sense of mourning and denial felt by many anglo- many by felt denial and mourning of sense the for) excuse adequate a make comments Lapointe’s fact, In generation. Richler’s of Montrealers of Montreal’s social, political and economic ills in the 1990s, are but nevertheless they confronted with a humanized portrayal of (if not an Francophone readers remain free to disagree with Barney’s diagnosis Montreal which no longer exists could apply equally Version well to narration, engages in this process of disturbing individual and collective sense making in task indispensable an is so doing that insists and histories of cultural history. secrets de famille, les refoulés de l’histoire individuelle et collective.” Barney’s Version, of the same opinions, and by self-consciously foregrounding the act of pas des négociateurs de bonne entente et sont des écrivains. de La loyauté tolérance conflictuelle traduit réciproque. à mon Ce sens ce qu’est la littérature […] L’écrivain fait ici office de profanateur. Il déterre les apart from his deliberately provocative essays. The novels, in Lapointe’s formulation of a continuum, retain ideological elements equally capable of provoking strong reactions. This avoids depoliticizing Richler’s novels by positing them against and 68 McKeich strong argument for reading argumentfor strong otaitr yt etl ratos rm facpoe edrhp s it as negative the by sparked readership interest of result a as and translation in circulates francophone provoked a from has reactions itself fertile yet work contradictory the society, francophone and of Barney between representatives be may dialogue for possibilities the constrained laisserait imaginaires.” consentie) nouveaux de créatrice literary conflictualité une à place mutuellement d’ignorance Quebec (forme solitudes the deux from writers at-large. society and establishment anglophone separating obstacle francophone community asrepresentativesof Anglo-Quebec writing. the in visibility of degree a share they worse, for for or Richler, better and Scott Gail of projects political and aesthetic divergent changement.” de signe profond un est québécoises anglo- lettres des récente reconnaissance la anglophone, ‘voisinage’ un avec tendues relations les expliciter mieux pour passé au appel faire de sommes, ‘nous’ que ce comprendre de importe S’il […] Richler d’un et Scott d’une œuvres les aujourd’hui lit qu’on québécoise littérature la de nom’‘au C’est paradoxe. le effet en “Mesurons muses: Harel discourse, conflictuelles entre communautés.” a revitalized understanding of Quebec literature “sous l’angle de relations for allows ‘consensualité’interculturelles,” “la relations of des disruption political andaffective blindspots. as a text which retains both its resolutely oppositional stance and the same of observations begun in Richler’s essays of the early 1990s, and therefore aia si-l l pit e u d Rclr e at a figure pas fait ne Richler d’exception. de vue de point le propre… soit-il, lieu radical son en consenti non d’exil forme une à nourries uniquement d’étrangeté, sentiment un à aussi renvoient mais mépris, le par pas sont ne familiers jadis repères plus ses retrouve ne qui celui de l’amertume et disparition la de l’angoisse perdus, quartier du et ville la de pays, du nostalgie La francophone. québécoise communauté la à face Richler de de permet fiction la par détour “Ce Cnrnainl wiig ant e en s n insurmountable an as seen be cannot writing ‘Confrontational’ its in Quebec, in writing anglophone that argues Harel Simon ” 37 Conflicted Loyalties Barney’sVersion Lapointe concludesbynoting: 38 As Harel insists, “le motif vieillot des vieillot motif “le insists, Harel As Marking a shift away from Marcotte’s relativiser as a fictionalized final draft final fictionalized a as 39 le point de vue de point le

Despite the radically the Despite 40 Aussi

However

McKeich 69 L’adversité est L’adversité à from the perspective as a novel which forcefully punctures Barney’s Version Barney’s Conclusion as a work deeply informed by the political Harel speaks of the critical “rehabilitation”

41 42 Barney’s Version Barney’s Barney’s Version Barney’s Harel’s Harel’s theory of conflicted loyalties can thus enrich extant A A synthesis of approaches to Anglo-Quebec literature allows us Harel’s critique opens a new avenue of criticism on Anglo-Quebec Anglo-Quebec on criticism of avenue new a opens critique Harel’s

conflictualité peut ainsi s’avérerutilité tant elle permet un conceptde renoncer aux idéaux de grande d’une cohérence, d’uniformité.” “La lecture des lettres anglo-québécoises ne peut correspondre à un jugement une d’opinion, décision politique. à Il nous une faut appréciation procéder autrement: morale, la à read Mordecai Richler’s novel

and linguistic specificities of being an anglophone writing in Quebec and it repatriating than rather Montreal, in space cultural occupy to attempting and language use. These theories nevertheless provide a compelling case for situating illustrate the differences between the position of Richler’s oeuvre towards oeuvre Richler’s of position the between differences the illustrate minoritization and the attitudes of a newer generation of Anglo-Quebec writers who possess a wholly different relationship to minority status that conflict can be healthy, rather concept than engenderingLeith’s ensemble, an As rehabilitation. or recuperation, dismissal, an uncomplicated reworking of of marginality and devenir Moyes’ minoritaire productively to consensus by articulating claims to an Anglophone and territory of Montreal. based on shared ownership of the urban Jewish history interpretations of the scrutiny to which it must subject itself and its favourite identitarian constructions: de l’ancien colonisateur!” (using the term ironically) of formerly Anglo-Quebec “distant” literature as a difficult and problematic process for Quebec literature because of littérature littérature anglo-québécoise] représente une conflictualitéperturbe l’assise normative ende la littérature québécoise. acte qui l’oeuvre tant elle traduit une énonciation littéraire qui recourt à la langue writing. In addition to investigating how language is used, and how the vibrancy or lack of intercultural dialogue and conflict is portrayed, “[la effects of Richler’s abrasive journalistic interventions. interventions. journalistic abrasive of Richler’s effects 70 McKeich towards theEnglishCanadiancanonanderasingitsquébecité. 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 lived socialrealities. Quebec’s of histories alternate propose and difference, espouse fore, the to conflict bring to literature Anglo-Quebec incipient an of very possibilities its the of to constitutive barrier instead is a It legitimacy. pose institutional it increasing should nor writing, Anglo-Quebec to opposed perform can literature society.Quebec in signify and visible newly this what for suggests possibilities canon greater Anglo-Quebec emerging the from work a with engage affect which could compel a francophone Québec public to recognize and negative of expressions as these of both understanding output, fictional his from speech Richler’spolitical separate controversial to attempting of instead Finally, formations. identity contemporary pluralistic of account inadequate establishment’s literary Quebec the of a rethinking definitional force and québécoise, littérature la constitute can works) whose (and political confrontational aggressively work’s works which of definitions monolithic perturb which assets into – stances the – liabilities as seen Québec Studies LianneMoyes,“Ecrireenanglais auQuébec :undevenirminoritaire?” SimonHarel“Lesloyautésconflictuelles,” 46. Study inMarginality,” Linda québécoise,” SimonHarel“Lesloyautésconflictuellesdelelalittérature québécoises FrancineBordeleau,“LemondeselonMordecaiRichler,” Richler,” Yan Hamel,“Yvette, SolangeetChantal: lesQuébécoisesdeMordecai Gail ScottetDavidHomel.” québécois: institutionetfiliationslittéraireschezMordecai Richler Martine-EmmanuelleLapointe.“Leslieuxdel’écrivainanglo- were what turns loyalties conflicting of formulation Harel’s Ibid. 29-30. Ibid. 29. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 100. Ibid. 100.104. Leith, “QuebecFictioninEnglishduringthe1980s: A Case Voix etImages 104 (2001) :18. Québec Studies 26(1998/1999):27. Québec Studies 30.3 Barney’sVersion Endnotes 44(2008) :49.

Voix etImages (2005): 58. 9

(1989/1990) : 96-7. 30:3 is therefore not radically not therefore is

(2005) : 75. Lettres , McKeich 71 26 18. 26 32 , 19 Essays on 44 , 23 Sept. 2007, 8. Québec Studies 50. 41,46. 49. 71. x de l’écrivain anglo- Québec Studies Québec Studies The New Yorker La Presse 169. Toronto: Knopf, 1997, 81. Knopf, 1997, Toronto: Québec Studies 164. Le monde selon Mordecai Richler,” Le monde selon Mordecai Richler,” “ Barney’s Version, Barney’s Barney’s Version. Barney’s 71 (2000): “Neil Bissoondaith disait…” “Neil Bissoondaith de Mordecai Richler,” de Mordecai Richler,” 8. 83. 81. Richler, Richler. Schwartzwald, “Postface,” Schwartzwald, “Postface,” McGimpsey. “A Walk in Montreal: Wayward Steps through the Wayward in Montreal: Walk “A McGimpsey. Marcotte. Updike, “Barney Looks Back.” Ibid. 49. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid. 49 Ibid. Ibid. 97. Ibid. 77.81. 144. Ibid. 77.81. Ibid. 10.

Ibid. 84. Simon Harel, “Les loyautés conflictuelles,” John Jan. 1998, 82. Martine-Emmanuelle Lapointe, “Les lieu québécois,” Simon Harel, “Les loyautés conflictuelles,” de l’écrivain anglo- Martine-Emmanuelle Lapointe, “Les lieux québécois,” 82. Francine Bordeleau, en anglais?” 59. a-t-il des romans québécois Hamel, “Y Yan Simon Harel, “Les loyautés conflictuelles,” Chantal,” Solange et Hamel, “Yvette, Yan Mordecai Literary Politics of Contemporary English Quebec.” Literary Politics of Canadian Writing de des romans québécois en anglais? L’exemple a-t-il Hamel, “Y Yan Version Barney’s (2001/2002) : 57-8. Chantal,” 71. Solange et Hamel, “Yvette, Yan “Mordecai le maudit.” Chantal Guy, Ibid. 10. Ibid. 13. (2007/2008): 96-7. David québécois,” québécois,” Mordecai Gilles : (1998/1999) réflexions.” “Quelques Nicole Brossard. (1998/1999) : 13. Robert Martine-Emmanuelle Lapointe. “Les lieux de l’écrivain anglo- l’écrivain lieux de “Les Lapointe. Martine-Emmanuelle 42 39 40 41 37 38 34 35 36 32 33 29 30 31 26 27 28 24 25 23 21 22 19 20 17 18 14 15 16 13 72 McKeich Updike, John. “Barney LooksBack.” Schwartzwald, Robert.“Postface.” Richler, Mordecai. Moyes, Lianne.“EcrireenanglaisauQuébec :undevenirminoritaire?” McGimpsey, David.“A Walk inMontreal: Wayward StepsthroughtheLiterary Marcotte, Gilles.“NeilBissoondaithdisait…” Leith, Linda.“QuebecFictioninEnglishduringthe1980s: A CaseStudyin Lapointe, Martine-Emmanuelle.“Leslieuxdel’écrivainanglo-québécois: Harel, Simon.“Lesloyautésconflictuellesdelelalittératurequébécoise.” ---. “Y a-t-ildesromansquébécoisenanglais?L’exemple de Hamel, Yan. “Yvette, SolangeetChantal:lesQuébécoisesdeMordecaiRichler.” ---. “LeplaisircoupabledelireRichler.” Guy, Chantal.“Mordecai lemaudit.” Brossard, Nicole.“Quelquesréflexions.” Bordeleau, Francine.“LemondeselonMordecaiRichler.” Studies 71 (2000):150-168. Politics ofContemporaryEnglishQuebec.” 6-11. Marginality.” David Homel.” institution etfiliationslittéraireschezMordecaiRichler, GailScottet Québec Studies de MordecaiRichler.” Voix etImages 104 (2001): 26(1998/1999):26-37.

Barney’s Version. 18. Québec Studies 30.3(2005):57-71. 44(2007/2008):41-52. Voix etImages Québec Studies Works Cited Québec Studies Toronto: Knopf, 1997. 9 (1989/1990):95-110. La Presse 30:3(2005):73-96. The NewYorker La Presse Québec Studies 32(2001/2002):57-68. Québec Studies . 23Sept.2007.8. 44(2007/2008):95-101. . 23Sept.2007.10. Essays onCanadianWriting . 19Jan.1998. 81-82. 26(1998/1999):12-14. Lettres québécoises Barney’s Version 26(1998/1999): Québec

Foreword 73 Homogenization of Identity Vincent Di Sciullo Vincent Globalization, Globalization, Quebec’s Resistance to Cultural Resistance to Cultural Quebec’s Ethnicity, and Politics Politics and Ethnicity, 74 Di Sciullo result inpoliticalbacklash or restructuring. may which identity, cultural turn, on effect protracted In a have societies. processes these amongst integration and communication increasing in results which change, economic and technological rapid of for processes the Therefore, in grounded is conclusions. globalization of notion draw the paper, this of to purpose the ended open too globalization framework of the facets.” leaves it processes globalization; many of theparticular concept the having within interest emphasize of processes not of does definition to set this refer However, “a may one as level, simply basic most globalization its At analyses. and applications policies diverge fromprotectionrightstowardseconomicdevelopment. since the late 1980s has made the political discourse of Quebec’s language language policy orientation. A focus on neoliberalism in the world market their adapt to Quebec in politicians constrained has economy new the of identity.of Finally,politics emergence in the engage to incentive an have If constituents demonstrate an opposition to globalization, then politicians culture. on globalization of influence direct the on than rather power, to accede to discourses anti-globalizationist adopting politicians of analysis the on placed be should emphasis more that suggested is it Furthermore, society. of segments targeted oppose the in effectively anglicization of Quebec level increasing in the laws this language In that affairs. proposed is international it conducting sense, in English of importance and the system, economic international the within dominance language English the the to of attributed is This politics. local and globalization of globalization. of influences cultural effectivelythe can resist politics local that evidence culture may not be warranted; on the contrary, the case of Quebec provides on globalization of effects the on emphasis that argued identity.be will It cultural nation’s a on consequences direct hold globalization” of “forces the society. that influence perceived Consequently,will is globalization it of dynamics the how determine cannot politics local of actions the that C lblzto? u t te at oe dsrpnis between discrepancies held often power is it institutions, supranational and vast governments local the of influences to cultural Due the globalization? oppose effectively politics local an coal ltrtr o goaiain s nnae wt diverse with inundated is globalization on literature Scholarly There is a tension concerning language use between the processes 1

Di Sciullo 75

3 States seeking to participate in the 2 English and the Post-WWII Economic Order Economic the Post-WWII and English The creation of an international economic system resulted in the As highlighted by Cox, the beginning of America’s contemporary contemporary America’s of beginning the Cox, by highlighted As Politics Politics of identity deriving from the processes of globalization The post-war order established by the United States was effective the reality of the top-down management of the global order by the United States: and arms production occupied in the global economy during this period. revealed which 1968-1975, in emerged crisis a Cox, by noted as However, in managing and promoting the economic growth of its participants during participants its of growth economic the promoting and managing in war that role the to part, large in attributable, is This 60s. early and 50s the order—the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the the Agreement General regard and on Trade Tariffs to (GATT)—in trade World Bank, and and convertibility.” liberalization and exchange-rate stability system evolved, additional institutions were created, and the the system power over its participants of increased accordingly. Cox explains that “States became accountable to agencies of an international economic Woods Woods accord lost a significant amount of their powersovereign entities; as autonomous their economic welfare functioning became of tied the international to economic the system. As proper the international legitimization of international institutions Bretton the signed had that states to sense, this In agreement. the of functions preside over the various institutions in order to be compatible to those is important of to the note that United the States. Bretton Woods It system is affairs. international in language a English the of prominence contemporary marker for the system attempted to strike a balance between a liberal world market and domestic responsibilities of states.” American-led economic system would be required to alter their domestic Woods system. Woods The Bretton Woods agreement was the initial model for creating economic linkages between cosigning states, Woods whilst contributing Bretton “the Cox, by noted As hegemony. American of spread the to that established English as the international mode of communication. as the international mode of that established English global economic dominance is linked to the establishment of the Bretton relations after the Second World War “Global World War. Robert Restructuring: W. Cox Making in Sense Political of Economy” provides an the understanding of the Changing historical process International are often couched in linguistic divisions. In a great number of cases this is attributable to the dominance of the English language in international 76 Di Sciullo get intertwined with issues about globalization: as a tactical or strategic or tactical a as globalization: about possible issues with intertwined get these reviewing “after Brawley, by linkages, we need to turn to a second way in which the politics of identity evidence to brought as systems have an effect on the transmission of cultural products. However, group’s perceived identity. One such example is how integrated economic essential dynamicofglobalization. As saidbySonntag, an is politics Sonntag global and language Nepal. between relationship and the that Africa, believes South India, France, States, United the of English Global of in Sonntag, K. Selma regulation. economic through states of population the upon influence of levels increasing induced has is it sense, this In implies possible body.to say that the development of the international economic system electoral which any to governments, accountable not with are they relationship that power vertical a hold relation to the domestic sphere in of institutions states. supranational International of economic importance institutions the understand to one allows Drn ti pro, h blne cmrms o Bretton of compromise balanced the period, this “During globalization, botheconomicandcultural.” of politics the are English global and of politics efficiency The opportunity. on based calculations economic as cold identity, as and well status about information is use language in Embedded communication. of means a and marker cultural a both is acknowledged, widely is as language, for […] culture and politics between relation the understand to attempt an for focus ideal the is globalization of dimension linguistic “The interdependence, andcompetitiveness.” their own publics through the new vocabulary of globalization, of ears and eyes the in accountability external this mystify to a constrained were they to and economy; global the as accountable personified effectively more became nilly willy- economy.States global a of exigencies perceived the to economies domestic of subordination towards shifted Woods xmnn te salsmn f h itrainleooi order economic international the of establishment the Examining There are many ways that globalizing processes can influence a influence can processes globalizing that ways many are There Ethnicity, globalization,andlocalpolitics , examines the influence of English on the populations the on English of influence the examines , 4

5

h Lcl Politics Local The n ébuleuse

Di Sciullo 77 In this 7 , provides , Therefore, it 9 In this light, if there is a significant significant a is there if light, this In 6 Les enjeux des conflits linguistiques conflits des enjeux Les Quebec’s Resistance to Globalization Resistance Quebec’s The interesting contrast highlighted by Poppi is that within within that is Poppi by highlighted contrast interesting The 8 Michel de Coster, in Coster, de Michel For Poppi the contemporary situation of globalization resides in Cesare Poppi, in “Wider Horizons with Larger Details”, examines debate, the issue is However, necessarily the underlined recurrent use by of economic discourses grievances. tying economic systems to political and cultural issue in Belgium, important theme in de Coster’s analysis is that at the outset of Switzerland, a language and Canada. An an important synthesis of how the French language has been a central the processes of globalization are threatening a group’s identity through political discourses. is an aspect of ethnicity that is particularly resilient to the cultural processes of homogenization induced by globalization. also one Furthermore, of the it best-suited instruments is for politicians to establish how would be accurate to infer that politics of identity occupy a central role in the mobilization of cultural groups in differences order with to the commensurate global their political and economic systems. Language articulation of differences. As it moves on, the differential traits of a given a of traits differential the on, moves it As differences. of articulation cultural formation are made commensurable, and their difference can be made to appear as a determination of the ethnic subject.” the transformation of the idea of global diversity into cultural differences. the of transformation the idea of global diversity into cultural differences. He claims that “Globalization provides the context for the systematic societies, groups seek to either redefine their identity in accordance with globalization, or they attempt to make identity claims globalization. in opposition to greater role in political rhetoric.These notions, however, are also congruent congruent also are however, notions, rhetoric.These political in role greater and communication institutional of relations global of structuring the with legitimization. “globalization must be understood as the condition whereby strategies localizing become systematically connected to global concerns.” sense, the tendency to emphasize “locality” and “difference” assumes a further penetrate a society, or are contained by political backlash. by political or are contained a society, further penetrate the dynamic between ethnicity and globalization. Poppi purports that group group that opposes globalization within a incentive to society, engage in politics of In politicians identity. turn, politics of identity can have an be identified as a determinant factor ofwhether globalization processes maneuver by political entrepreneurs.” political by maneuver 78 Di Sciullo linguistic choice inevitably opens a space for political backlash. Therefore, aine f h lnug dsore ihn ubc Utmtl, n 1969, in Ultimately, Quebec. within discourse language the of salience political the determine would pressures these to responded government to attributed disparity socio-economic economy.the federal Inevitably,of the dominance how English-language the to relation in ground more gaining was discourse francophone societal The Quebec. address from arising increasingly pressures to had government federal Canadian the in Quebec and Canada Québec au et Canada au politique in identity of politics concerning witness tooneoftheissuesthatbecameexacerbated by localmedia. Ch the and anglophones for Elizabeth Queen Montreal—the in hotel important an of naming future the to related nationalists squares, by engaged streets, debate particular Abuildings. of and naming the over quarrels various included identity primacy. linguistic affirm to seeking continually and was discourse Coster,political de French the between conflicts political English communities. Particularly within the city of Montreal, of as noted by center the became and French-Canadians withafocusonethnicidentity. by felt grievances economic of discourse political the supplanted Quebec within language French the protect to prescriptions policy onwards, 1960 positions. managerial higher-paid to access especially Canadians, French-speaking for possibilities recruitment job the limiting was Canada in anglophones perceived of prowess financial was and economic the It that communities. anglophone and francophone between province. the discrepancies employment of equalization of the toward Canada, as well as anglicization the back push Moreover, it to Quebec was a decisive attempt in to desire orient public divisions policies within a Quebec, internal the espousing around framed was agenda political the of initiator the was 1960, in to power acceded which party, Liberal the of head Lesage, Jean that specifies Coster De Quebec. in divide language the of politicization the for marker incentive an is uncontestable mobilizingforce. it politician’s since debate, national the the to central to identity of politics point make to would understanding rationalist a acl atl n Mri P Martin and Martel Marcel value, symbolic unequivocal assumed Quebec within Language The first

xmls f h reoi tnin egnee b pltc of politics by engendered tensions rhetoric the of Examples R é volution tranquille âteau Maisonneuve for francophones for Maisonneuve âteau . They . is generally seen as the contemporary â ut ics te aiu issues various the discuss quet

R highlight that during the 1960s, the during that highlight é ouin tranquille volution 10 Effectively,from age et Langue Lesage’s . —bears 11

Di Sciullo 79

12 was primarily to . On one hand, the hand, one On .

volution tranquille é R .

14 Therefore, regardless of one’slocation in Canada, in one’slocation of regardless Therefore, 13 would emerge in the form of the infamous charter of charter infamous the of form the in emerge would âquet note that the scope of Trudeau’s decision aimed to aimed decision Trudeau’s of scope the that note âquet An important focus was placed on the immigrant population of The goal of the first According to Martel and Pâquet the francophone reaction to the Ottawa’s solution to the widening language divide was to promote to was divide language widening the to solution Ottawa’s volution tranquille volution é the workplace, immigrants speaking neither official language would be directed towards learning English over French. However, the crux of the Canada that had arrived since the end of the Claims Second War. World were being made that since English was the primary language within and social realms, was responsible for the inferior position of the French language within Canada. had been gained since the 1960s would not be lost. the In passing the of the preamble Bill it to was argued that the incorrect use of the French economic both in divide, French-English the with conjunction in language R the French language: Bill As 101. highlighted by de Coster, the essential motivation behind these laws was to ensure that the political ground that substantiate the increasing seclusion respect to the growing economic imbalance felt between French and English by French-Canadians communities.It with was not until 1977, however, that a resurgence of the attain a majority of seats within parliament, and simply abolish the new law or render it powerless it provided much needed accessibility. However, reluctance to there accept the was law as fixed, a since it had general not been enshrined in the constitution. There was a fear that an anti-bilingual party could easily the new language law with a legal tool destined to protect English within relations minority-group managing those hand, other the On province. the within federal institutions were quite supportive of the new law, since adoption of French as a second official language varied language official second a as French of adoption unilingual portion of the French-speaking population in Quebec equated from cultural heritage. cultural from provide to required be would government federal the of levels multiple the and English. services in both French the prime minister at the time that Canada adopted the Official Languages Languages Official the adopted Canada that time the at minister prime the P and Martel Act. separate considered be should which choice, individual an language make within Quebec by introducing French as the second official language. official the second as French by introducing Quebec within was Trudeau Elliott Pierre bilingualism. institutional through unity national the decision was made to try and quell the fear of ethnic homogenization 80 Di Sciullo argumentation behind Bill 101 put the focus on the apprenticeship of the of apprenticeship the on focus the put 101 Bill behind argumentation n re t rglt te plcto o te e lnug conventions, language new the of application the regulate to order in The places. public naming of process the for provided framework strict the is Coster de by laws withinenterprises. new the of application proper the oversee to place in put was committee a and French, in produced be to had use public or in-office for produced employees. speaking non-French all fifty or more employees was forced to have a French had language that program for enterprise any language, French the to given priority the reflect affairswithin therealmof used was French how of order to Quebec. In in terms in sought was change radical a since stance, coercive more a took of French within an enterprise was on a voluntary basis. Bill 101, however, had previouslyattendedanEnglishschoolwithinQuebec. that parents had who students as well as English in education already their begun had who students exempted It French. be to Quebec in schools assume. would language French the of charter a that form legislative the foreshadowed framework that had been laid out in the 1960s by the in Quebec. official language of the legal system, public administration, and education the French made It infrastructures. social existing penetrate to attempted the common language spoken within Quebec. Bill 101, in its original form, inter- stabilizing as French of primacy the on renew to sought that one for based relations linguistic model provincial a of notion the rejected It Act, which made both French and English the official languages of Canada. national identitywithinCanada. institutional arrangements that essentially focused on a question of Quebec adopting of justification the for groundwork the laid effectively 101 Bill pursued. was Quebec within language French the of nature the define to economic the in system. compete to able being not as seen was it weaknesses, scholastic its to due Second, spoken. poorly and taught poorly whole, the French language within Quebec. First, the French language was seen as, on 15 h tid rnfraie ae o Bl 11 ruh t evidence to brought 101 Bill of facet transformative third The The workplace was equally transformed. Prior to Bill 101, the use strategic the schooling, to regards in Coster de by noted As Bill 101 can be interpreted as a response to the Official Languages Therefore, the establishment of a linguistically oriented policy oriented linguistically a of establishment the Therefore, 16 il 0 dced h lnug o euain within education of language the decreed 101 Bill Commission de toponymie de Commission 17 Moreover, all documents that were that documents Moreover,all of Quebec was established was Quebec of R é volution tranquille

Di Sciullo 81

, . Furthermore, the volution tranquille 19 é 53% 39% 46% English 79% 64% R Démographie québécoise This became accessible in light of the 18 was monumental. The adoption of Bill 101 French 21% 36% 47% 61% 54% Révolution Révolution tranquille Québec, Éditeur official, 1987, table 9-2, p. 322. Québec, Éditeur official, 1987, table 1976-1980 1981-1986 Source: Bureau de la statistique, 1960-1970 1971-1975 Language adopted by immigrants to Quebec Language adopted by immigrants Year Before 1960 Table 1 Table giving a priority to the French language in critical aspects of society giving a priority to the French language Comparing the periods before and after 1960, one observes that the impact the that observes one 1960, after and before periods the Comparing of the effectively resisted the influence of the processes of globalization by used language within the workplace. Additionally, as is seen in Table 1, the language adopted by immigrants took a significant shift as a result of the increasing entrenchment of the French language within institutions. workplace. As workplace. brought to evidence by de Coster, in the greater region of mother the Quebec, in live that anglophones of 75% holds which Montreal, most the become has French and French, is employees of 88.2% of tongue they were bilingual, compared to only 33% in 1971. socio-economic reorientation undertaken since the has drastically changed the number of francophone employees within the rest of Canada, within Quebec there are some measurable changes reflectthat the stated goals of the French language data reported charter.that 62% of Canadian In 1996 census citizens living in Quebec stated that concerns concerns for French identity. Although importance attributed to language and culture in earlier periods. it is hard to assess the qualitative impacts that Bill 101 has brought to the spaces. As spaces. mentioned by de Coster, although the revolution in the 1960s belonged primarily to the struggle the new for revolutionary wave undertaken socio-economic in 1977 emancipation, gave greater weight to which which apply to street names, squares, historical sites, and other public 82 Di Sciullo Heller, the and Silva de by argued development. As economic in community bolster to competitiveness, economic program national a of establishment the international in resulted have sense, neoliberal and rights minority Quebec. rural of segments homogenous the from force labor the of urbanization the in resulted has increasing use of French within the working environment of urban centers The Quebec. of populations rural the in crisis economic an of emergence the to led 70s and 1960s the during laws language and discourse political changing international economic system. Inthisview, theconsequence of adapt its approach to safeguarding francophone communities in light of the to economic development”, elaborate upon the idea that Quebec has had to rights minority from shift discursive the in State the of role the producer: rights. language protecting than rather products, cultural exporting on focus to globalization concerning discourse political the of shift a in resulted has development.” and growth long-term of gains expense the for short-term at activities economic of financialization promote to and globalization, accommodate to order in globe the around countries in landscape legislative the alter “to attempt an been has there sense, this In market international directed the to accessibility greater has corporations order provide in to market which domestic the order, over control their economic reduce to governments neoliberal international the of exchanges between financial states. Scholars of associate flow this trend the with the on emergence importance greater placed has which economy, those communities entertheglobalized new economy.” help to how of one become therefore has state the for question The crisis. economic in precisely communities be homogenous rural, to the understood was question in community the development economic an discourse to an older one of community reproduction, in which harnessing identity, collective curtailed by shared interests in the maintenance of francophone was employability individual on focus state’s neoliberal “The mne d Sla n Mnc Hle, n Fo poetr to protector “From in Heller, Monica and Silva de Emanuel Since the 1980s there has been a qualitative shift in the international Quebec andtheChangingInternationalEconomy 21 Competing interests within Quebec between Quebec within interests Competing 20 In Quebec, this Quebec, In 22

. Di Sciullo 83 Conclusion

There There is a semblance of continuity in the policy orientation being The central question of this paper has been to address whether Since the global economy has ascribed greater importance to Nationalist Nationalist politicians in the province have built their campaigns 23 However, using the case of Quebec, this paper has argued that it is possible is it that argued has paper this Quebec, of case the using However, for local politics to generate a discourse, while effectively resisting the international economic system. Consequently, it is processes perceived of that globalization the are conducive to cultural homogenization. because of their management of the relationship international between states economy. and Thus, international the institutions has resulted in the necessity of governments to act according to the fluctuations of the states. It is unquestionable that the processes of globalization have induced have globalization of processes the that unquestionable is It states. and entities supranational unelected between relationship power vertical a countries of populations the over power have entities These governments. or not power observed local frequently the of politics light in can arises question This effectively globalization. oppose the cultural influences of differential between international economic institutions and sovereign of language rights to economic development, language has remained the central device for politicians to accrue political capital through politics of identity. the political discourse within Quebec has undergone a qualitative towards the shift exportation of language skills and cultural products. protection In the from changed this has discourse the of focus the although sense, world.” the ability of firms to generate capital (as opposed to states) the focus of Official Languages (2003) invested $20 million (CDN) to create a language a create to (CDN) million $20 invested (2003) Languages Official industry association to coordinate the industry of translators, interpreters, etc., and to promote Canadian language products and services around the been to focus on language not only for its symbolic value, but also as a skill to develop a targeted, exportable, As industry. brought to evidence by de Silva and Heller, “the Canadian government in its Action Plan for on the basis of championing minority 1960s. The rights approach to counter within the economic Canada crisis in rural since Quebec has the adopted adopted by politicians; however, the reality of Quebec’s stagnant population has shifted the discourse away from rights rural and towards access market. to the international

84 Di Sciullo cultural dominationresultingfromglobalization. 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 it maynotbesustainableinthelongrun. salient politically and present that suggests Quebec within observed shift qualitative the Canada, within remains divide maintain. language to the difficult Although increasingly Quebec in discourse nationalist the economy,international new making is 1960s, the of that to comparison in the of reality the that implies This goods. cultural and skills language of exportation the to rights minority from prescriptions policy and discourse to change its approach towards the global economy by shifting its political neoliberal had has of Quebec that adoption presented been has the it Therefore, policies. economic on focus a put has system of international economy the new the culture, on globalization of influences the defy to deCoster, Ibid.,172. Québec: unesynthèsehistorique MarcelMartelandMartinPâquet. Ibid.,139. belge, Suisseetcanadien enjeux desconflitslinguistiques: lefrançaisàl’épreuve desmodèles MicheldeCoster. “Lareconnaissanced’unenationquébécoise.”In Ibid.,298. Ibid. arguments ethnicity andglobalization.”In CesarePoppi.“Wider Horizons With Larger Details:subjectivity, Brawley, in linguisticglobalization SelmaK.Sonntag. Ibid. Ibid.,46. Underhill. New York: St.Martin’s Press,1994,45. Changing GlobalOrder international politicaleconomy.” In Robert W. Cox.“GlobalRestructuring:makingsenseofthechanging assessing consequences MarkR.Brawley. lhuh h cs o Qee dmntae ta i i possible is it that demonstrates Quebec of case the Although The PoliticsofGlobalization by Alan Scott. Les enjeuxdes conflitslinguistiques The PoliticsofGlobalization:gainingperspective, The LocalPoliticsofGlobalEnglish:casestudies . Peterborough,ON:BroadviewPress,2003,11. by RichardStubbsandGeoffrey R.D. . Paris:Harmattan,2007,138. . Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks,2003,1. London: Routledge,1997,285. Endnotes The LimitsofGlobalization:casesand . Montreal:Boréal,2010,179. Langue etpolitiqueauCanada etau Political Economyandthe , 159. , 141 Les Di Sciullo 85 .

Les enjeux World World Critical Globalization Studies Critical Globalization 8 (2009): 97. Political Economy and the 36, no. 12 (2010): 630. 36 :12 (2010): 627-631. by Richard Stubbs and Geoffrey R. D. R. by Richard Stubbs and Geoffrey Lang Policy Works Cited Works Paris: Harmattan, 2007. 137-150. . “Les relations entre le Québec et les francophones et les francophones entre le Québec “Les relations Le français au Québec. 400 ans d’histoire et de vie. d’histoire au Québec. 400 ans Le français Critical Sociology . Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2003. . Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, Le français au Québec: 400 ans d’histoire et de vie. Le français au Québec: 400 ans d’histoire The Politics of Globalization: gaining perspective, assessing The Politics of Globalization: gaining Critical Sociology Order.” Order.” Québec.” In Québec: Fides, 2003, 343-347. international political economy.» In international political economy.» Changing Global Order 45-59. Press, 1994. St. Martin’s York: Underhill. New cgco_2009_001c-eng.htm (accessed November 16, 2010). cgco_2009_001c-eng.htm (accessed November des modèles belge, l’épreuve des conflits linguistiques: le français à Suisse et canadien New York: Routledge, 2005. York: New consequences economic development.” economic development.” Ibid. 110. “From Protector to Producer,” De Silva and Heller, Ibid., 142 Ibid., Ibid. Ibid., 143. G. Gagnon. Alain In hors Québec.” 2003, 345. Québec: Fides, and the Capitalist Globalization, David. “Neoliberalism, Fasenfest, Order.” World to Producer: “From Protector , and Monica Heller. De Silva, Emanuel to in the discursive shift from minority rights the role of the state Ibid. Gagnon, Alain G.. “Les relations entre le Québec et les francophones hors Alain G.. “Les relations entre le Québec et les Gagnon, Fasenfest, David. “Neoliberalism, Globalization, and the Capitalist Fasenfest, David. “Neoliberalism, Globalization, Cox, Robert W.. «Global Restructuring: making sense of the changing «Global Restructuring: making sense of the changing W.. Cox, Robert De Coster, Michel. «La reconnaissance d’une nation québécoise.» In De Coster, “Canada at a Glance 2009.” Statistics Canada. http://www45.statcan.gc.ca/2009/ “Canada at a Glance 2009.” Statistics Canada. Brawley, Mark R.. Brawley, Appelbaum, Richard P., and William I. Robinson. I. Robinson. William and P., Appelbaum, Richard 22 23 21 20 16 17 18 19 15 86 Di Sciullo Martel, Marcel,andMartinPâquet. De Silva,Emanuel,andMonicaHeller. “FromProtectortoProducer:therole Sonntag, SelmaK.. Saideman,Stephen.“InternationalRelationsofEthnicConflict.”Political Poppi, Cesare.«Wider Horizons With Larger Details:subjectivity, ethnicityand linguistic globalization September 3,2010. Science course:POLI442.McGillUniversity, Montreal,QC, by Alan Scott.London:Routledge,1997.284-305. globalization.» In Québec: unesynthèsehistorique development.” of thestateindiscursiveshiftfromminorityrightstoeconomic The LocalPoliticsofGlobalEnglish:casestudiesin Lang Policy The LimitsofGlobalization:casesandarguments . Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks,2003. Langue etpolitiqueauCanada 8(2009):95-116. . Montreal: Boréal,2010.

Images 87 Images of Canada 88 Images

Jake Stromberg, 2010, Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland Images 89

Matthieu Santerre, 2011, Canadian Winter 90 Images

Ameer Hussain, 2010, Spokespeople, Montreal, Quebec Images 91

Louise Pick, 2010, Loon on Bob’s Lake, Kingston, Ontario 92 Images

Carolyn Rowan, 2010, Dorothy, Alberta Foreword 93 David Nagel David

Marriage of Interest of Interest Marriage How the West Was Won, 1870-1914 Won, Was West the How A Convenient Canadian Canadian A Convenient 94 Nagel f 82 n a agesv imgain oiy ad h pooin and promotion the and policy, immigration aggressive an Act and Lands 1872 Dominion of the Pacific through West Canadian the of transcontinental settlement the primary the Railway, three of on construction rested Policy the National objectives: the of success The 1879. in proposal budget its in Party Conservative the by established formally was policy government economy.This national the integration into provinces western the of ensuring by Confederation consolidate to attempt an as effort tosettlethewest. of national concerted a in provinces western to immigration encouraged that alignment the policies to led was forces augmenting these west interests; economic and the political of integration successful Canada’s of feature pivotal The whole. a as immigration increasing at aimed policy step was the habitation of the west, which was part of a larger government multiple served and purposes settlement for both the government and private business. spearheaded The third and final it as frontier, western conquering for the tool integral especially an was railroad The settlement. and immigration western as well as Dominion, the of expanse the across stepwas trade for allow would Thesecond that railway transcontinental a of construction Cree. the by Plains inhabited the originally specifically path Indians, the American clearing was frontier western in opening the up step first The interests. business alongside closely working expanse ofthewest. interests that were eager to take advantage of the vast, largely undeveloped government infrastructure. This expansionist government policy aligned with business Canadian the Confederation, realized it had to act quickly in to integrate the provinces into a membership single national provincial period immediately following Confederation. Concerned with maintaining the west spanned many decades, but the major groundwork was laid in the ‘conquered’Canada which by process The feat. substantial a was growth westerly of and achievement Canada’s unproven provinces, the western from unsettled largely Canada, of centres population and economic, A Pursuing theNationalPolicy: The IntegrationoftheProvinces The west was won through a process facilitated by the government The Canadian government’sCanadian the WestThe settle effortsto seen be can h wsen rvne it a ige ain Cnieig the Considering political, the nation. Ontario, and single Quebec separated that a distance sheer into provinces western the incorporate successfully to able was Confederation born newly Nagel 95

3 The National 1 Fears of American 2 Although the threat of Manifest Destiny 5 In order to counteract the US threat, Macdonald wrote Macdonald threat, US the counteract to order In 4 The National Policy was a defensive governmental stance in light in stance governmental defensive a was Policy National The Economic factors were another major influence in the development the in influence major another were factors Economic By establishing a presence in the west, Canada could effectively focus on its domestic goals, particularly the development of the potential of the western frontier. stimulate domestic industrial growth, thereby reducing dependence the US market. External political and economic factors on caused Canada to War War interrupted Canada-US trade, and the resultant highlighted economic the turmoil need for Canada to protectionist develop tariffs introduced industry by the of National its Policy were own. intended The to development at the top of the Canadian government’s priorities. government’s development at the top of the Canadian of Canada’s policy towards western development. The American Civil that “One of the first things to be done is to show unmistakably our resolve resolve our unmistakably show to is done be to things first the of “One that to build the Pacific Railway.” would never materialize, it played a prominent role in placing western Railway, Railway, Macdonald acknowledged that “the United States Government the of possession get to war, of short [could], they all do to resolved [was] territory.” western and supplies across Canada with against speed Canada western defend to need the and recognized Macdonald A. John efficiency. Prime Minister Trunk Grand the of president the to Writing expansionism. US of threat the settlements to central Canada via would a greatly transcontinental strengthen its railroad, strategic Canada position, for arise, the should railroad would any enable the government conflict to transport both troops Representatives in 1866 (though the bill was quickly defeated). 1866 (though the bill was quickly Representatives in established newly connecting by Furthermore, land. its to claim its defend to the American Doctrine of expansionism were Manifest heightened when a Destiny.” bill providing for the absorption American territories was introduced into the House of of all British North ambitions affecting Canada’s national integrity. Indeed, as Vernon Fowke Indeed, Vernon as national integrity. ambitions Canada’s affecting states, “Much of the drive for the development of the Canadian West in the last half of the nineteenth century was primarily a defensive reaction the to threat direst the Perhaps affairs. international of state uncertain the of newly established Confederation was the possibility of US expansionary Policy Policy predicated Canada’s aggressive expansion to success precipitated the policy’s process by which Canada would win the the west and the west. protection protection of national industry through protective tariffs. 96 Nagel to avoidthisat allcosts. sought government Canadian the and settlers, discourage to potential the territory.”their of use made or land their crossed who the North-West of Ojibwa Angle “created the The fear of lands. violence against prospective their settlers into intruding encountered they farmers struck with the American Indians, for they would surely interfere with any Indians. Plains the with dealing for plan no had initially government Canadian the construction,” railway for land the “open and West”the of potential “agricultural the develop to Policy National the of ambitions the despite But Provinces. Prairie the in terrain key inhabited who Indians Plains the with deal to had government Canadian the settled, place. take could settlement substantial 17 the in II Charles of courtesy grant land immense an by accomplished was continent American North if westernsettlementwastobecomeareality. National Policy, there were a number of obstacles that had to be overcome into a national infrastructure. However, prior to the implementation of the North British holdings former land entire America the integrate and unity national strengthen would it growth, economic provide it would only Not pressures accentuated the importance of the development of Canada West. drove Canadianswestward. from the east. The coming economic potential for both domestic and international trade goods industrial for market substantial a constitute could help could railway, a supply central Canada of with food, while help the farming settlements in the the west with that, production agricultural for growth economic potential. Furthermore, the prairies represented of an underdeveloped source terms in British important more trade, much Eastern became Far Columbia in interest of renewal contemporaneous the high with resource and untapped 1850s the of discoveries and gold enterprise. After business for potential vast a as viewed was West Canada development. western of government’spolicy Canadian the of formation quickly changeassettlerspushedwestwardinsearch ofarableland. Preparing thePath: The Subjugationof American Indians No settlement of any sort could commence before treaties had been the of northwest extreme the of holding and up opening The political and economic domestic and international both Thus, the in influential greatly were factors economic Domestic th century, but it would be centuries before centuries century,be would it but 6 Before western Canada could be could Canada western Before 8 Any violence had violence Any 7 hs would This Nagel 97 10 After arresting their 14 After Dewdney realized that 12 Although this tactic provoked violent protest on 11 This policy met with limited success, however the The Transcontinental Railway Transcontinental The 13 After the Plains Cree interfered with the geological survey 9 The Transformative Quality of Transportation: Transportation: Quality of Transformative The The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a radically Dewdney began the process of making the Cree an administered When the Cree attempted to negotiate a reservations agreement The subjugation of the Plains Cree was accomplished through a The Cree had learned from the lessons of the American Indians transformative undertaking in the It marked development the beginning of of western numerous economic, Canada. political, and social

construction of the long awaited railway. fertile prairie lands. While the means by which the Canadian government dealt with the Plains Cree were blatantly unjust and callous, this was an essential step in opening up the western frontier for settlement and the West Mounted Police. West the settle to eager farmers for trouble further little cause would that people Riel Rebellion of 1885 gave Dewdney the perfect excuse to use military force to drive the Plains Cree principal leaders, the into Plains Cree were submission. effectively subdued by the North “starving the Cree into submission was not the means to control them,” he adopted a policy of rewards and punishments involving farming rations equipment. and that would result in a concentration of the different bands, they found that found they bands, different the of concentration a in result would that Canadian officials were well aware of the potential strategic and political implications of such unity among the Cree. the part of many American Indians, the violence actually accelerated the process of their subjugation. position before treaty negotiations had begun. Firstly, the Commissioner of Commissioner the Firstly, begun. had negotiations treaty before position getting of means a as rations use to sought Dewdney, Edgar Affairs, Indian control over the Cree. westward expansion while avoiding military confrontation. westward expansion number of tactics aimed at weakening the American Indians’ bargaining recognized.” prevented the construction of telegraph lines through their and effectively lands, it became clear that the government had to act in order to ensure in the United States, who were left aftermath of with their treaties. Thus, few the Cree “made it recognized clear that they rights would in clearly been had rights Cree until the lands their of use or settlement allow not 98 Nagel eeomns ht ol afc te nie onr. h riwy was railway The country. entire the affect would that developments success of the goals of the National Policy. The railroad did facilitate the facilitate did Policy.railroad National The the of goals the of success the to critical was that tool political indispensable an remained railroad Superior,”Lake of north the to Railway Pacific Canadian the located economics than rather meant higher costs. Therefore, Fowke notes that “Nationalism and the flag entirety of the railway line be located within Canada’s borders, even if that the route that the CPR would take, political considerations dictated that the political CPR’sthe of aspects key in many determining when example, For construction. to accordance in built specifications. In some cases, national politics was trumped economic interests the CPR in role the central Policy, its and National CPR the of construction the in government any timeheretofore.” at than numbers larger in here moving are they Westernthat and Canada, land sales indicate that settlers and land-seekers have their eyes on North- our expectations[...] our North-Westernbeyond in is particularly Canada, traffic, our of development “The that Van1902, wrote By Horne growth. great gold mine.” 1897, CPR president William Van Horne described the prairie west as “our enterprise into the west galvanized both public and private interests, and by helped stimulate the construction of the CPR. The profitability of the CPR’s a of construction railroad acrosstheplains. the justify helped industry cattle the of development the well: as But direction causative overseas. opposite the and in worked Canada arrangement the eastern to animals sale shipped and region the into stock breeding purebred transported it indispensable as industry, cattle was the railway to The off. took industry cattle the prospered, once had buffalo wild Where country. short-grass western the of plains rolling the in flourished also industry ranching the but provinces, prairie the in agriculture of development and settlement the facilitated CPR The and trade, promote west, the settle resources.” to which by natural means the Canada other gave and lumber, coal, petroleum, of railway of townsites creation some of which grew to the be important cities, Europe; and the development markets; distant from to goods immigrants of of movement the masses [...] of introduction “the in involved substantiate landclaimsthatreachedallthewaytoPacificOcean. oee, u t te iet novmn o te Canadian the of involvement direct the to due However, Canada western of potential economic recognized widely The 17 The success of the CPR is evidenced by its exponential 19 for though the CPR was an economic enterprise, the enterprise, economic an was CPR the though for 18

16 15 h CPR The Nagel 99 . : 22 When Thomas Shaughnessy, a member 20 Attracting Immigrants to the West Attracting Immigrants to the In the case of the Kootenays, the dual purpose of the “The Best Country for a Poor Man” a Poor “The Best Country for 21 Case in point: the construction of the Crow’s Nest Pass line in the in line Pass Nest Crow’s the of construction the point: in Case After the British North America Act of 1867, the newly formed The case of the Kootenays is exemplary in that the protectionist unique character and self-determination as a nation. Thus, the growth of the population of the newly formed nation was essential to its survival as the doctrine of Manifest Destiny, the widespread belief that Canada would Canada that belief widespread the Destiny, Manifest of doctrine the inevitably be incorporated into the United States America of and lose its federal Dominion of Canada had a keen interest in expansionary growth in growth expansionary in interest keen a had Canada of Dominion federal terms of both the population and the For economy. although Canada had by threatened was Confederation Britain, from autonomy greater achieved of the entire national project. Therefore, the Canadian government joined the west. with Canadian businesses to help win the Canadian intention of holding the central only became plains, actualized through economic but utilization of the this region. The intention development of the west as a market was a prerequisite for the success impulse of the National economic Policy interests, and promoted this aligned the the government’s goals expansion with those of of many Canadian national businesses. The completion of the CPR announced CPR is evident; the railway was not only opening up the west to trade, it to promote a nationalist economy was establishing a Canadian presence West Kootenays so that it could redirect the region’s traffic from American American from traffic region’s the redirect could it that so Kootenays West to Canadian channels. The CPR would thereby effectively “Canadianize the Kootenays.” trade to the Kootenays, and thus Canadian businesses benefited very little from trade in this region. In response, the CPR built a Crow’s Nest line Pass through of the the Rockies into the mining centers of the East and of the board of directors of the CPR, visited the mines in the Kootenays, he was alarmed American by character the of the towns. From a business perspective, Shaughnessy noted that Americans dominated the import 1890s was a specific American response presence to in a well-established mineral-rich British Columbia. its financialsuccess was its role of in the thewest. The ‘Canadianization’ Canadian government clearly had a political agenda to fulfill through the of the CPR. realization development development of the economy in western Canada, but just as important as 100 Nagel a Canadian entity. Immigration was the final ingredient of the National the of ingredient final the was Immigration entity. Canadian a on: focused publication typical a Spence, Thomas to According statements. that “theGovernmentshouldlookaftertheinterestsof thesettler asserted Parliament, of Member a Charlton, John 1882, In life. frontier of realized that settlers were all too often ill-prepared for the harsh conditions free land grants to intent settlers. was essentialtoCanada’s ambitionsforwestwardexpansion. companies.” interests played alarger partindetermining policy, the however, immigration of interests the support to not the and Branch that Immigration often more inclined were politicians federal the companies, the Railroad between clash the “In Interestingly, matter. different a quite was immigration of issue the interests, political as partofCanada’s goalsforthewest. process.” settlement the manner, the CPR, immigration, and of settlement were all intrinsically linked aspect an toworkon as construction labourers railway offoreign therecruitment see “immigration to since tended reciprocal, officials was CPR the relationship and the immigrants that between note to important is it However, West. Canada in national revenue. Of course, the increased railroad would help settle the immigrants crops their and labour, needed urgently of source a as served they needs: developmental Canada’s western of two served immigrants regions.” developing in settlers placing of means a as seen clearly construction that railway fact The were railroads “Colonization since logical, only was settlement preceded immigrants. of influx also massive but railway the the of expansion the by only not driven was centuries Canada. for west the win would that strategy the in component key the and Policy and productiveness, in comparison with older provinces; and provinces; older with comparison in productiveness, and manufacturing facilities; its unparalleled salubrity [ the western states of America; its climate, soil, agricultural and and advantages to the emigrant and capitalist as compared with resources its Dominion, the North-Westof the and “Manitoba n re t atat oe etes te oenet ped issued spread government the settlers, more attract to order In Canada adopted the Land Act in 1872, which provided for making by determined been have may CPR the of route the While 19 late the during growth economic of rate The 26 However, the Canadian government soon 25 eades f whose of Regardless sic th and early 20 early and ], growth 24 .” n this In 27 23

The th

Nagel 101

29 32 28 Concluding Remarks Settlers’ success on the western frontier was also was frontier western the on success Settlers’ 30 Many settlers wrote encouraging statements such as “Hoping 31 Canada won the west through the successful implementation of The Canadian government went to great lengths to the elements of future greatness and prosperity.” greatness of future the elements from the shores of the Atlantic to the Pacific. from the shores of the execution of the National Policy, combined with the subjugation of the Plains Cree, allowed Canada to win the west and establish its nationhood agricultural and mineral resources. In terms of international factors, the threat of Manifest Destiny helped stimulate the government into action concerning the need to establish a presence in the west. The successful all crucial steps towards the settling of Canada West, domestic there and were external other factors. The domestic economy was looking expansion and for the western frontier offered promising potential with its step process by which westward expansion was accomplished in to order appreciate how this was encouragement achieved. Although of the protective immigration, tariffs, and construction of the CPR were the National Policy. However, it is important to deconstruct the step by officials. may be successful.” in the matter of immigration that your efforts in Western Canada” in 1900. These letters spoke of the abundance of crops of abundance the of spoke letters These 1900. in Canada” Western in and great success that many settlers experienced; railway and government of kindness great the and independence,” “happy some mentioned the was largely successful. largely was Interior, the of Minister Sifton, Clifford of request the At documented. well Experiences “Settlers’ of collection a published Canada of government the numbers rebounded in the following years. More tellingly, a great number great a tellingly, More years. following the in rebounded numbers of Canadians moved westward during this period as well, indicating that settlers aiding and publicizing towards efforts government’s Canadian the growth in Canada. The War. annual World First the number into well of until Confederation from immigrants increased steadily entering Canada Although there was a significant drop in immigration in the 1890s, the including estimated crop yields and soil type. and soil type. estimated crop yields including increaseimmigrants to the west. Its success is measured by the population The publication went on to provide extensive and detailed as information to the specifics of frontier living and all thatsettler a expect, could 102 Nagel 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 (speech fromofficial debates,HouseofCommons, session1882) JohnCharlton. “OntheGovernmentLandPolicy intheNorth-West.” Culliton, Ibid.,144. Ibid.,136. Navvy”, 1896-1914”, Donald Avery, “Canadian ImmigrationPolicyandthe“Foreign” 1900), 40. Settlers’ ExperiencesinWestern Canada CanadianDepartmentoftheInterior, Eagle, Ibid.,477. Fowke,“NationalPolicyand Western Development,”476. Dempsey, Western Canada John A. Eagle, Ibid.,75-6. of aNation Hugh A. Dempsey, ed., Ibid.,543. Ibid.,533,537. Ibid.,528. Tobias, “Canada’s Subjection,”526. Ibid. Ibid.,521. Ibid.,520. Canadian HistoricalReview John Tobias, “Canada’s SubjectionofthePlainsCree,1879-1885,” 1928), 11. Emigration andLandSettlement John Thomas Culliton, Ibid. Fowke,“NationalPolicyand Western Development,”475. United States F. W. Howay, W. N.Sage, andH.F. Angus, (Dec., 1956),473. North America,” Vernon C.Fowke,“NationalPolicyand Western Developmentin ams=A1ARTA0005632 http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Par RobertCraigBrown,“NationalPolicy,” The CanadianEncyclopedia, The CanadianPacificRailway National Problems ofCanada The CPRWest (Vancouver: DouglasandMcIntyreLtd,1984),8. (Toronto: The Ryerson Press,1942),196-197. The CanadianPacificRailwayandtheDevelopmentof (Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1989),xi. The JournalofEconomicHistory Historical Papers, National Problems ofCanada: Assisted The CPRWest: TheIron RoadandtheMaking , 135. Endnotes 64(Dec.1983),521. (Montreal:FederatedPressLtd, Prosperity FollowsSettlement , 30. , 17. (Ottawa,Dept.oftheInterior, 1972, 135. British Columbiaandthe 16:4 Nagel 103 (Toronto: (Toronto: 26, 34. Population Size Population 16:4 (Dec., 1956): , 49. . Ottawa, Dept. of the Interior, 1900. . Ottawa, Dept. of the Interior, Prosperity Follows Settlement Settlers’ Settlers’ Follows Settlement Prosperity Prosperity Follows Settlement, Follows Prosperity 1972, 135-156. Works Cited Works Publishing information unavailable, 1900. Publishing information unavailable, 1900. Prosperity Follows Settlement: Settler’s Experiences Experiences Follows Settlement: Settler’s Prosperity Manitoba and the North-West of Dominion the North-West and Manitoba Montreal: Federated Press Ltd, 1928. National Problems of Canada: Assisted Emigration and Assisted Emigration of Canada: National Problems The CPR West: The Iron Road and the Making of a The Iron The CPR West: (accessed March 22, 2009) (accessed The Journal of Economic History National Problems of Canada National Problems . Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1989. University . Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen’s Historical Papers, Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre Ltd, 1984. Vancouver: The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Development of Western Development of The Canadian Pacific Railway and the 461-479. America.” Nation Canada. in Western http://www.canadiana.org/ECO/mtq?doc=9_00119. Canada Land Settlement. www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params= March 15, 2009). (accessed A1ARTA0005632. Canada Experiences in Western http://www.canadiana.org/ECO/mtq?doc=9_00119 session 1882) Ottawa: from official debates, House of Commons, number FC19 C36 n.40526 MacLean, Roger and Co., 1882. microfiche 1914.” Thomas Spence, Spence, Thomas Co., 1871) Rose and Hunter, Development Canada, and Skills Human Resources and Growth Culliton, of the Interior, Department Ibid., 35. Ottawa: MacLean, Roger and Co., 1882. and Co., Roger MacLean, Ottawa:

Fowke, Vernon C. “National Policy and Western Development in North Development in North Western C. “National Policy and Vernon Fowke, Eagle, John A. Eagle, John Department of the Interior. Department of the Interior. Dempsey, Hugh A., ed. A., ed. Hugh Dempsey, Culliton, John Thomas. Culliton, John Charlton, John. “On the Government Land Policy in the North-West.” (speech Policy in the North-West.” Charlton, John. “On the Government Land

of the Interior. Canadian Department Encyclopedia. http:// The Canadian “National Policy.” Brown, Robert Craig. Avery, Donald. “Canadian Immigration Policy and the ‘Foreign Navvy,’ 1896- Policy and the ‘Foreign Navvy,’ Donald. “Canadian Immigration Avery, 30 31 32 28 29

104 Nagel Howay, F. W., Sage, W. N.,and Angus, H.F. Tobias, John.“Canada’s SubjectionofthePlainsCree,1879-1885.” Spence, Thomas, Human ResourcesandSkillsDevelopmentCanada. Historical Review Rose andCo.,1871. (accessed March22,2009). Growth States . Toronto: The Ryerson Press,1942. .http://www4.hrsdc.gc.ca/[email protected]?iid=35 Manitoba andtheNorth-West ofDominion 64(Dec.1983):519-548. British ColumbiaandtheUnited Population Sizeand . Toronto: Hunter, Canadian Foreword 105 Lina Crompton a 1950s Production of Identity a 1950s Production Filmic Fabrications Filmic The National Film Board of Canada and Board of Film The National 106 Crompton book reconstructions, and methods that obscure objectiveness. However, in his inaccuracies, biases, its for theorists cultural from fire considerable under Supposed to be representative of reality, documentary filmmaking has come for Canadaasamulticultural nation. crucial role in the creation of a burgeoning, if not yet fully formed, identity a played NFB the that clear is it film, the of reading close Bill a and Nichols, and Grierson John of writings the work, his is on Drawing demonstrate will possible. cinema non-fiction of theories Ponech’s Trevor of by Tommy narrated Tweed, and exists as Kroitor both documentary and by fiction, which a written discussion feature, This and description. narration, character setting, cues, aural and visual through society Canadian 1950s of member integral and to outsider filmmakers an both The as Tomkowicz situate Winnipeg. in switchman a as works who immigrant, film. the throughout Tomkowicz strongly resonate themes these Canada, in Although not explicitly about immigration, multiculturalism, or foreigners Canada” series which celebrated the unsung heroes of Canada’sof “Faces workforce. the of part was documentary nine-minute award-winning This 1953 Kroitor’s andissues Roman ideals is these demonstrates aptly which film One society. of population stratum non-threatening and immigrant hardworking, important, an as the depicted was wherein Canada for identity multicultural a creating towards worked This Canadians. foreign-born towards felt have any fear, distrust, or racism that a wider, mainly British-based society may quelling and immigrants for need dire the reconciling with grappled NFB but pre-Immigration Point System, some English films of the 1950s at the 1946 of Act Post-Citizenship achieve. to task considerable a had post-war years the in NFB the of films the diversity, in unity in believed ideology that an of suggestion direct top-down including Grierson, John of ideas the by influenced society.Heavily Canadian in element foreign the Board of Canada (NFB) to create and disseminate educational films about Film National the to identity,turned multicultural government federal the this cultivate to order In do. longer no would nation British a as Canada I n otrn a e fr o Cnda iett. ih ih ae of rates high With immigration from interested outside identity.the British Isles, the longstanding notion of Canadian terribly of form was new a government fostering in federal the Canada, 1950s n What is Non-fiction Cinema? On the Very Idea of Motion Picture Motion of Idea Very the On Cinema? Non-fiction is What ouetr hs itrcly en srnt o te NFB. the of strength a been historically has Documentary is constructed as a “day in the life of” an elderly Polish-born elderly an of” life the in “day a as constructed is al okwc: tetriwy Switchman Street-railway Tomkowicz: Paul Paul . Crompton 107 The 2 Therefore, a 5 6 , because, despite the film’s considerable amount considerable film’s the despite because, , , Trevor Ponech instead Trevor , presents a new definition of what Ponech postulates that a non-fiction documentary does not does documentary non-fiction a that postulates Ponech 4 A documentary A is thus a representational system which uses 3 Paul Tomkowicz Paul This documentary, as well as putting Ponech’s film criticism This definition of documentary works particularly well with . If the filmmaker had the intention to produce a non-fiction, then 1 and projects of the NFB in the 1950s. Though John of Grierson, founder the NFB, did not remain at that institution for very long, his ideas theories into practice, is also an apt representation of the processes and the probability of professions like taken that be must of whole a a as film streetcar the switchman if even are artefacts, historical important still with a grain of salt. issues of immigration and national unity. The parts of this film that are Tomkowicz not overtly fictitious, such as the likelihood of people such as night, Winnipeg winter, cold, a of setting real very the Canada, in existing existing British-based society of English Canada. Ponech’s theories about theories Ponech’s Canada. English of society British-based existing documentary mean that the historian can still use this film as an historical indicator of the thoughts and actions of a government grappling with would be to do it a disservice. It is an apt representation of how the NFB – at the time more closely linked with the federal government than it is now – was producing filmsand producing identities that would alter the of possibly fictional material, it waspresented to the audience at the time, and as presently, a documentary about an otherwise unknown immigrant Canadian. To entirely discredit this film because of its fictitiousness of how things ought to be. of how things ought Kroitor’s can play a major part in creating non-fictional meaning. content need not documentary’s necessarily be an accurate representation vision filmmaker’s the of projection a be may rather but world, real the of present a depiction of the world that the filmmaker wishes the viewers to true. as adopt material fictitious Instead, elements. fictional no contain to have necessarily features that indicate a verisimilitude between the filmic world andreal world. the film,sound, special effects, (social) actors, editing and techniques to film documentary. a designated be can that from come has film whatever stylistic certain on based documentary a is film a if determines then viewer constitutes constitutes the documentary as a form of non-fictional communication. Ponech is adamant that the sole signifier that a film is a documentary is the intentionality of the filmmaker and not constituentthe parts of the Communication 108 Crompton enjoyed a long and productive life there. In “A Film Policy for Canada,” for “APolicy In Film there. life productive and long a enjoyed without thecapital andtechnologyafforded by theNFB. feat impossible an been have would This night-shift. his tofollow Tomkowiczon the filmmakers allowed camera Arriflex portable the because verisimilitude of air an with for – solely purposes commercial produced not and educational – film this make to able ofa1950s was He identity. asrealiser created position animportant holds Kroitor film, this of contribute to the daily life of all Canadians. Therefore, as a key developer as part of a project highlighting the professions that, although marginalised, Canadian unknown hard-working, a of view stereotypical, even typical, a Paul Tomkowicz as part of the “Faces of Canada” series. This film presents his later fame, Kroitor worked on this film about the Polish-born Canadian the founding filmmakers of the cinema verité movement. However, before He of film. one become to on going NFB, the at this career award-winning an enjoyed for co-writer and co-producer, director, the was Kroitor Roman creators. its motivations of and history the understand to has one film, this of background the understand fully to order in Thus film’s meaning. the of determinant primary the is filmmaker the of intentionality war societyofCanada,runsmoothly. of streetcars Winnipeg,the post- only the not also made but that elements constituent important as immigrants European encompassed that identity via the NFB and this film, was working to create a form of citizenship and government, The society. Canadian of section thoughtful and religious, humble, hardworking, a is element foreign the which in world a creates citizenry. of kind certain a create to government, federal the of arm an as films, of as a supplementary system of national education” through their production described be might what provide to war scientific and planned “a of part themselves.” by and Canada by best their do fieldofcivic whole the cover interest: what Canadians need to to“progressively know and think about if they NFB are going to the of films the “moods of resolution” to devise “a more creative citizenship.” light entertainments, but instead wants the Canadian film scene to use their Hollywood’sfostered have relaxation” of “moods that notes He Canada. for cinema uplifting and educational an envisions rather and Hollywood, by created cinema fictional frivolous and narrative the bemoans Grierson Despite this feeling though, the film is not candid, but instead a instead but candid, not is film the though, feeling this Despite the cinema, non-fiction understanding for frame Ponech’s In 9 This legacy is very apparent in Kroitor’s 8 For Grierson, the NFB was NFB the Grierson, For Paul Tomkowicz 10 7 He wanted , which Crompton 109 Paul for, as Grierson for, theorised, 12 Thus, without Kroitor’s carefully-planned Thus, without Kroitor’s he is affecting a stereotypical Polish accent, accent, Polish stereotypical a affecting is he 13 helps to create a harmonious national multicultural national harmonious a create to helps Paul Tomkowicz Paul is successful in carrying out this goal, despite existing in a Paul Tomkowicz Paul Another contention of Ponech’s is that without a directional plan, a plan, directional a without that is Ponech’s of contention Another 11 and the ideals propagated by the film – occurs half-way through, directly following his heartfelt reminiscences of the life in Poland he left behind. of his coal-oil lamp when he is sweeping the switches alone in the night. Tomkowicz of personage the both of – illumination of moment true the Yet night-time, demonstrating while that Tomkowicz, working, exists largely out of sight of the wider Canadian help population. the with or streetcar the on either As light the into brought is the Tomkowicz film progresses, Darkness makes the vista indistinct, illuminated only by street lamps and head lights. The only light that the viewer can see are these glowing orbs in film the of action the situates This street. featureless otherwise an upon this project is through visual effects of centre the down taken shot, street long a is and film the of motif compelling signage. One repeating and titles. the to background the is shot this first, At Winnipeg. in road main a liminal space between documentary and fiction. liminal space between documentary execute filmmakers the which in way One ways. multitudinous in identity teaching the Canadian public that the large foreign-born citizens. humble and lovely, hardworking, loyal, are Canadians new population of Tomkowicz the actor’s story, or whether the whole film is in fact a complete fabrication. know if the man in the fabrication. film is complete Tomkowicz, indeed whether Paul a this fact was in is film whole the whether or story, actor’s the What the viewer can know, however, is the film’s role incipiently in art is a hammer, not a mirror. art is a hammer, intentions for the work this film would do, it would not have become an instructional identity-creating feature for the NFB. The viewer does not actual, concrete, and particular; but they may be typical and too.” imaginary non-fiction film would not be a documentary, present a typical immigrant profile to the viewing public. Despite all these all Despite public. viewing the to profile immigrant typical a present this film is stillfabrications anhowever, important document, because, as Ponech elucidates, “the situations to which a non-fiction pertains may be own right. In his other works, Tweed has an English-Canadian accent. in Therefore, speaking in a manufactured and clear but broken English, designed to social actor is narrating his work and his life in Canada, but it was actually actually was it but Canada, in life his and work his narrating is actor social Kroitor himself who penned the script, and the voice-over provided narration by is Tommy Tweed, a prolific employee of the NFB in his clever clever fabrication by Kroitor and others. It is presented as if the main 110 Crompton As dawn begins to break over Winnipeg, the film returns to that same long he is safe from the violence, fear, and unemployment that many believed many that unemployment fear,and violence, the from safe is he sign for Haven Diner. This situates him in the haven that is Canada. Here, a of Tomkowiczfront of in shot lingering a through relief into brought is final piece of background imagery with an underlying ANorth andAmerica. in norm forcefulthe meaning from manner shifted slightly a in so does he However, Poland. communist in behind left has he that life different the consumerist life enjoyed in capitalist Canada as opposed to an entirely this time of day is tied to a certain product, Tomkowicz is able to engage in not at the typical point in a regular Western schedule. By highlighting that though he is eating a typical breakfast meal at the typical time of day, it is even that in ‘other’instance is this He in Canada. in day working regular clock. This creates an interesting relationship between Tomkowicz and the Crush Orange an on in focuses shot the diner, the in compatriots his like day work the of beginning the at at than day,rather working breakfast his of eat end the to cold the from in comes Tomkowicz When context. Canadian a in placed institution British overtly another Ritz, the for sign a is milieu English unapologetically an in Tomkowicz situates that sign Another Canada. in presence continuing and legacy Kingdom’s United the to nod obvious an Cigarettes, Buckingham for is this of example One advertisements. of form the in predominantly this, as such cues visual are there film the Throughout intact. remains Canada English of hegemony cultural and linguistic the where context, familiar a in situated is man this that knows viewer the Thus, milk. for advertisement an to next streetcar the from emerge him see Tomkowicz,of they character heavily-accented the from hears viewer the Before Canada. British very a of that in story are seemingly incidental, but their inclusion firmly situates this foreigner’s these of Some film. the throughout peppered signs of shots background the in manifest are These status. Tomkowicz’soutsider maintain which the newdayofaharmoniousandmulticulturalCanada. over broken have to meant is dawn the as Winnipeg,just of city the over all the immigrants that he represents. To reflect that, the dawn has broken of stories the humanise also but character, a as him humanise society of member foreign this of stories personal The present. productive and past Tomkowicz’sof harrowing enlightened now is viewer the however, time for the film. Yes, the street has now literally come into relief. At the same figuratively and literally both works illumination This street. the up shot oee, hr ae lo iul us otie i ti film this in contained cues visual also are there However, Crompton 111

national as background. The music is the is music The background. as The purpose of this filmis instead 14 only The setting of this film is very important for creating a The film also elucidates this dichotomy identity Tomkowicz’s of useful tactic for a country that is noted for its scenic When diversity. the harbours of the East look nothing like the prairies of the Centre, which stand in for all of urban Canada. Set in the dead of winter, many Canadian many winter, of dead the in Set Canada. urban of all for in stand particularly a is This Winnipeg. of trials meteorological the in share cities situated in Winnipeg. However, this film employs synecdochic techniques synecdochic employs film this However, Winnipeg. in situated throughout – Tomkowicz can certainly be used to represent the of whole the European immigrant population – and in this case, Winnipeg can film, Tomkowicz is situated firmly in his new, adoptive country. country. adoptive Tomkowicz is situated firmly in his new, film, identity which readily adopts immigrants. The film is unabashedly NFB films about immigrant groups. society, Canadian into immigrant the of integration successful the show to and so even though he reminisces about the old country throughout the process continues, they will remain will they continues, process only signifier of any sort of folk There tradition. are no representations of other practices, costumes, or foods as are sometimes presented in earlier to break over Winnipeg, demonstrating that as the about viewer the learns more Canadian immigrant population, assimilation the as but their character, nation’s folk the of background the to integral traditions will be yet will not interfere with his responsibilities as a working Canadian. The Canadian. working a as responsibilities his with interfere not will yet music is then unheard begins until to Tomkowicz reminisce fondly about starts light the when again away fades music This Poland. in childhood his the film. The combination of folk music and street sounds demonstrates that demonstrates sounds street and music folk of combination The film. the his traditions, and extrapolating out, the folk traditions of all of Canada’s immigrant groups, can enhance an understanding workforce, of Canada’s and squealing wheels of the streetcar. The music quickly viewer is fades moved onto as the streetcar the with a crush of other passengers and before he becomes a distinct character and the main focus of Tomkowicz, European-sounding folk music and the life-like sounds of the film’s world. world. film’s the of sounds life-like the and music folk European-sounding The titles at the beginning of the film are underscored by this gentle folk music alongside the sound of howling winds, driving cars, ringing bells, life. through its soundscapes. This is done through a mix of vaguely Eastern although Tomkowicz can take solace in the peace, orderliness, and bounty bounty and orderliness, peace, the in solace take can Tomkowicz although of a capitalist Canadian society, there are still markers that demonstrate how he has yet to assimilate completely into a typical Canadian way of was plaguing Eastern Europe during the communist takeovers. Therefore, Therefore, takeovers. communist the during Europe Eastern plaguing was 112 Crompton in turn look nothing like the mountains of the West, it is understandably is West,it the of mountains the like nothing look turn in narration, the film presents an authoritarian, or at least typical, view of the experiences, view thoughts, and aspirations of an average typical, Eastern European least at or authoritarian, an presents film the narration, argument.” avoice-of- well-supported and objectivity uses of borrows, heavily film commentary. of this style authority of style the which from Documentary in notes to Nichols through Bill Introduction As is society Tweed. Tommy Canadian by in performed narration integrated the still yet and to outsider an system andoutsideofitatthesametime. with this system, but in a way that is just different enough that he is in the engaging is Tomkowicz system. capitalist and consumerist normalised a of part as mannequins the by personified is Canadian this average the In case, do. to want not would Canadian average the that job this doing by extension the NFB) are inside on this cold night, watching him outside, (and keeps. filmmakers he the hours Thus, the at streets the on out is else one no night, at working mind ‘other.’not an does as he out though Even Tomkowicz marks still setting this time, same the at However, Poland. dangerous communist, and Canada free capitalist, between difference the of representative is This furs. in mannequins two between store a inside from following Tomkowicz as he sweeps the switches to filming him from for no reason by the communists in his village in Poland, the shot changes killed been have family brother’sTomkowicz’s how and of brother the story tells narrator the after Directly Poland. communist of world the horrid from haven a as Canada of view a creates also setting The society. Canadian into and film the into ticket his been has which career his is it ofthe that switches demonstrates This and Tomkowicz. from wheels hear we the before still streetcar, on focuses camera the sequence, this Following first society. of workings regular the of outside someone as than establishing rather whole, larger these a of part as after constituted is he shown case this shots.Iin is Tomkowicz passengers. and driver streetcar the upon is focus the film, the of beginning society.very the At situated also establish his connection with the wider hegemonic Canadian is which Tomkowicz in film the within settings specific The whole. the for in stand to able then is film situating this weather, common with setting by urban However, Canada. of regions all from viewers interpolate can which film national a create to challenging n o te togs faue ta css okwc a both as Tomkowicz casts that features strongest the of One te xoioy om f documentary, of form expository the , 15 This style “emphasizes the impression the “emphasizes style This 16 hog Tomkowicz’s Through al Tomkowicz Paul n an in Crompton 113 A final tactic that the film uses to advance an ideal of a multicultural of ideal an advance to uses film the that tactic final A task that the average Canadian must likewise perform all throughout the Canadian in partaking is he that demonstrates property, own their to winter when he utters phrases such as: “Sweep them up, sweep them up. Is not hard. I am healthy man.” His gentle narration over sweeping a the snow, therefore telling the story of one man through his voice ‘own’ is a novel and innovative tactic nature hardworking and simple his through performed for is This immigrants. promoting integration through humanising the middle-of-the-road Canadian that the ‘foreign to be element’ afraid is of. nothing In other NFB films about immigrant groups,actors the social often remain voiceless (largely due to technological constraints), Canada is its focus on one character. This tactic has representative for one how the filmmakers want all viewers to see immigrants man act as a personality is crafted in order in to post-war show Canada. Tomkowicz’s staying in Canada, enjoying his life, and travelling in and integrating into Winnipeg. city of Canada after years of service to the integration into the typical Canadian workforce. He continues: “No more more “No continues: He workforce. Canadian typical the into integration work. Summertime and my garden, grow tomato. Got my motorcycle. Take a trip!” reinforcing that he is a Canadian now and that he will be choice of words. The film ends with a narration of Tomkowicz’s plans for plans Tomkowicz’s of narration a with ends film The words. of choice the future. In the diner at the end of his he day, muses: “One more year, then I be sixty-five. I go for retire. That’s the law,” demonstrating his bizarre in this context, for that would typically be considered a communist communist a considered be typically would that for context, this in bizarre word. Therefore, despite his soothing recollections of a peaceful, rural life, he is still relegated to be slightly other through his (or Kroitor’s) representation of life in the old country was written by Kroitor to bring to life the caricature of the harmless immigrant rather than that of an enemy is “friends” than rather “comrades” of use his However, midst. our within create a paradox as well: “Was born on farm. Small house [...] We used to used We [...] house Small farm. on born “Was well: as paradox a create Ah, was young then. Lots chase of the good geese. times. Go in village. Comrades. Dancing [...] But it was long time ago.” This stereotypical in Poland, immediately creating a juxtaposition between the harrowing circumstances from whence he came and the quiet and unmolested life he now enjoys in Canada. Later in the film,his reminiscences ofPoland simple, simple, evident in phrases such as “In you Winnipeg can go in the street. Daytime, night-time, nobody is bother the you.” first Within few lines of narration, he tells of the murder of his brother and brother’s family back immigrant immigrant to Canada. His English is heavily accented, yet clear and 114 Crompton traditions and doing so for the good of society via Winnipeg. Another Winnipeg. via society of good the for so doing and traditions 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 issues. identity in mired government a of mind-set the understanding for source useful a therefore is and identity this foster to government the of urgency Though system. immigration presented as a documentary, this constructed piece is demonstrative of the open more post-war, a through Canada see would which character national integrative an privileged that system federal a of indicative TomkowiczPaul is Polish-born the of humanising The Canada. multicultural a of version a create to wanted government, integration opens a window into how the NFB, and by extension the federal a British-Canadianpost-warnation. in immigrants of integration the outline helps which few a elucidates film this but throughout, run that qualities as few country are there a Canada Withas disparate nation. Christian largely a into integration his ease the Read [...] bath a Bible. take Newspaper.” Casing Maybe Tomkowicz as a literate, religious man work. No off. that: night states got he I “Tonightwhen continues tactic This here. are they once bother a be not will and integrate, to willing gentle, are immigrants all that nation to NFB the cultivate as belonging to for new Canadians. This disseminates to qualities the viewing favourable are spirit nurturing and dedication whenhe that the viewer tells he retires he hopes to film continue tending to his the garden, growing tomatoes. of This end the by and France, in gardener a as time film his the of in speaks Early Tomkowicz gardening. of love his is harmlessness and trustworthiness his highlights that feature Grierson, 64. Film John Grierson,“A FilmPolicy for Canada,” in Ibid., 234. Ibid., 143. Ibid., 51. Ibid., 44. Ponech, 8. Motion Picture Communication Trevor Ponech, This nine-minute 1950s filmic representation of immigrant representation filmic 1950s nine-minute This , ed.DouglasFeatherling(Peterborough, 1998),64. What IsNon-FictionCinema?OntheVery Ideaof Endnotes (Boulder, 1999),1. Documents inCanadian 1 helps Crompton 115 > . . Directed by (Bloomington, 2001), 105. (Bloomington, 2001), Documents in Canadian Film . Bloomington: Indiana University , Produced by James Beveridge (Ottawa, by James Beveridge , Produced Works Cited Works (Toronto, 1984), xiii. 1984), (Toronto, . Boulder: Westview Press, 1999. Westview . Boulder: . Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984. Toronto of University Toronto: . . Produced by James Beveridge. Ottawa: National . Produced by James Beveridge. Ottawa: Introduction to Documentary Introduction John Grierson and the National Film Board: The Politics Film Board: and the National John Grierson What Is Non-Fiction Cinema? On the Very Idea of Motion Idea What Is Non-Fiction Cinema? On the Very Paul Tomkowicz: Street-railway Switchman Street-railway Paul Tomkowicz: Introduction to Documentary Introduction John Grierson and the National Film Board: The Politics of The Politics the National Film Board: John Grierson and http://www.nfb.ca/film/paul_tomkowicz_street_railway_switchman Press, 2001. Communication Picture Film Board of Canada, 1942. Roman Kroitor. 9 mins. National Film Board of Canada, 1953. Online. 9 mins. National Film Board Roman Kroitor. < eng/collection/ film/ ?id=10673>. Retrieved 3 December 2010. ?id=10673>. Retrieved 3 December eng/collection/ film/ Broadview Press, 1998) :261- Ed. Douglas Featherling, (Peterborough: 336. Nichols, 107. Propaganda Wartime Ponech, 99. Gary Evans, Propaganda of Wartime Holidays Winter Ukrainian 1942). Bill Nichols, Ibid., 66. Ibid., of Canada. Film Board National Collection” “Film Ponech, 73. Ukrainian Winter Holidays Ukrainian Winter Trevor. Ponech, Nichols, Bill. Kroitor, Roman. Kroitor, Grierson, John. “A Film Policy for Canada.” in Grierson, John. “A ‑nfb.gc.ca/ Film Board of Canada.

Symbols of Canadian Autonomy Canadian Symbols of American Vietnam War Resistors as War Vietnam American Exiles or New Citizens? Citizens? or New Exiles 118 Liu W the fact that some American immigrants became adherents to Canadian to adherents became immigrants American some that fact the Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) approached the draft dodger issue and movement. To demonstrate this, I will discuss the ways in which the Royal new,as regards and States, nationalist United Canadian the the to in agents active with autonomy Canadian embodied that nationalist symbols Canadian both as important ends, served resisters war and dodgers because draft was This rule. national of project Canadian the to detriment, a than rather asset, an as them perceive to received tended gatekeepers ultimately, and that, is claim principal My individuals, counseling. and aid of form the private in assistance and organizations denominational unions, sympathetic student groups, aid by resisters war defended were which among also Canadians, were migrants these However, boards. editorial and reporters newspaper and employers officials, public officers, gatekeepers various by deviants moral and criminal as conceptualized were Canada entering dodgers draft and resisters war towards feelings that ambivalence. in Tomired were objectors American with, begin showing American by begin vis-à-vis will autonomy I Here, Canada’s States. of United the symbols as exploited also were they resisters war and dodgers draft that maintained have Hagan, John and Churchill David been have immigrants swelledtomorethan250,000. these of number the American and decade, of previous the reception from doubled Canada’simmigrants 1976, and 1966 Between Canada. to and to Australia, but, more often than not, they crossed the northern border countries European to overseas went migrants these of Some exit. literal T you – Too muchwarsdowntherenon? tested butshewouldn’t listen)–Igetmanyof she said Ah vousêtesaméricain–(NofromtorontoIpro fumbling w/manuscripts-bagtypewriter&wineskin h en Icheckedintothisplace - foreign policy, soughtvenuesofescape.Onevenueescapewas Americans, unable to come to terms with their country’s aggressive he Vietnam War took place in a period of social and moral turmoil. Recent historians of the period, the most influential of which of influential most the period, the of historians Recent draft dodgerandCanadianpoet Fetherling, George by Poems” City Québec “Three from Excerpt 2 ee bet o at-mrcns, u that but anti-Americanism, of objects were 1 3 icuig border including , Liu 119 The 7 noted 9 Toronto Toronto Daily Star or of being “slobs,” “campus rowdies” or 4 One article in the 6 , made statements that had reverberations of anti- J.G. Showler, the J.G. senior Showler, immigration officer at the 5 implying that the dubious morality of the United 8 (1969), produced by Canadian filmmaker Jules Bricken, featured Bricken, Jules filmmaker Canadian by produced (1969), It is a widely circulated claim among cultural theorists that These prejudices came with the corollary belief that the political War War resisters and draft dodgers in Canada were often seen as Toronto Daily Toronto Star a psychopathic, homicidal, and suggestively protagonist homosexual on a draft-dodger murderous rampage across British Columbia. A movie surrounded draft dodgers also materialized in pop Explosion culture. The movie minds of the children with [his] views if [he] were given the job.” minds of the children with [his] views television mirrors civilization, and, sure enough, the conceptions that for being a “pacifist” (“pacifist” here was used as a euphemistic term for “war resister,” as Spears was not the former). The borough’s personnel committee allegedly expressed concerns that Spears would “corrupt the States would bleed into Canada with the arrival of war Another resisters. example was that of Gregory Spears, permanent employment a status 22-year-old with who the was Borough denied of York, purportedly the Americanism, such as “[Draft dodgers] have the [drug] connections the in United States,” beliefs and behavior of draft dodgers Canadian and wholesomeness. Ross, war quoted in resisters a statement could that appeared corrupt in the Toronto Board of Education, linked draft status with claiming criminal that activity, two high school students drug reported that they bought for a police investigation. marijuana from draft dodgers, and calling the moral equivalent of “a man who was separated from his wife.” idea that war resisters were moral deviants summoned perceptions that war resisters were criminally deviant as well. William Ross, chairman of all, has never held a decent job and has probably got more familiar than a with little marijuana.” that some residents of the borough of saw York a draft dodger as being “marijuana smokers.” Thousand Islands crossing, accused the “typical” draft dodger as being “a college dropout who has tried two or three courses and flunked them morally deviant, and moral criticisms against them went above and beyond and above went them against criticisms moral and deviant, morally disapproval of their opposition to the war. Their accused opponents them of frequently cowardice dodgers as a nationalist question had important repercussions on Canada’s Canada’s on repercussions important had question nationalist a as dodgers policy. immigration nationalism. nationalism. As well, it can be said that the framing of the issue of draft 120 Liu reviewer writing for the law.” the welcoming break and to “urgingRev.Americans of service Hord J.R. Lockhart Wilfred Rev.accused the Secretary Rt. of the United moderator Church board of evangelism Church and social United country.” a from board vetoed the grant, citing qualms about “[encouraging] people to defect grant to aid U.S. draft dodgers in Canada because the church’s evangelism CCC was not unequivocal. In 1967, the United Church cancelled a $1,000 organizations. resistance local to distribute to year previous the in $20,000 raised had Council the that reported CCC the of Wilkinson Maurice Canon 1970, September In ministry. special with them individual provide and encouraged resisters war (CCC) assist to churches Churches of Council Canadian the and of the Canadian Council of Churches was an important source of aid funds, groups. Quaker and Unitarian as 596 to 1,676 voted against providingaid. students which in referendum campus a that decision provoked a aid, provide to council previous the by taken decision a reversed This dodgers. draft to assistance providing against 1 to 12 voted year,same the of March of University the of council student the Waterloo status. immigrant landed for apply to wishing those for aid legal and placement, shelter,job temporary for money with dodgers draft fund U.S. provide to Torontoof professors a University forty by support launched drive to 1967 Toronto in favour. voted their College University in attending intervene students should Canadians that skeptical or dodgers draft of critical Canadians by criticism continual to subject and sporadic were they negotiation; However, for up Canadians. constantly were aid sympathetic of provisions by them to offered was that through aid is the migrants these for support detect to way One dodgers. draft that would“explode,”giventime. perceived as anactive threat, they were perceived as alatent one, andone territory.Canadian on draft-dodgers American When not were Americans with associated unease of undercurrent Canadian a indicated nevertheless it Canadians, some from offence drew and sentiments dodger anti-draft towards [draft dodgers].” being encouraged is that hate the for justification cheap 15 A high United Church official also informed the Draft dodgers also received aid from religious organizations, such and resisters war to opposed were however, Canadians, all Not 10 However, while However, 12 Toronto Daily Star 14 Despite this support, aid from members of the of members from aid support, this Despite Explosion 13 The Commission on Canadian AffairsCanadian on Commission The deliberately catered to American to catered deliberately accused the film of “[offering] Toronto Daily Star 11 However,in

Liu 121 One 20 Toronto Toronto Toronto Toronto 17 and the potency of symbols In any case, a survey conducted conducted survey a case, any In 16 Of the vast discussion that can be 18 on Saturday, November 4, 1967, called Canada’s open-door on Thursday, January 2, 1969: “[Canadians who accuse draft Of utmost importance to the discussion of reception Canada’s of Meanwhile, the proliferation of national myth was a way in which in way a was myth national of proliferation the Meanwhile, 19 . Symbols were important in the project of constructing what Andrew what constructing of project the in important were Symbols . policy “traditional,” citing Canada’s past as a political refuge for European for refuge political a as past Canada’s citing “traditional,” policy American political exiles and dissenters. and Revolution. In another instance, an editorial that appeared in the Daily Star Edward Broadbent of the New Democratic Party reiterated to the House of House the to reiterated Party Democratic New the of Broadbent Edward Commons that Canada had an important tradition of welcoming political refugees, which included United Empire Loyalists fleeingthe American often explicitly harkened back to this myth. For example, after Minister of Minister after example, For myth. this to back harkened explicitly often Manpower and Immigration Allan MacEachen’s May immigrants, 22 as status announcement for eligible be would deserters military American that governments could generate legitimacy and prospective influence. crucial nationalist myth was that of Canadian multiculturalism and open- dodgers draft of discussions and immigration, to regards with mindedness E. Kim calls the “pan-Canadian civil religion” because of their ability to national toward commitment individual sustain and unity national promote goals. had about post-war Canadian nationalism, there are two aspects of it that are worth emphasizing here: the potency of myth Canada] evidently regard the United States as somehow different other from foreign governments. They feel that it has a claim and on allegiance the loyalty of Canadians […]” sentiment was expressed in an editorial Daily Star that appeared in the dodgers of being cowards, traitors and unfit persons to be admitted to imperialism. Some allies of war resisters used this to critique Canadians opposed to war resisters, accusing them of subscribing to the American worldview pertaining to war resisters instead of forming their own. This Canadian nationalist facet A movement. of Canadian nationalism was its virulent critique of American modernity. Canadian nationalists American believed of face the in worldview Canadian distinct a be should there that organizations were not justified in aiding American draft exiles. American aiding not justified in were organizations draft dodgers was that it occurred against the backdrop of a burgeoning Wilfred Lockhart denied this allegation. this denied Lockhart Wilfred in 1968 by the United Church Observer showed that, among Christian the Canadian that felt 50% 2, than more polled, 201 laymen Church United that the grant was vetoed in fear of losing contributions, although Rev. 122 Liu For this reason, on the official front, Canada was generally content to content was generally Canada front, official the on reason, this For that Canada had undertaken a linear path towards the liberalization of its of liberalization the towards path linear a undertaken had Canada that away immigrantsfromthe U.S. turning for grounds be not would desertion that announced MacEachen contributed to a public outcry. Finally, in May, Immigration Minister Allan negative receptions at border points received extensive press coverage and of name the Williamby deserter Heintzelman. John from five different border points, all impersonating an American Air Force as draft dodgers. On February 8, five Canadians attempted to enter Canada well as deserters military included policy open-door this that sure making to [Canada’s immigration] regards policy.” with question irrelevant an was status] “[draft that 1969, 25, Minister in Washington,Club Press National Trudeauthe at March Prime stated on D.C., reiterated. was position this overseas, made statements homeland.” their in service military compulsory avoiding, be to appear who or to, subject are who persons of Canada to admission temporary or permanent the against prohibition specific no is “there that Landed Immigrant Status at their point of entry. for apply and country the enter to allowed be should status, draft their of irrespective resisters, draft that American clear it made Immigration, and Manpower of Minister the Marchand, Jean status. draft into inquire not should immigrants intending of questioning the that view the solidified evader.”draft a being, of suspected or be, to known is he that grounds the on solely immigrant an refuse not will “Officers that stated Operational Memorandum (OM) Number 117 on January 14, 1966, which later deputy minister of Immigration, worked towards the implementation of voiced Canada’s unwrittenpolicyconcerningdraftdodgers: Munroe, John Immigration, and dodgers. Manpower of draft Minister the oppose to Secretary or Parliamentary deter to action direct no take obligations inhiscountryofcitizenship. he is nor visitor; a as subject to removal from Canada because of unfulfilled military or immigrant an as either Canada to service in his own country has no bearing upon his admissibility n niiuls tts ih ead o oploy military compulsory to regard with status individual’s An h Cnda gvrmn atvl preutd h impression the perpetuated actively government Canadian The and Pearson Lester Minister Prime to Tomadviser policy a Kent, 27 25 Moreover, 1969 was a landmark year in 21 23 Marchand stated in 1968 26 Testimoniestheir of 24 22 n official In Kent thus Kent Liu 123

31 From 30 As a result, 28 Although Briscoe 32 Government policy with regards to draft dodgers and 29 Moreover, Moreover, the RCMP came under attack whenever they were Draft dodgers became nationalist pawns in other ways as well. making a false statement in connection with his Indignant admission Canadians to Canada. argued that the actions of the RCMP served no when Charles Blewett, a deserter who was after questioned the by RCMP Mounties received information about his whereabouts, was charged with dodgers. perceived to be acting in concert with U.S. interests. Such was the case draft dodger in Canada in the presence of the RCMP. himself was British, American, not his case put Canada on the defensive against American intelligence forays into its territory in pursuit of draft made a diplomatic trip to Washington, and Prime Minister Lester Pearson Washington, made a diplomatic trip to episode The incident. the on statement full a issue to intentions announced also led to the directive that an FBI agent could only speak to an alleged House of Commons, asked if the government would “clarify the position case was not an isolated one. of Canadian citizens,” noting that Biscoe’s In response to Gunn’s actions, Canadian ambassador Charles Ritchie that FBI agent Alfred Gunn, working out to “check of on” crossed Briscoe. over In the response, border Vancouver to Bellingham, Washington, the in speaking and Party Democratic New the of leader Douglas, Tommy dodgers as being a violation of its sovereignty. The 1966 Glen Biscoe case, Biscoe Glen 1966 The sovereignty. its of violation a being as dodgers which revolved around an alleged draft dodger from Port Moody B.C., is revelations by triggered was scandal The eye. national the caught that one criminal investigations against them. criminal investigations draft of pursuit in borders national its into incursions FBI’s the saw Canada was party due to the utility of draft-dodgers and war resisters as symbols of Canadian nationalism and of defiance vis-à-vis American pressure on Canada to ban Americans, draft-dodging to extradite them, or to assist in issue was clearly framed as a question of this national perspective, sovereignty. the lack of active political action against draft dodgers and active government monitoring of border immigrations admittance border officers) played, especially through the instauration of the points system in 1967. dodger draft the that fact the by influenced strongly was deserters military the metaphor of open gates or doors is often used to designate Canada’s reception of U.S. war increasingly took initiative in the legal role that resisters. gatekeepers(in this case, Moreover, the federal government immigration immigration policy concerning draft dodgers and deserters. 124 Liu oetc ups ad lutae ter evlt t Aeia interests. American to servility their illustrated and purpose domestic h sft ta Cnd ofrd ihu frig ennfl is o the to ties meaningful forming without offered Canada that safety the of advantage Some took dodgers Canadians.” draft and resisters “New war that as feared Canadians than rather States, thatof United was the in mainpreoccupation amnesty whose as exiles, them identified This resisters were frequently referred to as being “people without a country.” war and immigrant’sdodgers loyalty.an Draft of question the was virtue civic of discussion the in Key allies. their and dodgers draft by stressed were immigrants American professional of contributions economic the educated be to and fact that American immigrants tended to come from high-income families dodgers and war resisters mostly in concepts and principles of utility. The as such local politicsandnewleft-wingsocialmovements. causes political in involvement nationalist through Canadian time, over a perspective adopted also Americans Some homeland. new their to commitment articulating for time, same the at and, States United the rejecting and critiquing for arena discursive a as it using nationalism, politically active American expatriates in Canada “converted” to Canadian of number significant a notes, Churchill neighbor.as Southern Indeed, its of that from differed that modernity of vision a towards route Canada’s American migrants to go north meant that they were participants in charting the fact that dissatisfaction with the American way of life motivated some States, United the of colony facto de a as Canada saw dodgers draft few “not-America.” a words, Atwood’sMargaret novelist in and self-realization, and authenticity of lieu a place”; “real a as nation the of perception nationalist Canadian the reinforcing “real,” become to place a as Canada saw individuals These nationalism. Canadian of precepts the States, a United the number among them were also cultural towards and political actors who reinforced defiance and independence signified that symbolic force. institutional its losing from RCMP they the saved territory once Canadian on were publicly) least (at dodgers draft American persecuting from the nationalist symbolism that the RCMP embodied. Therefore, refraining endangered tensions these and FBI, the and RCMP the between tensions of crossfire the in caught become had migrants these because sovereignty These cases, and many others, framed war resisters as a symbol of national The question of civic virtue framed arguments in favour of draft- of favour in arguments framed virtue civic of question The While war resisters and draft dodgers were used as personal symbols 36 certainly helped to endear them to Canadians, and Canadians, to them endear to helped certainly 35 34 Though a Though 37 33

Liu 125

39 42 In the 40 Historical Statistics of Canada Endnotes and, to justify his policy towards them, Pierre them, towards policy his justify to and, 41 Moreover, it was feared that individuals who ostensibly could estimate that this number was 30, 000; David Surrey estimates that Although Canadian the number falls between 60, 000 and 100, 000. (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1983). Researchers have struggled to (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1983). Researchers Americans who immigrated to Canada determine the exact number of Kasinsky estimates that this as war resisters or draft dodgers: Renee Strauss William number was close to 40, 000; Lawrence Baskir and F.C. Leacy ed. “Series 385-416. Immigration to Canada by Country of Leacy ed. “Series 385-416. Immigration to Canada F.C. Permanent Residence, 1956-1976,” Between 1965 and 1977, Canadians felt ambivalence about the 38

1 was because of this acceptance that many war resisters and draft dodgers remained in Canada, assimilated successfully into Canadian society, and American loyalties. their assumed Canadian identities that superseded clear that prejudiced views of war resisters and draft fact, misconceptions, these immigrants were eventually accepted as more dodgers were, in of a benefit than a detriment to the Canadian project of national rule. It arrival of draft dodgers. However, this framing of the draft dodger issue as a matter of national sovereignty played an important through role in this cutting ambivalence. After time, and as it became increasingly Elliott Trudeau claimed that they were “good […] orderly students” and a particular order of things.” that their intentions were not to “upset citizenship, having found Canadian policies “more acceptable.” same vein, as one Torontonian draft super-Canadians,” become dodger claimed, “Draft dodgers former to mainstream Canadian civic values. Student Michael Wilkomir noted that migrant war resisters simultaneously “[gave] up the rights and Canadian of obligations the assumed and citizenship,” U.S. of obligations who served a prison sentence for his refusal to serve, “at least he [stayed] in.” [believed] he what for courage with up [stood] and country own his in the of commitment the stressing by responded allies their and resisters War those who stayed in their own country and rather attempted than to immigrating. effect Herb change Gott, who hosted a CBC radio reiterated program, this point, saying of heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali, not be loyal to their country of origin would correspondingly be disloyal to their Those receiving who country. believed this American argued that were loyalties national forming of capable were who war the to opponents country. 126 Liu

4 3 2 census reportsindicatethat1.3%ofresidentstheMetropolitan Canada,” Fran Dickson, “U.S. draft dodgers have no guts and don’t contribute to Canada Gatekeepers: ReshapingImmigrant LivesinColdWar This isinlinewithhistorianFranca Iacovetta’s useofthetermin concept thathasideological, as welllegal,meaning. and inconferingcitizenship, whereas citizenshipistakentobea reception of American migrantsandwho intervenedinnegotiating migrants toCanada,butalsothosewhoplayedarolein the authorities whodeterminedadmissionrequirementsandregulations for Inthisessay, Iusetheterm“gatekeepers”torefernotonly War American Boys:DraftDodgersinCanadafrom theVietnam (Cambridge: HarvardUniversityPress,2001),x;FrankKusch, Liveright Publishers,1971),9;JohnHagan, The NewExiles: American War ResistersinCanada (Knox: PennsylvaniaFreePress,1972),7;RogerNeville Williams, Canada: TheWorld ofthe American Military-PoliticalRefugees Praeger Publishers,1999),xv;KennethFredEmerick, North to Canada: Men and Women Against the Vietnam War willingly used by resisters to refer to themselves. See James Dickerson, out that“deserter”and“dodger”werelabelsthat,inmanycases, expressed purposeofavoidingthedraft.KennethFredEmerickpoints “draft dodger”referstothose Americans whoimmigratedwiththe American immigrantstoCanadaduringthe Vietnam War. The term dodging partners. Women numberedslightlymorethanhalfof many women,whoimmigratedincompanywiththeirmale,draft- Vietnam, althoughnotnecessarilytoavoidthedraft. This includes Canada asaresponsetotheUnitedStates’ militaryengagementin The term“warresisters,”here,refersto Americans whomigratedto Supply &Services,1984). 1982), 67-86; Military and Draft Resisters in Canada 1978), 27-35, 49-52; David Surrey, the War andtheVietnam Generation Baskir and William A. Strauss, (New Brunswick: Transaction Books,1976),77-81;LawrenceM. Refugee from Militarism:Draft-Age Americans inCanada reporting theirnationalityandwhereabouts.SeeReneeG.Kasinsky was higher, asmanyyoung desertersweretransientoravoided Toronto areawerefromtheU.S.,itislikelythatthisnumber (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001),9. (Toronto: BetweentheLines,2006). Toronto Daily Star Census ofCanada1911-1981 , February16, 1968. Chance andCircumstance: TheDraft, Choice of Conscience: Vietnam Era (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, (New York: Praeger Publishers, (Ottawa:Departmentof Northern Passage (New York: War Resisters

(Westport: All

,

Liu 127

, , Toronto Toronto , , October 26, 26, October , Toronto Daily Toronto 30 (15 March oronto Daily oronto , March 28, 1967. Toronto Daily Star Daily Toronto , December 7, 1968. Toronto Daily Star Toronto House of Commons debates, Toronto Daily Star Daily Toronto Toronto Daily Star Toronto United Church Observer United Church , September 30, 1967. Toronto Daily Star Toronto (Queen’s Printer, 1967), 1447. 1967), Printer, (Queen’s , Vol. 54, No. 3, International Studies in the Vol. , , December 26, 1969. thoroughly examined by American sociologist Robert American sociologist thoroughly examined by , May 26, 1969. , May Toronto Daily Star Toronto , October 2, 1967. , August 26, 1968. August , box 10), File 5660–1, pt. 3, “Letter from Jean Marchand, Minister of Cited by David to James Larkin”, March 28, 1968. Manpower, and New Social Movements in Toronto, 1965-1977” (Pdiss., University University (Pdiss., 1965-1977” Toronto, in Movements Social New and August 2001), 193. of Chicago, RG 76, vol. 1210 (interim NAC, Records of the Immigration Branch, Sociology of Religion (Autumn, 1993), 258. The term “civil religion,” 258. Sociology of Religion (Autumn, 1993), Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the as Kim notes, was originally coined by concept has been Bellah. Hagan, 36. Canada, Parliament, House of Commons, Volume 2 report: official Archives of National Appendix B, 26 November 1969, Document, Cited in Hagan, 38. Canada, RG 76, vol. 983, File 5660-1. American Expatriates Away: David Churchill, “When Home Became Andrew E. Kim, “The Absence of Pan-Canadian Civil Religion: Absence of Pan-Canadian Civil Religion: Andrew E. Kim, “The of Canadian Culture,” and Conflict in Symbols Duality, Plurality, Sociology of Religion from many churchgoers,” Emerick, 234. drop – aid, feared collections would “Church killed draft-dodger official,” T says,” “Draft-dodger aid not killed in fear moderator Star Nam,” Viet on Vote You “How 1968):16, 18. care is Canadian, not U.S. law,” “RCMP’s January 2, 1969. Thursday, Toronto Daily Star Toronto September 22, 1967. dodger aid,” “Students veto draft gets a cold shoulder Edmonstone, “The lonely draft dodger Wayne Daily Star Daily Ibid. to hire others, too,” York borough refused says “Pacifist Star drugs,” sell dodgers draft deny “Police 1967. to hire others, too.” York borough refused says “Pacifist of the sex revolution,” conundrum A & Carol: Dorothy Mikos, “Bob dodgers,” draft U.S. help to vote students “Toronto David Allen, “U.S. deserter ‘grudgingly’ admitted to Canada,” to Canada,” admitted deserter ‘grudgingly’ “U.S. Allen, David

24 22 23 20 21

19 18 16 17 14 15 12 13 10 11 8 9 6 7 5 128 Liu

33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 Churchill, “An Ambiguous Welcome: Vietnam DraftResistance,the Churchill,“When HomeBecame Away: American Expatriatesand 19, 1996. “‘Nointerest’ indraftdodgers byRCMP,” Daily Star “CanadaprotestingFBI’s incursionsfor ‘draftdodgers’,” 65. New SocialMovementsin Toronto, 1965-1977,”184-222;Hagan,38, Churchill,“WhenHomeBecame Away: American Expatriates and Hagan,39. in Toronto, 1965-1977,”192;Surrey, 18.Hagan,36. Became Away: American ExpatriatesandNewSocialMovements Toronto DailyStar liberalization hadoccurred.See“Draftstatusisnotourbusiness,” dodgers andtoinsteadshapethenotionthatalineartrajectory of public attentionfromregressiveapproacheswithregardsto draft here isthatitwasinthefederalgovernment’s interesttodivert deny thattheserepressiveapproachesweretaken,thepoint tobemade dodgers, drugtraffickersandothertypesofcriminals.” WhileIdonot Larry Campbellannouncedhisintentionto“pursue American draft resisterorganizations anddetainresisters, Vancouver mayor The mayorsof Vancouver and Toronto usedthelawasgroundstoraid Measures Act of1970tojustifythepursuit American draftdodgers. persecute draftdodgers,themostnotableofwhichwasuse Canada. There werealsoinstancesinwhichfederalpolicywasusedto the crossingexperiencecouldvarygreatlyfor Americans entering notes thattheborderwas“anarbitraryandcontingentsite,”atwhich and atborderpointssubvertedofficialpolicy. Indeed,DavidChurchill that immigrationofficersatCanadianconsulatesintheUnitedStates official policy and actual practice. Historian Kenneth McNaught claims This isnottosaythattherewerenodifferences betweenCanada’s ed. FrankH.Epp(Waterloo: ConradPress,1970),49. like tododgethedraftdodgers*,but… Jim Wilcox, “…theyareupagainsttheCanadianborder,” in Surrey, 110. http://archives.cbc.ca/war_conflict/vietnam_war/clips/1928/. Corporation, lastmodifiedJuly14,2009, The CBCDigital Archives Website, CanadianBroadcasting dodgers canbeviewedat“Draftgain Trudeau’s sympathy,” PierreElliott Trudeau’s responsetothequestionconcerningdraft History Canadian State,andCold War Containment,” Vol. 37,No.73(May2004),11. , April 22,1966. , November4,1967;Churchill,“WhenHome

[*including deserters] Toronto DailyStar Histoire Sociale/Social Toronto I would , , August the War Liu 129

, . Toronto: Toronto: . Toronto Daily Toronto Toronto Daily Toronto . New York: Alfred A. Alfred York: . New , August 9th, 1968. , Chance and Circumstance: The Chance and Circumstance: , September 18, 1968. , May 24, 1968; “Draft dodger may be man , May 24, 1968; “Draft dodger may be Works Cited Works Toronto Daily Star Toronto Second words: selected critical prose, 1960-1982 prose, critical selected words: Second Toronto Daily Star Toronto Second words: selected critical prose, 1960-1982 selected critical prose, Second words: Toronto Daily Star Toronto , November 1, 1967. , May 26, 1969. Knopf, 1978. Star sympathy.” Trudeau’s “Draft dodgers gain archives.cbc.ca/war_conflict/vietnam_war/clips/1926/. Letter to the Editor, and safe,” Robert Fulford, “The hippy world, packaged high income, to have parents who were educated, and to be well- parents who were educated, and to be high income, to have 75; Hagan, 227; See Emerick, 17-27; Surrey, educated themselves. 284-286. Kasinsky, low- Those draft-dodgers ‘misfits, Conscription, “Mr. Robert Reguly, lifers,’” with no country,” contribute to guts and don’t Dickson, “U.S. draft dodgers have no Canada.” Canadian Website, Archives The CBC Digital America!” “Back to October 22, 2002, http:// Broadcasting Corporation, last modified of 20%. Although no official census data was collected on draft dodgers dodgers draft on collected was data census official no Although 20%. of general the corroborates topic the on research most resisters, military or come from families with a tended to in particular, that draft dodgers, Margaret Atwood, Atwood, Margaret 1982, 84. Anansi Press, of House Toronto: and American Expatriates Away: “When Home Became Churchill, 242-243. 1965-1977,” Toronto, Movements in New Social defectors and 92% that 81% of military Fred Emerick claims Kenneth graduates, group were high school of his sample of draft resisters Americans between of 42.6% for to the national average compared Era Research Vietnam dodgers in a 20-24. 80% of draft was came from a family whose income Project (VERP) sample compared to the national average year, $10, 000 or more per New Social Movements in Toronto, 1965-1977,” 249-250. 1965-1977,” Toronto, in Social Movements New House of Anansi Press, 1982. House of Star Baskir, Lawrence M. and William A. Strauss. William Lawrence M. and Baskir, Generation and the Vietnam Draft, the War Atwood, Margaret. Atwood, Margaret. Allen, David. “U.S. deserter ‘grudgingly’ admitted to Canada.” Allen, David. “U.S. deserter ‘grudgingly’ 42 40 41 39 38 37

36 34 35

130 Liu Canada, Parliament,HouseofCommons. “Draft dodger may be man with no country.”no with man be may dodger “Draft “Draft-dodger aidnotkilledin fearmoderatorsays.” Document, Appendix B,26November 1969,National Archives ofCanada,RG Dickson, Fran.“U.S.draftdodgershavenogutsanddon’t contributeto Dickerson, James. “Church killeddraft-dodgeraid,fearedcollectionswould drop –official.” Churchill, David.“WhenHomeBecame Away: American ExpatriatesandNew David S.Churchill,“An Ambiguous Welcome: Vietnam DraftResistance,the Census ofCanada1911-1981 Canadian BroadcastingCorporation.“Draftdodgersgain Trudeau’s sympathy.” Canadian BroadcastingCorporation.“Backto America!” The CBC “Canada protestingFBI’s incursionsfor‘draftdodgers’.” 1968. October 76, vol.983,File5660-1. Canada.” Westport: PraegerPublishers,1999. Toronto DailyStar Chicago, August 2001. Social Movementsin Toronto, 1965-1977.”PhDdiss.,University of History Canadian State,andCold War Containment,” 1984). archives.cbc.ca/war_conflict/vietnamwar/clips/1928/. The CBC Digital Archives Website. Last modified July 14, 2009. http:// http://archives.cbc.ca/war_conflict/vietnam_war/clips/1926/ Digital Archives Website. LastmodifiedOctober22,2002. April 22,1966. report: Volume 2 , Vol. 37,No.73(May2004),1-26. 2, 1967. Toronto DailyStar North toCanada:MenandWomen Against theVietnam War Queen’s Printer, 1967. , September30,1967. (Ottawa:DepartmentofSupply&Services, , February16,1968. House ofCommonsdebates,official TorontoStar Daily Toronto DailyStar Histoire Sociale/Social Toronto DailyStar , September 18, September , , , .

Liu 131 . . . , Toronto Toronto . Ottawa: , August 19, 1996. , Toronto Toronto Daily Star Sociology of Religion , November 4, 1967. 4, , November Toronto Daily Star Toronto , Saturday, December 7, 1968. December , Saturday, , August 9th, 1968. , . Knox: Pennsylvania Free Press, 1972. Free Press, . Knox: Pennsylvania Historical Statistics of Canada Toronto Daily Star Daily Toronto . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001. . Cambridge: Harvard War War Resisters Canada: The World of the American Toronto Daily Star Toronto Refugee from Militarism: Draft-Age Americans in Canada Toronto Daily Star Toronto , Friday, December 26, 1969. , Friday, Gatekeepers: Reshaping Immigrant Lives in Cold War Canada War Cold in Lives Immigrant Reshaping Gatekeepers: All American Boys: Draft Dodgers in Canada from the Vietnam Northern Passage . Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001. Praeger, CT: Westport, . Daily Star War Residence, 1956-1976.” Statistics Canada, 1983. and Conflict in Symbols of Canadian Culture.” Vol. 54, No. 3, International (Autumn, 1993): 257-275. Studies in the Sociology of Religion Toronto: Between the Lines, 2006. Between the Lines, Toronto: Books, 1976. Transaction New Brunswick: Wednesday, November 1, 1967. Wednesday, 16-18. churchgoers,” churchgoers,” Refugees Military-Political “‘No interest’ in draft dodgers by RCMP.” in draft dodgers by RCMP.” “‘No interest’ Mikos, Dorothy. “Bob & Carol: A conundrum of the sex revolution.” Letter to the Editor. Letter to the Editor. Leacy, F.C. ed. “Series 385-416. Immigration to Canada by Country of Permanent of Country by Canada to Immigration 385-416. “Series ed. F.C. Leacy, Kusch, Frank. Kim, Andrew E. “The Absence of Pan-Canadian Civil Religion: Plurality, Duality, Duality, Plurality, Religion: Civil Pan-Canadian of Absence “The E. Andrew Kim, Kasinsky, Kasinsky, Renee G. “How You Vote “How on You Vote Viet Nam.” United Church Observer 30 (15 March 1968): Franca. Iacovetta, Hagan, John. Fulford, Robert. “The hippy world, packaged and safe.” Emerick, Kenneth Fred. “Draft status is not our business.” not our business.” status is “Draft Edmonstone, “The Wayne, lonely draft dodger gets a cold shoulder from many 132 Liu “Pacifist says York borough refused to hire others, too.” hire to refused borough York says “Pacifist Williams, Roger Neville. Roger Williams, Wilcox, Jim. “…they are up against the Canadian border.” In dodgers.” draft U.S. help to vote students “Toronto Surrey, David S. “Students censuredraft-dodgerhelp.” “Students vetodraftdodgeraid.” low-lifers.’” ‘misfits, draft-dodgers Those Conscription, “Mr. Robert. Reguly, “RCMP’s careisCanadian,notU.S.law.” “Police denydraftdodgersselldrugs.” New York: LiverightPublishers,1971. Waterloo: ConradPress,1970. deserters]. [*including but… dodgers*, draft the September 22,1967. in Canada Toronto DailyStar August 26,1968. 4, 1967. Choice of Conscience: Vietnam Era Military and Draft Resisters . New York: PraegerPublishers,1982. The New Exiles: American War Resisters in Canada in Resisters War American Exiles: New The , May24,1968. Toronto DailyStar Toronto DailyStar Toronto DailyStar Toronto DailyStar , Tuesday, March28,1967. Toronto Daily Star TorontoDaily , Wednesday, October , October26,1967. d Fak . Epp. H. Frank Ed. I would like to dodge oot Diy Star Daily Toronto , January2,1969. , Friday, , , . Foreword 133 français Éléna Choquette Le fait anglais et Le fait y a-t-il deux presses au Canada? y a-t-il deux presses 134 Choquette « les journalistes de la planète; certaines semblent défier les barrières les ethniques et défier religieuses semblent sociales, certaines culturelles, géographiques, planète; la de journalistes les que rendre compte aussi d’une partie montré des différences peuvent entre les deux linguistiques cultures toutefois journalistiques. et sera culturels facteurs Il autres quelques Canada. du anglophone et francophone journalistiques cultures les entre observées aucontraire, différences les expliquer mal semble, éthique, l’idéologie soit Hanitzsch, par identifiée et à leurs approches épistémologiques respectives. La troisième dimension essentiellement par le distinguent rôle institutionnel se qu’elles confèrent journalistiques au journalisme, cultures deux les que démontré ainsi sera Hanitzsch par élaborés canadienne- conceptuels dans instruments et des l’aide canadienne-française à journalistiques anglaise cultures les sur seraient journalistes plutôt inféodésauxculturesnationalesauseindesquellesilévolue. des travail le circonscrivant paramètres différents 18 du britannique canadien, presse la organisé territoire a qui philosophie la du de héritage un essentiellement anglo-saxonne est partie la dans et États-Unis aux l’entend qu’on tel journalisme, du définition la quoi en montrer de tente lorsque questionnés sur la légitimité de leurs publications. Or, l’essai ou «d’impartialité» suivant dont presque tous les journalistes se réclament, surtout de presse à travers le globe. Il suffit de penser aux normes d’«objectivité» L de national service le sur d’enquête radiodiffusion Comité du Rapport du Extrait information.» there couldhardlybeagreatercontrastofviewsand if EnglishandFrenchCanadianswereondifferent planets, Canada isinastateofdeepschizophrenia: As presentedbythebroadcastmedia, Deconstructing Journalism Culture: Toward a Universal Theory TowardUniversal Culture: a Journalism Deconstructing oen, ’s--ie ’nebe e vlus u ecdet le encadrent qui comportement valeurs des journalistes, semblent dominer nombre de salles des l’ensemble c’est-à-dire moderne, in ned, l xse e smlrts nr ls ôe jus par joués rôles les entre similarités des existe il entendu, Bien En outre, cet essai vise à mener une étude comparée et systématique es normes et idéaux régissant l’industrie médiatique anglo-saxonne 1 e ice Sln auc e date universitaires, d’autres et Hanusch Selon siècle. Différents journalismes 2 Certains . . Il . les Choquette 135 . . : 6 7 la , 11 Comme 9 . 8 . Dans un article 4 . Il n’est d’ailleurs plus surprenant surprenant plus d’ailleurs n’est Il . 3 . La culture journalistique représente journalistique culture La . 12 , cet essai tente de montrer en quoi les 10 . 5 Si le concept de la «culture» a ailleurs été bien circonscrit ainsi un consensus sur ce qu’est un ‘véritable’ journaliste, et un ‘véritable’ ‘véritable’ un et journaliste, ‘véritable’ un qu’est ce sur consensus un ainsi maintient culture cette temps, le travers à change Quoiqu’elle journalisme. dans la conscience de ceux qui l’exercent, soit les journalistes, constituant constituant journalistes, les soit l’exercent, qui ceux de conscience la dans sociale fonction leur et identité leur Culture journalistique Culture «culture journalistique» se définit par la connaissance culturelle, ancrée cultures journalistiques confèrent à leurs salles de presse, et sera finalement sera et presse, de salles leurs à confèrent journalistiques cultures accordent à l’objectivité analysée l’importance que les journalistes cultures journalistes diffèrent dans les parties anglo-saxonne et française du pays. Ce faisant, sera d’abord définie la culture journalistique, seront subséquemment décortiqués les rôles institutionnels que les différentes De semblables conclusions mènent nécessairement à la question suivante question la à nécessairement mènent conclusions semblables De deux? plutôt ou Canada, au journalistique monde seul un Existe-il l’ont soutenus Hanitzsch et Elkin moyens de communication en venait à la conclusion qu’au Québec, “The traditions, the audience preferences, the mythologies, the economics of shaped by the French fact.” publishing and broadcasting, all are 1981, Fletcher écrit que les anglophone et francophone évènements presse la par différente radicalement manière politiques sont interprétés de Finalement, au début des années 70, le Comité spécial du Sénat sur les Corporation (CBC) de 1977 a trouvé que les deux réseaux ont très peu en commun en ce qui concerne la nature de l’information et son traitement Dans le rapport de la Commission Royale sur les Quotidiens, publié en Or, en Or, quoi le traitement médiatique anglo-canadien semble-il différer du des comparative étude son dans Siegel, égards? certains à Broadcasting franco-canadien Canadian la de et (SRC) Radio-Canada Société la de nouvelles TVA, Michel Héroux, affirme qu’il n’y a effectivement pas de différences différences de pas effectivement a n’y qu’il affirme Héroux, Michel TVA, français en télédiffusée nouvelle la de philosophies les entre substantielles ou enanglais au Canada monde journalistique, ayant souvent à voir avec la nécessité de demeurer objectifs, justes et impartiaux face aux faits à rapporter signé par Graham Fraser et Howard Ross, un ancien directeur-général de que les structures organisationnelles, les procédés d’édition et les routines routines les et d’édition procédés les organisationnelles, structures les que partout mêmes les sont professionnelles d’entendre un journaliste se réclamer des valeurs dites universelles du chercheurs chercheurs (anglo-saxons pour l’essentiel) seraient même tentés de croire 136 Choquette son autorité sur la manière dont le journalisme est (et doit être) compris être) doit (et est journalisme le dont manière la sur autorité son les sphères littéraires et politiques et littéraires sphères les la culture médiatique de la France du 19 idéal anglo-saxondudétachement vis-à-visl’engagementpolitique. Québec, la culture journalistique canadienne-française tend moins vers cet du et à actuelle) et (impériale sociopolitique situation la de et (coloniale contemporaine) France effet, la de En journalistique culture francophone. la de journalistique l’héritage travers culture en la il pour publiques, autrement affaires va les dans journalistes plutôt des l’interventionnisme active/militantisme» complet» «participation de «détachement/désintérêt celui de que l’extrémité de s’approche Interventionnisme des communautésanglo-saxonneetfrançaisesurces trois axes. cultures journalistiques cultures des position la examinerons Nous des journalistiques. sein au rarement que rencontre ne l’on que extrêmes deux au profitdel’industrie. le plan politique, (b) la position vis-à-vis du pouvoir, et (c) la position face Cette dimension se décompose en trois aspects, (a) neutralité. l’interventionnisme sur complète plus la à et observation stricte la à confiné reporter, de rôle un encore ou publiques, affaires les dans participant/plaideur de rôle un journalistique l’industrie à attribué ont nationales journalistiques journalistique industrie son à offre qu’une société institutionnel rôle le est cultures différentes des l’essence saisir aux propres journalistiques sociétés anglo-saxonneetfrançaiseduCanada. cultures les pour ferons nous que ce C’est de même restreindre notre analyse à la culture journalistique journalistiques nationales ne soient pas forcément homogènes, on donnée peut tout période une et géographique région une journalistique culture et exercé. Ces trois dimensions sont définies par trois spectres, s’étirant entre s’étirant spectres, trois par définies sont dimensions trois Ces à arriver pour Hanitzsch par identifiée dimension première La d’une ladéfinition inférer peut on définition, cette de partir À Il est d’abord vraisemblable que le Québec ait hérité d’une partie de Si la norme prescrite par la culture journalistique anglo-saxonne journalistique culture la par prescrite norme la Si nationale Les rôlesinstitutionnels , une culture journalistique inscrite dans inscrite journalistique culture une , 17 . En effet, comme l’explique Chalaby l’explique comme effet, En . ème siècle, largement influencée par 15 Pr e as, e cultures les passé, le Par . 13 . Quoique les cultures les Quoique . 16 u l sete de spectre le sur dominante 14 . Choquette 137 . , 19 . De Bonville De . 21 : “A significant . 23 siècle, la presse canadienne- ème , plusieurs esprits engagés s’y 20 en 1958, 1964 et en 1977, en plus du

18 Non seulement les journalistes cherchaient- journalistes les seulement Non Journalism Journalism as an Anglo-American Invention La Presse . Au contraire, leurs homologues anglophones 24 . Même au milieu du 20 . En plus de leur conférer un plus grand contrôle sur les 22 25 Les mêmes conditions sociales, politiques et économiques ont Les conditions sociales, politiques et économiques de la fin du ont également contribué à forger l’actuelle culture journalistique du ème couleurs éditoriales de leurs articles, le militantisme des journalistes les aurait encouragé à embrasser des positions politiques claires vis-à-vis le celles des journalistes de lockout de 1971 ils ainsi à gagner davantage en termes financiers,aussi à obtenir maisplus de ilslatitude éditoriale. cherchaient À ce sujet, Taras rappelle que l’industrie médiatique a été touchée par de nombreuses grèves, dont pouvaient jouir d’une mobilité professionnelle significative.Pour raison, cette les premiers se professionnelles. prérogatives sont regroupés pour revendiquer différentes employeurs. L’isolation employeurs. linguistique L’isolation des journalistes de langue française ne leur permettait pas de quitter la province pour obtenir de conditions meilleures salariales toutefois supporter expressément un parti politique toutefois supporter expressément un amené les journalistes à revendiquer des avantages financiers de leurs d’un journaliste partisan qui espérait mieux convaincre sous le de couvert la neutralité» française continue de disséminer les idées largement partisanes, sans catholique; pour gagner une rémunération décente, les journalistes se sont sont se journalistes les décente, rémunération une gagner pour catholique; pieux très ou partisans très parfois textes de auteurs les fait ajoute que les déclarations soi-disant «’indépendantes’ émanent souvent sont adonnés. La nécessité de solutionner le des revenus problème générés de par la la vente faiblesse de journaux ont camp aussi des journalistes fait dans celui des basculer partis politiques le et celui de l’Église l’époque étaient, d’abord et avant tout, de brillants politiciens et orateurs et politiciens brillants de tout, avant et d’abord étaient, l’époque Puisqu’à cette époque la presse s’avérait être le médium le mieux adapté pour influencer l’opinion publique 19 Québec. Comme l’explique Gagnon, les journalistes les plus illustres de proportion proportion of French journalists continued to interests the defend and doctrines political propagate to write writing publicists, in the tradition of political group.” of a particular l’importance l’importance et le prestige du milieu littéraire et retardé politique l’arrivée français du ont ton neutre et du style télégraphique anglo-saxonne de la à nouvelle l’intérieur des frontières françaises dans dans son article intitulé 138 Choquette milieu des affaires, entre autres groupes d’intérêt. Au fil des décennies, les quant àl’exercice delaprofessionjournalistes Commonwealth du pays des l’ensemble travers à tradition une genre un existe qu’il coup du suggérant gouvernementales, positions et politiques aux rapport par même, hostiles et sceptiques, demeurer à consiste travail les reporters anglo-canadiens considèrent qu’une partie essentielle de leur britanniques, et australiens reporters les comme tout que, ajoute Fletcher qualifiée de «quatrième pouvoir» ou de «chien de garde de la démocratie» dans le histoire nord de l’Amérique. longue Du reste, l’industrie une journalistique est souvent a question en gouvernementale l’autorité remet qui qu’offre l’institution médiatique au gouvernement confrontation en de place. degré Le le journalisme mesurer à vise continuum Le pouvoir. du face position la qu’est conceptuel instrument deuxième du l’aide à elles entre Distance vis-à-vislepouvoir au Canada. françaises et anglo-saxonnes journalistiques cultures les entre différences de presse « le qui québécoise journalistique monde publique l’opinion d’«informer» que plus l’interprétation, par «former», au conféré institutionnel Christine St-Pierre Drainville Bernard à penser aujourd’hui peut on mais saillant, plus le et journalistique plusieurs politiciens francophones sont encore aujourd’hui issus du monde par le biais de l’entrelacement du commentaire et de la nouvelle un conserver peuvent semblant de canadiens-français droit de regard sur les journalistes débats publics du Québec les lequel selon journalistique tradition une anglo-saxon duterme dessiner de effet pour francophone plus politiquement interventionniste que désengagée, au sens eu ont français journalistique modèle du l’influence que ainsi l’Église, de et politiques partis des patronage le journalistes, des syndicales luttes les somme, En employés des neuf quotidiens québécois se sont d’ailleurs tous syndiqués interventionnisme ann ci qe et cnocue et te u a rôle au due être peut conjoncture cette que écrit Gagnon normatif principe le par traduisent se influences ces Aujourd’hui, Bien que les journalistes travaillaient autrefois à promouvoir de promouvoir à autrefois travaillaient journalistes les que Bien Hanitzsch propose que l’on compare les cultures journalistiques cultures les compare l’on que propose Hanitzsch 34 . Je propose, pour conclure cette section, que la composante la que section, cette conclure pour propose, Je . vice versa vice 32 ouGérardDeltell » soit celle qui explique le mieux, à elle seule, les seule, elle à mieux, le explique qui celle soit » 2728 . 30 . René Levesque en est surement l’exemple surement est en Levesque René . 33 . 36 . 29 , notamment . Du reste, 26 35 31 . . ,

Choquette 139 . 45 savoir (dans veulent dimension importante importante dimension . La relation de complicité complicité de relation La . 40 . Il est toutefois permis de conclure 42 » , mais il n’en demeure pas moins que

44 41 signifiant que les journalistes pourraient 39 , les journalistes canadiens-francophones sont 37 . Taras écrit que, toutefois, “The French press has a 38 . 43 Il semble dangereux de tenter d’associer l’une ou l’autre des La dernière dimension institutionnelle étudiée par Hanitzsch est savoir pour, par exemple, faire un choix éclairé aux prochaines En guise de conclusion provisoire, notons que l’aspect institutionnel l’aspect que notons provisoire, conclusion de guise En les forces au pouvoir. La les section forces suivante à au s’affaire déconstruire pouvoir. l’aspect épistémologique des cultures médiatiques et en évaluer l’utilité pour les plus proéminentes au d’interventionnisme dans les Canada, affaires publiques et d’antagonismes envers notamment à travers les spectres aujourd’hui la réalité journalistique, francophone ou anglophone aujourd’hui la réalité journalistique, explique bien les différences dont font preuve les cultures journalistiques que l’industrie de la presse anglophone a longtemps que son été homologue plus francophone lucrative la concentration des entreprises médiatiques et leur rentabilisation est cultures journalistiques à l’un ou l’autre des extrêmes, d’autant plus que ces deux pôles ne sont pas mutuellement exclusifs. Il est assurément vrai les journalistes travaillent exclusivement à rapporter ce que les citoyens doivent élections l’orientation lucrative de l’industrie médiatique. D’un côté du spectre, les journalistes s’affairent à couvrir ce que les acheteurs l’objectif de générer des revenus pour l’entreprise), alors que de l’autre, Orientations entrepreneuriales Orientations entrepreneuriales lorsque leur gouvernement est l’objet de critiques étrangères, cultures les journalistiques du deux Canada ont intégré une vision «antagoniste» place. face au pouvoir en entre le gouvernement et la presse serait même une « une même serait presse la et gouvernement le entre de la crise identitaire canadienne québécois journalistes des l’égard à dirigés soupçons quelques malgré que, gouvernementales. Selon Fletcher, l’industrie médiatique québécoise s’est s’est québécoise médiatique l’industrie Fletcher, Selon gouvernementales. investie de la mission de Canada défendre du les reste du intérêts vis-à-vis de culture sa ceux et qui langue partagent sa natural tendency to side with the government when this under government is attack from outside,” adopter certaines attitudes visant à légitimer les instances et décisions qui les finançaient aujourd’hui plutôt perçus comme étant des critiques efficaces du pouvoir gouvernemental la manière la plus loyale possible les plateformes des partis politiques 140 Choquette expliquer lesdifférences culturellesdel’universjournalistique. d’autres, qu’on a préféré, traité, voire construit parmi monde, du représentation une est nouvelle la laquelle selon l’idée services continusenfrançais avant1951. rhetoric.” political and language, colourful flavour, local away stripped relentlessly machine” “sausage CP pays du journaux qui les tous de «standard» besoins aux correspond dépêche d’une critères les établissant en style le journalistique et culture contenu le normalisé ainsi une aurait PC La 1917. en inculquer création sa à dès ce, contribué et anglo-saxonne, presse la de l’industrie de sein grandement au d’objectivité a (PC) Canadienne mal-informées courantesdanslapressefrançaise spéculations les avec contrastaient qui factuelles, déclarations de autour 19 pratiques les du mesure) moindre une dans britanniques, (et américains journalistiques inventé d’ailleurs faits les sur centrées auraient «discursives, journalistes britanniques et américains l’on a d’elle ou des biais qu’on y accole veut factuelle, c’est-à-dire qui existe indépendamment de la perception que dela«réalité allant factuelle» jusqu’àla«réalitéconstruite». d’unspectre àpartir Hanitzsch par définie est Elle épistémologique des cultures journalistiques est la notion d’ «objectivité» Objectivité with claimstoknowledgeandtruth.” puisque considérer factuel du probable le faux, du vrai le métier justifient leurs croyances, se réclament de l’objectivité et discernent du professionnels L’approcheles dont manière la comprendre à vise épistémologique milieu. leur de politique réalité la écrits, leurs dans traitent et appréhendent ils dont manière la connaitre, à arrivent journalistes les ème siècle étaient écrits à partir de nombreuses entrevues nombreuses de partir à écrits étaient siècle u aaa Trs vne ’ruet eo lqe L Presse La lequel selon l’argument avance Taras Canada, Au qu’il réalité la rapporter à s’attacher semble anglo-saxon monde Le dimension la de important, plus le et aspect, premier Le dont manière la par définie être peut épistémologique L’approche e junlse facpoe d Cnd arin puô adopté plutôt auraient Canada du francophones journalistes Les “The legitimacy of journalism is intimately bound up bound intimately is journalism of legitimacy “The Approches épistémologiques 54

La Presse Canadienne n’offrira pas de pas n’offrira Canadienne Presse La 47 46 . 49 . Cette approche est importante à importante est approche Cette . . Historiquement, les journalistes 55 50 . L’idée de la compétition » 53 51 . . En effet, les articles les effet, En . : selon Taras,selon : 52 , et construits et , “The 48 . Choquette 141

, Devoir . 60 . Qui plus est, 56 En conséquence On ne saurait d’ailleurs

. 57 impliquait le droit de chacun de e partisanes partisanes soient-elles. Au contraire, . 62 . 61 dans sa mission professionnelle et l’inscrit dans ses 58 » pour renvoyer aux propos de leurs intervenants, soit le La justification empirique des énoncés mis de l’avant par les La dimension empirique des cultures journalistiques, c’est-à- . Tout ceci est d’autant plus vrai aujourd’hui que la forte concurrence forte la que aujourd’hui vrai plus d’autant est ceci Tout . Rieffel et Watine écrivent Rieffel et que, Watine aujourd’hui, la France et le Québec Historiquement, Historiquement, cela s’explique. La notion même de la liberté La Presse 59 News, cette sorte de justification est largement privilégiée dans la culture journalistique anglo-saxonne journalistes priorise la mesure, les preuves l’expérience factuelles, sensorielle. l’observation Selon Carlin, et envoyé spécial pour CBC Radio journalistiques. Selon lui, l’empirisme se mesure grâce à la dichotomie «empirisme/analyse» dire les moyens utilisés pour parvenir aux souhaitent publier, vérités peut que aussi être les utilisée journalistes pour différencier les cultures médiatique et l’abondance de l’information contraint les journalistes « à se à « journalistes les contraint l’information de l’abondance et médiatique plus de subjectivité » distinguer en affichant plus ouvertement Empirisme que le journaliste, plus que professionnelle jamais, « engage son identité textes sociale et À travers une analyse du format utilisé et par de les journalistes du conclusion la à viennent en auteurs les indirect, ou direct rapporté discours commentée. intersubjective. dite nouvelle la pour renouvelé d’intérêt d’un témoins sont Canada-français a subséquemment emboité le pas) une confusion de deux de confusion une pas) le emboité subséquemment a Canada-français genres journalistiques, le commentaire et la nouvelle. les journaux français étaient plus marqués par l’opinion et d’actualité questions des journalistes. Ces premiers préféraient écrire des articles eux- articles des écrire préféraient premiers Ces journalistes. des questions mêmes, ou publier leurs discours textuellement mettre trop d’accent sur le fait que la France d’alors pratiquait (et le voulait être le serviteur et le reflet de l’opinion publique les journalistes français avaient rarement accès aux sources des nouvelles anglaises, les décideurs politiques refusant souvent de répondre aux d’expression d’expression dans la France du 18 disséminer leurs opinions, aussi la liberté d’expression dans l’industrie de la presse anglo-saxonne se québécois semblent entrevoir la quête de la vérité, essentielle à leur mandat mandat leur à essentielle vérité, la de quête la entrevoir semblent québécois professionnel. des subjectivités est beaucoup plus près de la manière dont les journalistes journalistes les dont manière la de près plus beaucoup est subjectivités des 142 Choquette Par opposition, les justifications analytiques des affirmations des analytiques justifications les opposition, Par au seindescultures journalistiquesfrancophone etanglophone. étude comparée journalistes de la conception des théorique de l’éthique telle mœurs qu’elle évolue aux trait une a sur véritablement portent universitaires recherches de peu québécois, qui ce en référence de ouvrage un francophones ouleurshomologues anglophones? justifiées pour mener une enquête journalistique à bien, pour les journalistes cas oùlesrésultatsdeladémarchepourraients’avérer substantiels. d’autres processus, le croient qu’aucun dans moyen préjudiciable ne peut être mal employé, même dans le quelconque un impliquent s’ils même obtenus ultimement être puissent résultats bons de que croient certains Si La universaux. prises. moraux décisions des conséquences préceptes les sur repose de l’idéalisme, deuxième, lumière la à prises être puissent individuelles décisions les que professionnels, aux apparait qu’elle telle éthiques dilemmes des à face retrouvent se lorsqu’ils prennent journalistes les que décisions les dans systématique de et commun de a y qu’il ce déterminer à cherche volet ce Concrètement, nationales. journalistiques dans cultures les institutionnalisées et appréhendées sont morales théories les dont l’analyse et l’intersubjectivité vers rationnelle del’informationapportéeparlesréalitéspolitiques. premiers des historique tendance la d’une et empirique, démarche une travers à sensorielle travers réalité la de fidèle à journalistiques essentiellement Canada, cultures démonstration d’un fort au attachement de la dernière pour les la (re)présentation anglophone et entre francophone différences des conceptualisation termes d’évènementsetdepersonnages. traiter l’information de manière plus conceptuelle, et non pas seulement en française canadienne- presse la à propre aussi est français, journalisme du héritée l’analyse et l’opinion valeurs, journalistiques mettent en valeur l’argumentation rationnelle, les idées, les e paius oaeet otue puetels is être ainsi peuvent-elles douteuses moralement pratiques Des La première dimension, le relativisme, vise à mesurer la possibilité, Quoique Le dernier des aspects proposé par Hanitzsch concerne la manière n om, ’prce pséooiu cnrbe la à contribue épistémologique l’approche somme, En 65 64 . . Gagnon ajoute qu’au Québec, les journalistes ont tendance à tendance ont journalistes les Québec, qu’au ajoute Gagnon . ’tiu d l’Information de L’Éthique Conception del’éthique 63 . Selon plusieurs, cette manière de faire, de manière cette plusieurs, Selon . e an-mn constitue Saint-Amant de Choquette 143 . 67 . On pourrait également tenter . De manière analogue, Palmer 70 68 . 69 Autres déterminants culturels déterminants Autres , mais généralement, ces distinctions ne permettent pas de 71 Quelques autres déterminants d’une culture journalistique sont En somme, il semble que la conception éthique inscrite dans les Il pourrait être possible de se rabattre sur l’étude des codes Il peut néanmoins être affirmé queles deux culturessemblent . 66 l’incertitude distinguer les cultures journalistiques à l’étude. que par leurs homologues anglophones de tirer une explication du niveau d’aversion de chaque société vis-à-vis D’autres facteurs pourraient également expliquer les différentes cultures journalistiques, tels que collective, la cette dernière étant plus culture valorisée par les Canadiens-français individualiste, par opposition à ce qu’elle est très flexible, riche en mots monosyllabiques et en ce que son que ce en et monosyllabiques mots en riche flexible, très est qu’elle ce vocabulaire précis permet une économie de mots, lesquels sont organisés en phrases courtes et efficaces Michel Guénard, un ancien journaliste pour le réseau TVA, a fait allusion Michel Guénard, un ancien journaliste pour le TVA, réseau à la structure de la en «médiatique» plus langue la langue la de est Shakespeare de langue Molière la que conclut pourraient être une partie de la justificationdes desindustries différencesanglo-saxonnes et culturelles francophone du Canada. En effet, pour canadienne-français, couverture la de «agressive» moins nature la justifier toutefois négligés par la théorie de Hanitzsch, dont la mécanique langue. En de effet, la structure, la la phonétique et la grammaire de la langue substantielles différences. substantielles différences. les mêmes, et sont détaillées dans leur politique journalistique les mêmes, et sont cultures journalistiques nationales ne soit pas à la source de leurs plus professionnelle des journalistes du Québec, de l’Association Canadienne des Journalistes, ou les décisions du Conseil de Presse du Québec. Il peut sont CBC la à et SRC la à prévalent qui normes les que noté être cependant déontologiques qui font autorité au sein des cultures journalistiques question. en Or, il faudrait investir temps et effort principes pour faire qui ressortir sous-tendent les les codes déontologiques de la Fédération d’information, d’information, le harcèlement, l’utilisation non-autorisée de documents, etc. permettre permettre certaines pratiques, telle la protection des sources anonymes. Or, il ne semble pas adhérents nécessairement à une même culture, y lorsque vient le temps avoir de justifier l’achat consensus, même entre 144 Choquette 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 dans leCanadaanglais,maispresquepartoutenOccident. avec le temps à devenir la culture journalistique réussi a qui anglo-saxonne, journalistique culture la de cas le notamment soit, autres les ce sur primer à que tendent journalistiques raison cultures certaines quelque Pour autres. les sur unes les cultures ont les nationales que l’influence considérer sûrement faut il précédemment, notamment grâceàsalangueetculture. que elle, à propres moins traits certains conserve francophone pas presse la de l’univers pourtant reste n’en Il l’industrie. de anglo-américaines définition la de fait se « l’on que l’idée conséquence, En particulières. significations économiques et politiques sociales, histoires aux et locales, et pratiques aux attitudes valeurs, croyances, expériences, universelle ei ’s ps as osqec. e agmns élaborés arguments Des conséquence. sans pas n’est Ceci 216. Hanitzsch, 374 etFletcher, Pritchard etSauvageau, Tel quecité dansSiegel, Fletcher, français les différences entre lesmondesmédiatiquesanglo-saxon et Broadcasting Corporation traités différemment (Siegel, Acontent analysis theCanadian français parailleurs, etenanglais. Lesarticlescommunsétaient, Des1785articlesétudiés,seulement259sontapparues àlafois en TV News Fraser etHoward, Deuze, Taras, Deconstructing JournalismCulture Hanusch, Weaver, Cité dansFletcher, aux inféodées bien ainsi semblent journalistiques cultures Les d junlse orsod e ls ovn ax normes aux souvent plus le correspond journalisme du » The newsmakers : the media’sinfluence onCanadian What isjournalism? sontplussignificatives queles différences. The globaljournalist :newspeople around the world, , ” idem A product oftheir culture

idem A5. ., 26. idem. ., 368etElkin,tel quecité dansSiegel, 1983, “ The newspaperandpublicaffairs, Linguistic solitudesshow upinFrench, English , 25. Conclusion The JournalistsandJournalism ofCanada Politics andthe mediainCanada Endnotes , , 34. Ilconcluesurlefait que,selonlui, 446. , 367. , 619,andHanitzsch, par défaut , non seulement 227. nationales, , 216. , 6,and 72 . Ce fut Ce . 455. idem. , , Choquette 145

., idem 311. , ., 25. , 136. idem ., 370. idem . . 26. 134 444. Hanitzsch, ., ., Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, experience, of knowledge, deposit is the Culture . ., 79, 129, et 137 et Gagnon, 371. ., 128. ., 43. . 372. , ., 615 . 29 idem ., idem idem., ., 220. idem 100 La presse québécoise de 1884 à 1914 La presse idem idem ., ., 79. idem. idem idem Journalism as an Anglo-American Invention Journalism as an Anglo-American idem idem idem idem De Bonville, Fletcher, Fletcher, Taras, Taras, De Bonville, De Bonville, De Bonville, Gagnon, “The Journalists”, 24, et Desbarats cité par Hazel, cité 24, et Desbarats Gagnon, “The Journalists”, monopolisés par les été ayant Selon elle, l’industrie et le commerce Hanitzsch, La définition le plus complète et la plus succincte me semble être être me semble succincte et la plus plus complète le La définition and Mancini, Comparing media systems, 209. parce que les premiers arrivaient à survivre sans l’aide financière des parce que les premiers arrivaient à survivre Aujourd’hui, plus qu’un seul idem., 42). partis politiques (Taras, soit le National Post (Hallin quotidien anglophone s’affiche partisan, Gagnon, aucun l’Église protestante n’aurait eu virtuellement Effectivement, Quoique rôle dans la naissance de la presse anglo-saxonne. caractérisé l’histoire l’intervention des partis politiques ait également a eu moins d’impact et s’est de la presse anglophone au Canada, elle dans les salles de presse manifestée beaucoup moins longtemps idem., 25), essentiellement anglophones que francophones (Gagnon, Hazel, Hanitzsch, 100. Chalaby, les plus brillants Canadiens-Français depuis la Conquête, Anglais à la politique et au débat. que de s’intéresser choix d’autre n’ayant Dans Gagnon, Culture is persistent, (614) enduring and omnipresent. Culture Deuze, 2005, Deuze, 2002, Hanusch, : de Hanusch celle timing, religion, hierarchies, meanings, attitudes, values, beliefs, and material universe, concepts of the spatial relations, roles, in of people group a large by possession acquired objects and striving. and group individual though of generations the course of in forms of language and itself in patterns manifests Culture the common both as models for that act and behaviour activity l us to of communication that enables acts and the styles adaptive at a given environment geographic in a society within a given ive in time… at a particular moment development of technical state

27 28 26 23 24 25 20 21 22

18 19 14 15 16 17 12 13

11 146 Choquette 29 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 exemple), alors que les journaux français naissaient par l’entremise hommes d’affaires ( les journauxanglais duQuébecétaientmissurpiedpardes D’ailleurs,Gagnoninsiste surlefait que déjà,entre 1805et1838, francophone crisis.“ isanimportant dimension ofthe unity society “ 94 autre en1995.(Hazel, couverture desjournalistes delaCBCetSRC en1977etune «séparatiste» aurait amené lamisesurpiedd’uneenquête surla Québec. Hazelécritàcesujetqu’undoute surunpotentiel biais tranquille (Taras : 59)etdesréférendums surlasouveraineté du homologues francophone, particulièrement lorsdelarévolution fédéral ontsouvent remis enquestion l’intégrité deleurs D’ailleurs,lesjournalistes de lapresse anglaise etlegouvernement Taras, Hazel,, Taras, Hanitzsch, Gagnon, 2008 (Site del’Assemblée Nationale,2010). Québec etdedevenir lechefdel’Action Démocratique du Québecen avant d’être éludéputé delacirconscription deChauveau, au Deltell aété journaliste pourRadio-Canada pourplusde20ans l’Assemblée Nationale,2010). Culture, desCommunicationsetdelaConditionféminine député sousla bannière libérale etd’être nomméministre dela spéciale àWashington pourRadio-Canada avant dedevenir une St-Pierre aété courriériste parlementaire àOttawa etenvoyée santé (Site del’Assemblée Nationale,2010). Québécois, etporte-parole del’oppositionofficielleenmatière de en AmériqueduSud,avant dedevenir undéputé duParti Drainville aété journaliste pourRadio-Canada, notammentenvoyé idem Hallin andMancini, Gagnon, pratiquent et Marcotte, Taras, Hanitzsch, idem., Fletcher Deuze The influence ofthe mediaandofpersonalities in . ) ., 313) , idem idem idem idem idem , idem idem idem ,

idem 84 etFletcher, i ., 77,HallinandMancini, ., ., La qualité dujournalisme vueparceux quile ., ., 94. 78 47-48. 142 ., ., 28,Hazel, ., 27,Hazel, 231 . ., 373,Hanusch, 374. . The Québec Mercury idem . The MediaandNationalisminQuébec ., 209,Taras, idem. idem dem. ., , 97,Fletcher, , 101etFletcher, idem 220. idem ., idem 621. et ., ., 77,Chalaby, 209, The Montréal Herald

idem idem ., 220, ., 219,230

(Site de , 93- , par .

Choquette 147

., idem La Minerve ., A5, Fletcher, ., A5, Fletcher, . fact-centred discursive discursive fact-centred idem 23 ., 320-321. ., à Québec City et à City à Québec ., 375. idem . idem Issues in cultural and 78 idem ., Canadien , . 448. . , ., A5. . 85 2nd ed, idem Bibliographie ., . idem . idem . . . . 445 Les mutations du journalisme en France et au et au en France du journalisme mutations Les idem 376. 377 375. . , ., ., 377. ., 378. ., 479. ., ., 618 et Gagnon, 623 619. 322 312 310 ., ., ., ., ., 311-312. ., ., ., 28, Fraser and Howard, and Howard, ., 28, Fraser idem., ., 87. 52. ., 456. ., ., 7, Deuze, ., 7, Deuze, (312) idem idem idem idem idem idem News culture , idem idem idem idem idem idem idem , idem idem idem 83. , idem idem The Americans and the British invented British invented and the The Americans Hanitzsch Hanusch et Watine Rieffel du sien dans de mettre les auteurs, selon plusieurs façons, Il existe Chalaby rapporte d’ailleurs que l’entrevue telle qu’on la connaît qu’on telle que l’entrevue d’ailleurs rapporte Chalaby Patterson et Donsbach, “News decisions: journalists as partisan journalists decisions: Donsbach, “News et Patterson Chalaby, Chalaby, Hanusch, Hanusch, Deuze, 2005, Gagnon, 220. Hanitzsch, Hanitzsch, 1982. Corporation, Canadian Broadcasting and Howard, Fraser discours choisis, etc (83). discours choisis, etc et Watine, Rieffel dans Taras, cité Carlin, Hanitzsch, Hanitzsch, Chalaby, Québec et des : en choisissant des interlocuteurs un article de nouvelle le en introduisant, ou cadrant parmi leurs propos, fragments Chalaby, Chalaby, une invention est littéralement aujourd’hui américaine Chalaby, Taras, in Montréal). Voir aussi Chalaby, Chalaby, aussi Voir in Montréal). Hanitzsch, par Hanitzsch cité Ekstöm, Taras, actors”, “ practices.” des politiciens (pensons au (pensons des politiciens Weaver, Allan, Stuart. 2004. 71 72 68 69 70 65 66 67 62 63 64 60 61 59 56 57 58 53 54 55 52 50 51 48 49 45 46 47

148 Choquette

Fletcher, Frederick J.,andDavid V. J.Bell. Esser, Frank,andBarbaraPfetsch. Deuze, Mark. What isjournalism? Deuze, Mark. Comeau, Robert,LucDesrochers,etUniversitéduQuébecàMontréal. Chalaby, JeanK.Journalism asan Anglo-American Invention. Canadian BroadcastingCorporation. Canada. RoyalCommissiononNewspapers,and Tom Kent. Calvert, Charles Vincent. Bonville, Jeande.. Biographies desDéputés.2010. media studies Canadian Govt. Pub.Centre,SupplyandServices Canada. Canada: RoyalCommissionon Newspapers,1981: Available from Research publications/RoyalCommissiononNewspapers Cambridge, UK;New York: CambridgeUniversity Press,2004. theories, cases,andchallenges Quarterly Australiam, andU.S.journalists. 1996. contemporain Devoir :unjournalindépendant(1910-1995) Journal ofCommunication Broadcasting Corp on Newspapers:[report] 1928. contents masse Disponible depuishttp://www.assnat.qc.ca/fr/deputes/. [Site Web] 2010[consultéle24Novembre2010]. National newscultures: A comparisonofDutch,German,British, . [Québec]:Pressesdel’UniversitéLaval,1988. , Nelson’s modernstudiesseries. 79:1(2002):134-149. La presse québécoisede1884à1914:genèsed’unmédia . . Sainte-Foy, Québec:Pressesdel’UniversitéduQuébec, Maidenhead: OpenUniversityPress. The French newspaper;itscharacter, styleand . Ottawa: The Corporation,1982. Site del’AssembléeNationale . Hull,Que.: The Commission,1981. Journalism Comparing politicalcommunication: 11 :3 (1996):303-326. Journalistic policy/Canadian , Communication, society, andpolitics Journalism andMassCommunication The newspaperandpublicaffairs 6:4(2005):442-464. London New York: T. Nelson, , Les leadersduQuébec Royal Commission

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. . Octobre, . New York: Praeger, Praeger, York: . New Cmnd. 6810-4 International Le Trente , . Edited by R. Fulford, . Edited by R. Fulford, 43:162 (1988): A5. (1988): 43:162 2 :1 (2001): 93 - 107. 17 (2007): 367-385. Available from Available Comparing media systems : three models Comparing media systems : three . Ottawa: Royal Commission on Royal Commission . Ottawa: Research publications (Canada. Royal (Canada. Royal publications Research , 71:7 (2009): 613-626. Communication, society, and politics Communication, society, La qualité du journalisme vue par ceux qui le La qualité du journalisme vue par ceux , The Globe and Mail and The Globe Ottawa: Royal Commission on Newspapers, 1981. Ottawa: Royal Commission . Journalism Studies Association des Journalistes Professionels du Québec Professionels Association des Journalistes . Sainte-Foy, Québec: Centre d’études sur les médias, 2008. . Sainte-Foy, Communication Theory Journalism and ideologies in Québec Journalism and ideologies Analysis of newspaper content : a report The Journalists . The French press : class, state, and ideology : class, press The French London: H.M. Stationery Off, 1977. 1977. London: H.M. Stationery Off, to Understand the Work Practices of Journalists”. Work to Understand the communication gazette Relationship.” Research consortium. pratiquent Theory”. 2000: 13-14. 2010]. 2010 [cited 24 novembre http://www.fpjq.org/index.php?id=deontologiefr. of media and politics Press, 2004 Cambridge University York: Cambridge, U.K.; New The Journalists English TV News.” News.” TV English 1981. on Newspapers) Commission Newspapers, 1981. Patterson, Thomas E., and Wolfgang Donsbagh. “News decisions: Journalists as Wolfgang Thomas E., and Patterson, McQuail, Denis Marcotte, Philippe, Centre d’études sur les médias, and Canadian Media Marcotte, Philippe, Centre d’études sur Hazel, Kathryn-Jane. “The Media and Nationalism in Québec: A Complex A in Québec: Hazel, Kathryn-Jane. “The Media and Nationalism Hanusch, Folker. “A Product of their Culture: Using a Value Systems Approach Systems Value Product of their Culture: Using a “A Hanusch, Folker. Hanitzsch, Thomas. “Deconstructing Journalism Culture: Toward a Universal Toward Journalism Culture: Thomas. “Deconstructing Hanitzsch,

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Toronto: McGraw-HillRyerson, 1983. Paramètres . New York: Routledge,2006. . Cresskill, N.J.:HamptonPress,1998. The Journalistsand . Montréal:Pressesdel’Université . News around theworld:content, , Information etcommunication , McGraw-Hill Ryerson series 13:4(1996):455-468. Les mutationsdu The globaljournalist: , editedbyF. Esserand . 4thed. Toronto.: . Sainte-Foy, Comparing political Université Laval. Journalism of , Background Les . A Choquette 151 . The global journalist : news people around the around journalist : news people The global . London Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage, 1995. Thousand . London Understanding media cultures : social theory and mass theory and : social media cultures Understanding Cresskill, N.J.: Hampton Press,1998. Cresskill, N.J.: Hampton . The newsmakers: the media’s influence on Canadian politics influence the media’s The newsmakers: communication 1990. Ont.: Nelson Canada, Scarborough, world

Wu. Wei David H., and Weaver, Stevenson, Nick. Nick. Stevenson, David. Taras, 152 Choquette Foreword 153 Rebecca Chapman Rebecca Cultural Bazaar Cultural

Self-hood, Object-hood and The Object-hood and Self-hood,

Contemporary Canadian Art Industry Contemporary Canadian Scouring the Canadian- Scouring 154 Chapman osmto of consumption ultimately these are false environments and merely play on the Westerner’sChinatown, Montreal’s and households Canadian-Chinese real-life from books, action-films and karaoke tapes. Though Tam’s décor was collected from objects of range broad photographs of China’s a communist-party leader, Mao, to yields Chinese children rooms two these between check Chinese-ness.” “traditional exemplifies believes which Karen furniture and objects with saturated installations room-sized are Playroom Tam’sToxic Karen identity. their cultural ultimately, towards and disposition ideas personal motives, artists’ the understand to order in significance cultural artifacts’ these recognize to ability viewer’s the dependent on particularly work their make artifacts cultural of use artists’ have informedthesepieces. art-reception and art-making art-worlds, of traditions how reveal to and history, art conceptual of context the within artworks Sobey the ground Art British Young of Making the and London essay “multi-cultural mosaic.” a as Canada of branding the to conforms exhibit Sobey the how well, industryas cultural Canadian the of framework the within of identity. On a macro-level, they can be discussed in terms of their place be read by the audience in order to determine the artist’s immaterial sense of thephysical terms in to evidence as presented artifacts, cultural rather or beinvestigated objects, and materials can works specific the level, works can be considered on both a micro- and a macro- level. On a micro- 5.0-e vers. Playroom,Children’s Toxic Tam’sKaren in resonant particularly is theme This self-hood.” “Canadian of sense their articulate visually to attempts exemplify artworks finalists’ featured the of many as exhibition, AwardArt Sobey the of forefront the at is identity cultural Canadian disparate on an ongoing basis.” identity negotiatetheir to groups cultural Canadian all compels it because I an empty place, offers a more hospitable version of cultural identity cultural of version hospitable more as a offers place, identity empty an Canadian universal a of lack the “accepting that, states to introduction the n More than Meets the Eye the Meets Morethan I have selected these particular works for my analysis as I felt the felt I as analysis my for works particular these selected have I 2 hs lvl o aayi wl b pie wt Rlh Rugoff’s Ralph with paired be will analysis of levels These and 5.0-C and Chinoiserie and Brendan Fernandes’Brendan and 1 ish Kthn Mao, Kitchen Kitschy This notion of negotiating an often fragmented and aain utrl Poesis Cultural Canadian Brendan Lee Satish Tang’s Satish Lee Brendan or items which are seemingly reflective of reflective seemingly are which items or and While’sAidan w o Tms Pagoda-Pads, Tam’s of two Neo-Primitivism II. Neo-Primitivism Kitschy Kitchen Mao Kitchen Kitschy epciey i odr to order in respectively, Locating Art Worlds:Art Locating ,

ere Sherbert George 3 n inventory An ag Ormolu Manga Children’s These and

Chapman 155 On the other hand, 8 More More than Meets the The deer masks are actually 7 features plastic deer with white The spectator is forced to immerse himself 5 In case Tam’s the clues presented are the abundance Neo-Primitivism II 6 objects scattered across her rooms. However, rather than The ways in which individual viewers navigate these false- 4 Brendan Fernandes makes a similar case for the use of Ralph Rugoff coins the term “Forensic Aesthetic” to describe a chinoiserie merely fall under the umbrella of “African” artifact. the vinyl spears are based on their lack of materiality (they are two- of new identities upon arrival in Canada. of a specific tribe, the Nairobi tribe, but to the uninformed viewer they seemingly random array of objects. Fernandes is of Goan ancestry is and a Kenyan immigrant. Through this combination of cultural signifiers, Fernandes sought to highlight the transitory nature and hybrid formation “African” masks on their faces, set against the backdrop of a vinyl white picket fence made of spears. Fernandes’ installation also viewer’s ability relies (or inability) on to the discern the cultural significance of this commodities and the ways in which they stand in as signifiers ofcultural one’s identity. proximity to individuals with different cultural histories. However, as Tam Tam as However, histories. cultural different with individuals to proximity of wary be and others, of space the through carefully tread must we warns, culture. of another person’s misjudging the so-called “markers” made guilty by their false assumptions of the pads as genuine “Chinese” personal dwellings. The viewer’s experience of inhabiting these false- environments highlights the way in which, as Canadians, we live in close oneself through commodities, as well as how one of a transformation to leads misidentification of notion This (falsely) others. define attempts to pagoda pads to a culprit the viewer from neutral witness Tam’s observing identity. identity. Fortunately, this confusion is rectified by knowledge ofTam’s specific past actions and motives in assembling these falseenvironments. installations Furthermore, make Tam’s a case for one’s attempt to define of astray, them lead artifacts cultural these viewer-turned-detective, the aiding as a result of the objects’ misrepresentation of the “Chinese-Canadian” lingering from a past action. or herself in the art as they try to assemble a complete-picture, or rather a sense of gestalt. gaze” to search the objects for clues. In his essay Eye, mode of aesthetic perception that marks objects as a diffuse set of clues environments, environments, a navigation encouraged by Tam, is compromised by the cultural baggage one brings to her pagoda attribute pads. of the However, viewing experience a is the common spectator’s use of a “scanning East-Asia. 156 Chapman dimensional) and were purchased by his parents on leaving Kenya. leaving on These parents his by purchased were and dimensional) y i ehi bcgon, s n rs-on Trinidadian-Canadian. Irish-born an as background, ethnic motivated his perhaps concern by a concern culture, Tang’s “pure” as of well impossibility confronted as the is Orient” with “the viewer of Western notion the distorted piece, their Tam’swith in As Orient. the of Westernperceptions to relationship their and ormolu of practice cultural the of evidence as materials the read to participation active viewer’s the materiality.require and Tang’sagain, self-hood once between sculptures, as entanglement the exemplifies out body limbs. human the to resemblance This jutting elements Manga the with torso, a resemble to thought be were particularly reminiscent of thehumanbody, wheretheporcelain can they as versions specific two these chose I elements. manga-esque brow low- with vessels the of synthesis the through practice elitist French this gold.” karat high with decorated and from Asia imported 18 the in originated that practice a ormolu, of tradition French represents“the technique crafting His object. disfigured one into Manga that and porcelain sculptures Ming-dynasty fuse ceramic together crafts he of case, Tang’s In perception “orient.” Westerner’s the the characterize which materials and high- low-brow of mixture a through hybridity cultural of notions exemplify their historyisimportanttosolvingthepiece. on contingency their where past-action, of vestiges as serve Fernandes by arranged clues cultural these installations, Tam’s Like identity. cultural his of self-perception Fernandes’ of reflective clues, or objects, relevant as them presents which space, gallery the within transformed is objects use.” everyday little their have with that do meanings to on take to reframed been have objects found century this of much where […] doubled uncannily is meaning artifact’s Fernandes’Canada. an which by mechanism curious “the illustrates piece out of interpreting our own and another person’s identity, especially within arise that them absurdities and falsehoods juxtaposes the highlight to another and one against plasticity their Fernandes by detective. characterized of objects role the employs into again forced is and necessarily seem not they are as that artifacts of environment an in immersed again once is viewer the Tam’sin piece, As wilderness. Canadian of symbol a decoy, deer the with paired are “African-ness” so-called of signifiers two The use of culturally borrowed materials in these six art works art six these in materials borrowed culturally of use The Tang’s Lastly, ag Oml vers. Ormolu Manga th cnuy hn niu prean esl were vessels porcelain antique when -century 9 Te ak f s-au o tee plastic these of use-value of lack The 5.0e and 10 Tang subverts 5.0c further 11

Chapman 157 Locating Locating . Though While’s While’s Though . As well, the Musée The Sobey judging 13 15 in this case, the image of Canada 14 As While states, “As As centers of social and 17 present in other urban art centers, such as 12 Furthermore, the Sobey art exhibit exemplifies While’s 16 This contingency on specific cultural environments underlies 18 individual, within the framework of the Canadian arts and cultural industry cultural and arts Canadian the of framework the within individual, they are indicative of an issue that exists across the nation. This issue of from different backgrounds within Canada has acted as a major influence on their respective artworks. Though their works are deeply personal and moments in history has stimulated distinctive ways of seeing as well as being.” work, and where Fernandes’ Tang the common Tam, experience of being Britannia” was consistent with the “hip” characterization of the urban end urban the of characterization “hip” the with consistent was Britannia” of London during the 1960s.” cultural foment, the urban experience of certain city-regions at certain or , which attempt to highlight the migrant and Canadians. diverse background “cool as of YBA the of packaging the where contingency, contextual of notion panel’s panel’s focus on this aspect of Canada is consistent with the interests of other non-art related sectors within the Canadian cultural instance, industry; “Heritage for Minutes” or CBC’s “Canada: A People’s History” art works. This trend exemplifies While’s notion of “bolstering the cultural the “bolstering of notion While’s exemplifies trend This works. art image of a nation, city or region;” as a “multi-cultural mosaic,” ripe with diversity. this prerequisite to even entering the contest, the judging panel appears to have had a specific agenda in theaforementioned the selectionwithin Identity” of“Canadian-Cultural of theme finalists,trending based on the dealers, commercial gallery directors and curators. d’Art Contemporain, as a renowned Montreal, confers further art prestige on the artworks and institution artists. Following within downtown juries and commissions” Paris and London, where the prestige of being one of the “best Canadian artists” is in part determined by ability one’s to network with established effects effects of culture on art production and notions of cultural branding are relevant to a discussion of Canada’s Sobey Art First, Award. the award selection is reminiscent of the “official patronage systems of salon prizes, Art Worlds: London and the Making of Young British Art British Young of Making the and London Worlds: Art essay focuses specifically on the conditionsEngland to become a reigning “art YBA, center” the and the formation of which permitted London, art-object. However, the artworks also comply with a secondary tradition: tradition: secondary a with comply also artworks the However, art-object. the ways in which a specificWhile’s Aidan creation This of tradition artwork. is discussed in cultural climate affects display the and exemplifies the contemporary custom of the “forensically aestheticized” 158 Chapman hybrid, and often misconceived, identity is one that is ever more prevalent 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 as a“multi-culturalmosaic.” Sobey artawardjudges,whopromoteatypicalbrand-imageofCanada “Canadian” identity can be attributed to cultural ambassadors, such as the viewer asaculturaldetective.Furthermore,thisconfusingconceptionof specific materials,which,whenpresentedinagallerysetting,engagethe their audiencesdiscern,orratherfalselyfromcommoditiesand Tam’s, Tang’s andFernandes’ artworkspresentidentityassomethingthat result oftheartists’ personalexperienceandtheSobeyartexhibit itself. diverse andoftendistorted,withintheartworksthemselves,asa racial familiesbecomeincreasinglycommon. within the current time-frame of the 21 “Sobey Art Award: Nomination Guidelines,” British Art,” Aiden While, “Locating Art Worlds: LondonandtheMaking of Young Arnold, 25. of NovaScotia,2010)23. Sarah Fillmore,trans. Alliance Francais Halifax,(Canada: Art Gallery Grant Arnold, “Bredan LeeSatish Tang,” in Rugoff, 79. Ibid,43. Nova Scotia,2010)43. Fillmore, trans. Alliance FrancaisHalifax,(Canada: Art Galleryof Philip Monk,“BrendanFernandes”in Rugoff, 91. (Cambridge: MIT Press,1997),61. RalphRugoff, “MorethanMeetstheEye,” Ibid. 25, 2010). 2009 http://www.cueartfoundation.org/karen-tam.html (accessedOct. Karen Tam, “Karen Tam: Artists’ Statement,” 2006), 73. Sheila Petty, Annie Gérin,(Waterloo: Wilfrid LaurierUniversityPress, Cultural Poesis:EssaysonCanadianCulture Emily West, “CollectiveMemoryonthe Airwaves,” in (Waterloo: Wilfrid LaurierUniversityPress,2006),20. on CanadianCulture George Sherbert,“Introduction”in In conclusion,Canadianculturalidentityisframedashybrid, Area, vol.35 No.3(Sept 2003),254. , eds.George Sherbert,SheilaPetty, Annie Gérin. Endnotes st century as immigration and multi- Canadian CulturalPoesis:Essays 2010 Sobey Art Award Scene oftheCrime 2010 Sobey Art Award Art Galleryof Nova , eds.George Sherbert, Cue Art Foundation, Canadian , ed.Sarah , ed. Chapman 159 2009 , ed. Sarah Sarah (Cambridge: , ed. Canadian , eds. George Sherbert, , eds. George Cue Art Foundation, Cue Art Gallery of Nova Scene of the Crime 2010 Sobey Art Award Art 2010 Sobey 2010 Sobey Art Award Art 2010 Sobey Canadian Cultural Poesis: Essays on vol.35 No.3 (Sept 2003): 251-63. Works Cited Works

Area, Area, , eds. George Sherbert, Sheila Petty, Annie Gérin. Sherbert, Sheila Petty, , eds. George 2010 (accessed: Oct 25/2010) Young British Art,” British Young nominationguidelines.aspx>. < http://www.cueartfoundation.org/karen-tam.html> (accessed Oct. 25, 2010). Cultural Poesis: Essays on Canadian Culture Press, Laurier University Wilfrid Annie Gérin, (Waterloo: Sheila Petty, 2006) 67-84. Scotia, artgalleryofnovascotia.ca/en/sobeyartaward/abouttheaward/ Fillmore,trans. Alliance Francais Halifax, (Canada: Art Gallery of Nova Francais Halifax, (Canada: Alliance Fillmore,trans. Scotia, 2010) 43-45 Press, 1997), 58-108 MIT Canadian Culture University Press, 2006) 1-25 Laurier Wilfrid (Waterloo: Scotia, 2010) 23-25. Scotia, 2010) 23-25. abouttheaward/nominationguidelines.aspx> (accessed Oct. 25, 2010). Oct. 25, (accessed abouttheaward/nominationguidelines.aspx> While, 255. 73. West, Ibid, 70. While. 260-1. Ibid, 252. Art Gallery of Nova Francais Halifax, (Canada: Alliance Fillmore,trans. Scotia, Scotia,

While, Aiden. “Locating Art Worlds: London and the Making of Worlds: Art Aiden. “Locating While,

Airwaves,” in “Collective Memory on the Emily. West, Statement,” Artists’ Tam: Karen. “Karen Tam, “Sobey Art Award: Nomination Guidelines,” Award: Art “Sobey

in Sherbert, George.“Introduction” the Eye, “ Ralph. “More than Meets Rugoff, Fernandes” in Monk, Philip.“Brendan Arnold, Grant.“Bredan Lee Satish Tang,” in Tang,” Lee Satish Arnold, Grant.“Bredan 17 18 14 15 16

160 Chapman Foreword 161 David Zuluaga David

The Role of the Judiciary in the the Judiciary The Role of Making of Canadian Foreign Policy Canadian Foreign Making of Justice Plenipotentiary Justice 162 Zuluaga was entrusted tothedominion. Canada of affairs external the of conduct the for responsibility the when government, of orders provincial and federal the between contention of point important an became Confederation, of time the at trivial vacuum, constitutional This government. local the by negotiated treaties for rules responsible solely to the Imperial Parliament in London. Canadian into Executive Imperial an by negotiated been had implement that treaties those only law to parliament federal the empowered 132, which Section was relations external with dealt that Act the in provision Parliament. Imperial the from officials of prerogative the be would policy foreign Canada’s that assumed was it as legislation, the relations in foreign of made mention little is There Empire. British larger 1867 Act, Umpire ofFederalism greatly influencedthemakingofCanadianforeignpolicy. jurisprudence, it had the opportunity to set important precedents that have Canadian in role active an played JCPC the that years eighty the In 1959. last judgment binding on Canadian the law was not pronounced by and the JCPC until decisions, Court Supreme overturn to power the had JCPC London. in (JCPC) Council Privy the of Committee Judicial the to appeals ended Laurent St. Louis of government the when 1949, until court highest-ranking country’s this become not did Canada of Court Supreme the Confederation, after years arbitrate disputes—an umpire of federalism. In government. to appeal of of court general a create to chose government federal the orders 1875, provincial and federal between relationship 1867 Act, Constitution the powerofgovernmenttopursueitsforeignpolicyagenda. on checks important most the of one constitution—is the interpreting of Canadian foreign policy, and to demonstrate that the judiciary—in its role to engage in a brief review of the role that the judiciary has had in shaping intends paper This government. the of will the restrain to counterbalance T In such a system of government, there are limited mechanisms of mechanisms limited are there government, of system a such In government. of branches executive the and legislative by the characterised of fusion is government of system Westminster he h Frt ol Wr el a aa bo t pooe pas of plans proposed to blow fatal a dealt War World First The the drafted Confederation of Fathers the When The , they had a vision of Canada that placed it firmly within a within firmly it placed that Canada of vision a had they , rts Nrh mrc At f 1867 of Act America North British , s dcmn piaiy ocre wt the with concerned primarily document a is ), 2 ni te, s h cut f at eot the resort, last of court the as then, Until 1 Although it was created nine hriatr the (hereinafter 4 It did not set out Constitution 3 Te only The Zuluaga 163

6 Another 8 in 1931 formally severed Case, the JCPC ruled that . However, if any contract with 7 did not explicitly set out what order Conventions , was also rejected by the court, as their

Labour meant that the responsibility for the conduct of Statute of Westminster Constitution Act, 1867 Constitution The 5 Constitution Constitution Act, 1867 Westminster Constitution Act, 1867 In 1937, in the The autonomy. Writing for autonomy. the court, Lord Atkin argued that “The Dominion cannot merely by making promises to foreign countries clothe itself with Lordships judged such authority to threaten the federal-provincial division federal-provincial the threaten to authority such judged Lordships provincial for constitution the in established guarantees the and powers of argument advanced by the government, that the power to implement treaties implement to power the that government, the by advanced argument flowed from the Peace, Order, and Good Government Clause in Section 91 of the government by stating that, although the framers could not have foreseen that Canada would one day negotiate its own treaties, “It is to impossible strain the section as to cover the uncontemplated event.” the federal government could not intrude in matters of provincial concern simply by agreeing to an international treaty. declined The extending Judicial Committee Section 132 to treaties negotiated by the national external obligations, could legislate in matters that were part of provincial of part were that matters in legislate could obligations, external jurisdiction per the a foreign state requires a change to domestic law, only Parliament may modify the existing legislation. The dispute that arose in the late 1930s was whether the federal parliament, in an attempt to honour Canada’s Library of Parliament, explains, “The [federal] executive ratify and sign, negotiate, branch to authority the with government of is branch only the international conventions and treaties.” of government—provincial or federal—would to have conduct exclusive Canada’s foreign power relations. Laura Barnett, writing for the effect in the dominions unless the local governments explicitly desired it. desired explicitly governments local the unless dominions the in effect Effectively, devolved onto the local government. affairs Canadian external Commonwealth. colonial ties, authorising each dominion parliament to enact laws having extra-territorial operation and stating that no British law would have and J.B.M. Hertzog from South Africa, the British government issued a declaration—known also as the Balfour the Declaration—that status recognized of each dominion as a sovereign nation within the British with with input from all member nations. This set the dominions on a course towards independence from Great At Britain. the Imperial Conference of 1926, pressured by Prime Ministers Mackenzie W.L. King from Canada establishing establishing a common foreign policy for the entire British Empire, 164 Zuluaga legislative authority inconsistent with the constitution which gave it birth it gave which constitution the with inconsistent authority legislative decision to allow the United States to test cruise missiles in Canada. The Canada. in missiles cruise test to States United the allow to decision organizations, unions, and pressure groups challenged the federal cabinet’s affairs of Canada. In the role the understanding to paramount purpose as the umpire of federalism to that of guardian of the constitution. stated its revised Court Supreme the agents, provincial and federal both circumstances.” the in just a of allows the judiciary to provide to those individuals who claim to be victims effect.” or force no inconsistency,of the of extent the to is, Constitution the of provisions the with inconsistent is that law any and Canada, of law supreme the is 1982 Act, Constitution supremacy. constitutional of one to supremacy marked a change in government in Canada from a system of parliamentary Freedomsand the rights, of bill entrenched an included Constitutional Supremacy was amendedtoincludeprotectedrightsforindividuals. constitution the when action judicial foreshadow would intervention of respect to provincial rights guaranteed forced in the was executive federal the that ensured It maintain. to sought court the power of balance federal the of light in best understood 1867 Act, responsibility. territorial and provincial, federal, of area an are compliance and implementation treaty convention that is concerned with matters of provincial jurisdiction. international an ratifying before approval provincial seek to neglects it if obligations international its of default in state Canadian the leave would wishes, it treaty any sign to empowered still while The government, assemblies. federal legislative provincial the of each with concert in done be must competence, provincial of area an in action requires it if treaty, structure.” original her of part waters she still retains the water-tight compartments which are an essential foreign into and ventures larger on sails now state of ship the While [...] Charter h Cuts uig in ruling Court’s The the of feature remarkable A rsne b te CC n the in JCPC the by presented violation a remedy “as the court considers appropriate and appropriate considers court the “as remedy a violation . The . 13 Moreover, Section 24(1) of the of 24(1) Section Moreover, Operation Dismantle Charter salse ta “h Cnttto o Canada of Constitution “The that establishes 14 , as well as the larger the as well as , Given the new constraints on the actions of actions the on constraints new the Given 11 The narrow definition of the of definition narrow The 9 This means that the implementation of a of implementation the that means This prto Dsate . . (1985) R. v. Dismantle Operation Constitution Act, 1867 osiuin c, 1982 Act, Constitution , a coalition of non-governmental aor Conventions Labour Charter aain hre o Rights of Charter Canadian 12 Constitution Act, 1982 Act, Constitution Constitution Act, 1982 Act, Constitution eto 5() f the of 52(1) Section ly i te external the in plays . This early form Constitution a ta it that was uig is ruling 10 Thus, is ,

Zuluaga 165 17 . , dated , and that Charter by increasing the Charter Constitution Act, 1982 Constitution At the time, U.S. officials 18 Webster-Ashburton Treaty Webster-Ashburton

16 places on the Crown’s prerogative power. places prerogative on power. the Crown’s Although the court ruled in the government’s 15 Charter The early seventies found the United States and Canada in the When the offense punishable by death under the laws of the for requesting State and which extradition is requested is called ‘political question.’ this is a question for the courts[...] I do to not [the Court] think to it relinquish its is jurisdiction either open on the basis that the issue is inherently non-justiciable or that it raises a so- sound but whether or not it violates the appellants’ rights under rights appellants’ the violates it not or whether but sound s. 7 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This is different a question. totally I do not think there can be any doubt that its opinion for that of the executive making to power whom is given the by decision- the Constitution[...] The question before us is not whether the government’s defence policy is If the Court were simply being asked to express its opinion on in powers defence its of exercise executive’s the of wisdom the this case, the Court would have to decline. It cannot substitute agreement was written out to specify: accord that better reflected modern realities. were experimenting with a temporary ban against the use penalty. of At the the death request of the Nixon administration, Article 6 of the middle of negotiations on a countries. The new previous agreement, the extradition treaty between back the to 1842, and it two was judged that the two nations were in need of an to prescribe a remedy per Section 24(1) of the to prescribe a remedy per Section 24(1) The Extradition Question Canadian jurisprudence that the actions of the executive government in the conduct of external affairs are justiciable under the the court retains the discretion, in the event of a constitutional violation, As a corollary of this decision, it is now a well-established principle in the constraints that the in her decision: wrote Wilson Justice Bertha security security of the person under Section 7 of the risk of nuclear conflict. favour, the judgement provided an important foundational statement on appellants argued that such a policy violated their right to life, liberty, and and liberty, life, to right their violated policy a such that argued appellants 166 Zuluaga (1991) Canada ruled 4 to 3 in favour of the government in both States.” United the in murder of accused those for haven safe a become not policy,should public Canada of matter a As [...] circumstances special in that sought be only arguingshould assurances “Article6 by actions government’s the defended The Justice appeal. of Kindler Minister the with concurrently heard be to Court Supreme counterparts. the to case the referred U.S. government Canadian the courts, the his to appealed from assurances 6 Article seeking without extradition of order an issued Canada of Justice of and Minister custody, the U.S. into transferred Ng have to sought States United the convicted. if sentence death a in result could which California, of state the in murder of counts twelve for wanted was Ng 1985. in Calgary in arrested was Marine, U.S. former a Ng, Charles question. extradition the to attention national brought incident second a country. this in status immigration their of independent Canada, in present physically v.(1985) R. in Court Supreme the by established been had it citizen, U.S. a was the United States that Kindler would not be put to death. Although Kindler was constitutionally Minister bound by Section the 7 of the that claiming government Canadian the against suit a which wasgranted. United States asked the Minister of Justice to issue an order of extradition, into 1988. in Brunswick border New in him the arrested police Canadian Québec. crossed and prison maximum-security a from escaped Kindler death, to sentenced being murder 1984. After in court Pennsylvania first-degree a by of convicted was Kindler Joseph 1980s. late the in 1971. the TreatyStates United the and Canada between and terms, these to acceded government Canadian The the laws of the requested State do not permit such punishment such permit not do State requested the of laws the sufficient that the death penalty shall not be imposed, or,if imposed, not be imposed, shallnotbeexecuted. shall penalty death the that sufficient State provides such assurances as the requested State considers for that offense, extradition may be refused unless the requesting and The Reference re Ng Extradition (1991) ReferenceExtradition reNg that the rights guaranteed by Section 7 apply to every person every to apply 7 Section by guaranteed rights the that 22 Extradition Treaty While the Kindler case made its way through the courts, the through way its made case Kindler the While 21 However, beforehecouldbedeported, Kindlerfiled gaverisetoaseriesof 19 Charter was signed on 3 December 3 on signed was 23 . The Court explained that explained Court The . 25 A i te ide case, Kindler the in As The Supreme Court of Court Supreme The to seek assurances from Charter Kindler v. Canada 24 hn Ng When Extradition challenges 20 Singh The Zuluaga 167

32

34 The two In early 29 30 , the Supreme Canada reacted 27 Extradition without 33 and that Canada would precedents appeared to The Court also dismissed 31 Ng Reference and United States v. Burns United (2001) States v. Extradition Treaty Kindler Justice Beverly McLachlin added in the Kindler 26 The extradition question is a particularly illustratative example Although the

28 because it highlights the reasoning process used by the Supreme Court in assurances became unconstitutional in the vast majority of cases, allowing cases, of majority vast the in unconstitutional became assurances “exceptional” circumstances. for rare situations that might present was that Canada had a duty to see that international customary law evolved law customary international that see to duty a had Canada that was such that the prohibition of capital punishment would one day become a predominant norm within the world community.” explicitly established in the merely be living up to its international obligations by requesting them. Andrew Thompson summarises the Court’s judgement: “The suggestion punishment is unjust and should be stopped.” the argument that requesting assurances could be relations with the detrimental United States by to pointing out that good the mechanism was initiatives opposing extradition without assurances, combined international advocacy of the abolition of the death penalty itself, leads to with its the conclusion that in the Canadian view of fundamental justice, capital Court explained the change in the constitutionality of extradition without assurances as a product of the evolution of the Canadian position on the death penalty. The Court argued that “Canada’s support of international Allan Rock granted without seeking 2001, the Article Supreme Court of 6 Canada upheld their assurances. claim in a unanimous decision. In the judgement in by the police department in Bellevue, Washington, in 1994. men, who are Canadian citizens, were later arrested in The Vancouver. United States initiated a request of extradition, which Minister of Justice to individuals that it seeks to extradite to jurisdictions that use the death penalty, the Supreme Court decided to revisit the matter in 2001. Sebastian Burns Glen and Atif Ahmad Rafay were accused of triple-homicide ruling. have clearly outlined the obligations owed by the Canadian government Canada respects the of differences its neighbours and that it refrains from imposing its constitutional guarantees on other states.” swiftly to the decision, and deported the two men within hours of the leave leave for the Canadian government to extradite Kindler and Ng without seeking assurances. judgement that “Effective relations between different states require that the substantial legal protections present in the U.S. justice system gave 168 Zuluaga challenging the government’s discretion to conduct foreign affairs.When foreign conduct government’sto the discretion challenging Charter extraterritorially.Charter in established been had It the apply to law case Canadian in develop to appeared attitude reluctant Canada. of security the to threat serious substantial risk of torture, save for those persons who pose face a demonstrably may they where country a to someone deport to unconstitutional is In implications. security Supreme Court appeared undaunted at first to consider cases with national In the Age ofTerror international commitments. its for accountable government Canadian the hold to intent its signalled in ruling its from departing By 1990s. the throughout activity international own government’s the by set direction Court was not creating a new doctrine of foreign policy, but following the jurisdictions. same like-minded the to as Canada standards holding cause, abolitionist the to support its gave international accepting by agreements such as the However, assurances. requesting in Crown the of discretion the to defer to appropriate was it that decided Court the debate, the of nature unsettled the of light earlier.In years four mere a it criminal law. At the time of the ruling, Parliament Canadian in development had recent relatively a still was penalty death the of considered reinstating the uevso o Trs n Cio Ilns oie ad h eiec was evidence the and police, Islands Caicos and Turks and of authority supervision the under acting were agents RCMP because admissible was evidence the that ruled Court The warrant. a without obtained was it the of 8 s. under him against prosecution laundering money a from excluded Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) in the Turks and Caicos Islands case (2007) the in ruling its with doctrine this reverse to appeared the [take] officials “Canadian that principle the as summarily it jurisdictions. puts Roach in foreign acting officials to Canadian apply of does actions it the governments, foreign of actions the to apply not does and confirmed as recently as Charter— Kindler Charter . In n h atrah f h atcs f 1 etme 20, the 2001, September 11 of attacks the of aftermath the In Hape and ih hm hn hy g] abroad.” [go] they when them with protection against unreasonable search and seizure—because , Lawrence Hape sought to have evidence gathered by the Ng Reference Ng Rome Statute Suresh v. Canada (2002) v.SureshCanada R. v. Cook (1998) cases were being considered, the abolition the considered, being were cases , the Canadian government implicitly 35 n h dcso in decision the In 36 Atr hs uig hwvr a however, ruling, this After Kindler , that, although the , the Court ruled that it that ruled Court the , 38 Operation Dismantle Operation h Spee Court Supreme The te urm Court Supreme the , . . Hape v. R. Burns Charter 37 Kent the , ,

Zuluaga 169 ,

Roach At the 46 39 In 2009, 41

In 2003, 42 Canada (Prime Such a situation would come before the 40 , the defence demanded that the Canadian Canada (Minister of Khadr Justice) (2008) v. In In March of 2004, DFAIT agents interrogated 45

43 a method of sleep deprivation used to make subjects more 44 A year after the disclosure ruling, the Khadr defence team initiated team defence Khadr the ruling, disclosure the after year A A A point of constitutional interest in participation Canada’s in the government seek Khadr’s repatriation from Guantanamo Bay. Mr. Justice James O’Reilly, of the Federal Court Trial Division, ruled a second lawsuit against the Canadian government. In Minister) v. Khadr (2010) with U.S. authorities or not, to his defence lawyers, in order to mitigate the mitigate to order in lawyers, defence his to not, or authorities U.S. with Canadian involvement might have on his prosecution. that effects the Supreme Court ruled that these interrogations constituted a violation government the ordered Court The justice. fundamental of principle the of shared was it whether Khadr, from obtained information the all disclose to program,” crimes war with charged formally was Khadr interrogation. before pliable in September of 2004. Canada made the information obtained during these interviews available to U.S. authorities. Khadr again, knowing that he had been subjected to the “frequent flyer agents from the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) and Foreign the Intelligence Division of the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (DFAIT) interrogated Khadr at Guantanamo Bay. Christopher Speer, and spent the next Air treatment Force Afghanistan, at Base before Bagram in North-eastern four months receiving medical being transferred to Guantanamo Bay in October of 2002. managed to survive the bombing. A detachment of soldiers across him when then they went in to came survey the damage. Khadr was accused of launching a grenade at them, which resulted in the death of Sergeant time of capture, the fifteen-year-old boy was serving asa translatora for group of Al-Qaeda fighters. When the U.S.building where they were barricaded, Air ForceKhadr was the destroyedonly occupant the who War War on Terror is the controversy regarding the imprisonment of Khadr Omar at Guantanamo Bay. The Toronto-born Khadr was the U.S. captured Army in by July of 2002 outside of Khost, Afghanistan. Supreme Supreme Court only a year later, when the Omar Khadr system. judicial way through the Canadian make its saga began to suggests suggests that this new precedent establishes that “The Charter be can applied still extraterritorially, but only when Canadian conduct breaches its international obligations.” gathered gathered in a manner that was consistent with local regulations. 170 Zuluaga ht h gvrmn hd iltd hd’ Scin rgt, n issued and rights, 7 Section Khadr’s violated had government the that of Education) (2003) Education) of in judgment the echoed also repatriating Khadr would satisfy those requirements. to the prerogative. of appropriate circumstances the and royal just be the must 24(1) of Section under exercise remedy the judicial A in government federal the of actions the of constitutionality the review to power the has judiciary the Charter.”the and affairs, foreign over responsibility its information, current of light in respond to best how decide to government the to it leaving violated, were rights K’sCharter that declare to is case this in remedy appropriate “The was beyond the authority of the judiciary. Instead, the Justices offered that Freedoms the of 24(1) Section under remedy judicial a for However, the Supreme Court also concluded that, while Khadr was eligible the criticised strongly Court government bystatingthat: Supreme the judgement, unanimous Writing detention. a Khadr’s in in complicit was and authorities U.S. with information sharing in rights 7 Section Khadr’s violated had government Canadian the that found Court Supreme the those courts, lower to the by reached similar judgement a In Appeal. of Court Federal the by ruling the reversed partially which Court, Supreme the to decision the appealed O’Reilly. Justice by ruling the upheld and mid-2009 soon as Khadr practicable. Omar as of repatriation the seek to Crown the to order an the treatmentofdetainedyouthsuspects. about standards Canadian basic most the offends prosecutors, the with shared be would interrogations the of knowing fruits the while that and deprivation sleep to subjected been had youth the that knowing while charges criminal serious about statements elicit to counsel, to access without detained youth a contributing to K’s are continued officials detention Canadian [...] The by interrogation taken of statements the that Court the before evidence uncontradicted the from infer to reasonable is it deprivation, the of source primary the is U.S. the While , ordering the federal cabinet to issue a request of repatriation of request a issue to cabinet federal the ordering , 50 The precedent set by set precedent The 47 Te eea Cut fApa (C) er te ae in case the heard (FCA) Appeal of Court Federal The by stating that a judicial remedy also “must employ “must also remedy judicial a that stating by Charter Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister Scotia Nova v.Doucet-Boudreau breach. The Supreme Court found that found Court Supreme The breach. Operation Dismantle Operation 49 Charter of Rights and Rights of Charter 52 However, the Court 48 Te government The established that established 51

Zuluaga 171

case In its 57 Charter National Khadr , the remedy Burns It is evident from 59 Moreover, contrary to what the circumstances 54 , the Supreme Court felt that it did not have enough have not did it that felt Court Supreme the , , the Supreme Court accurately highlighted the After the ruling was made public, the government of 55 Burns Khadr decision by pointing out that, unlike in The Supreme Court sought to distinguish the 53 On 19 March the 2010, Globe however, and Mail reported that Burns 58 The key criterion in judging the verdict handed down by the 56 that the Obama administration was quietly pressuring the Canadian Khadr’s demands to be returned to Canada without unduly interfering with interfering unduly without Canada to returned be to demands Khadr’s prerogative. the government’s the national interest if it had imposed to legitimacy lent conditions Court the unconstitutionality, of declaration a providing on the executive. By government was privy to the complete set of facts necessary to make an accurate judgement of the that effect a request of repatriation would have had on Canada-U.S. relations. The Supreme Court risked acting against the U.S. government had decided to prosecute Khadr in a military court, which would later result in Khadr pleading guilty. the contradictory and obfuscatory nature of these reports that only the government to accept custody of The Khadr. paper reported that officials within the administration “don’t have the stomach to try a child for war crimes.” difficulty in properly assessing the political consequences of requesting his repatriation. In early March 2010, reports surfaced Post in the suggests that it did not—but whether the Supreme Court acted appropriately acted Court Supreme the whether not—but did it that suggests and consistently in deferring to the discretion of the judgement executive. in Supreme Court is not whether the Government of Canada acted lawfully in not repatriating Omar Khadr—and international precedent strongly with the Charter.” Stephen Harper reiterated its refusal to request the repatriation of Omar Khadr. be to offer a declaration of unconstitutionality, in “provide the hopes legal framework that for the it executive to conformity would in exercise Khadr, its Mr. of respect functions in take to actions what consider to and information to judge accurately what relations with the United States. In light of these would have on Canada’s effect a request of repatriation problems, the Court decided that the most prudent course of action would breach; it remains entirely possible that the United States will not accede to a repatriation request. in like appeared democracy.” from the sought by the respondent would not guarantee a cease to the means means that are legitimate within the framework of our constitutional 172 Zuluaga 4 3 2 1 care isnottakentoprotecttheintegrityofhullthat supportsit. if intact waters foreign into ventures its survive not will state of ship The that is inconsistent with manner the a constitution from in which it act derives its cannot authority.cabinet The constitution. the of guardian as role its in well remarkably performed has Court the this, In constitutionality. Canada’sof wisdom or quality the not judging with policy,foreign its but statement in prepared to address. In a spirit keeping with Justice Wilson’s foundational best is executive the which concerns, security national as such situations, on post-9/11 case law illustrates, the Court has also been flexible in light of policy.discussion own the government its As with consistently act to government the Canadian forcing the by only hold states foreign to to made commitments its acted for accountable has Court Supreme the established amply that been has it extradition, on discussion the From law. the of respectful manner a in abroad act to by that Canada negotiates its treaties up to the present day. The precedents set with their peers abroad. The interact agencies and agents government Canadian which under rules the established have decisions its because part large in undeniable, is policy the Court has been able to influence the development of Canadian foreign decisions the affairs.foreign of conduct the That to regards in government the reviewing by made in career storied a had has judiciary Canadian Operation Dismantle Operation Journal Canada’s ExternalEconomicRelations.” Interdependence: Rethinking the ConstitutionalDimensionsof Howse, Robert.“TheLabour ConventionsDoctrineinanEraofGlobal FaronandMacIvor, with theoptionofestablishing ageneralcourtofappealinSection101 explicitly, the Const_index.html> Although itdidnotmentiontheSupremeCourt Department ofJusticeCanadaInternational law, chiefly as interpreted and applied in and applied as interpreted chiefly International law, note 8 at 10 Balfour Declaration, 1926, Canberra: National Archives Archives National Canberra: 1926, Declaration, Balfour supra supra , states, “Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of states, “Everyone has the right to life, (Toronto: Edmond Montgomery Publications Ltd., 2006), 206 Edmond Montgomery Publications (Toronto: note 2 at Section 52 in note 2 at Section 52 , 9 , 38 par. 63 , 38 par. , 5 Section 24 , 356-357 Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration Singh v. Re Ng Extradition Reference Ibid. Ibid. Kindler Ibid. Ibid. Operation Dismantle v. The Queen v. Operation Dismantle Ibid. Supra Ibid. Statute of Westminster, 1931. Westminster, Statute of General for Ontario Attorney v. for Canada Attorney General Inter-Imperial Relations Committee: Report, Proceedings and Proceedings Report, Committee: Relations Inter-Imperial

(CanLII): 2 [hereinafter Thompson, Andrew S. “Uneasy Abolitionists: Canada, the Death Andrew S. “Uneasy Thompson, and the Importance of International Norms.” Penalty, Canadian Studies the on extradition between the Government of Canada and Treaty America. Government of the United States of Canada (Minister of Justice) Kindler v. (CanLII) : 3 [hereinafter 177. 1985 (CanLII) : 5 [hereinafter Power to Conduct Foreign Affairs and the Charter in Prime Minister of and the Charter in Affairs Power to Conduct Foreign Khadr.” Canada et al v.Omar 2009: 75 (CanLII) : 3. [hereinafter Charter thereof except in accordance the person and the right not to be deprived with the principles of fundamental justice.” Act, 1982 Constitution “Dismantling the Clash between the Prerogative Mendes, Errol P. Canada Barnett, Memoranda. 2010 : 2 Australia, of Process.” Treaty-Making to the Approach “Canada’s Barnett, Laura. Parliament Library of 1937 (J.C.P.C.) 1 D.L.R. 673 Ibid. “Treaties M Kindred, and Phillip Martin Saunders. Brunnee, Juta, Hugh in Canada.” In

25 26 23 24 21 22 19 20 18

16 17

13 14 15 11 12 9 10 8 6 7 5 174 Zuluaga 27 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28

Ibid. Boudreau 62, [2003]3S.C.R.3.2003(CanLII) :par. 56[hereinafter Doucet-Boudreau v. NovaScotia(MinisterofEducation) Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Khadr (2010) Mendes, Khadr (2008) Ibid. [hereinafter Canada (PrimeMinister)v. Khadr (CanLII) :3[hereinafter Canada (Justice)v. Khadr Ibid. Moral Culpability.” Soldier on Trial: QuestionsofInternationalLaw, JuvenileJustice,and Dore, ChristopherL.“WhattoDowithOmarKhadr-PuttingaChild Ibid. [hereinafter R. v. Hape (Vancouver: UBCPress,2009),148 Constitutionalism Roach, Kent.“NationalSecurityandtheCharter.” In R. v. Cook SCC 1,[2002]1S.C.R.3.2002(CanLII):5-6[hereinafter 2004/2005: 351 Reflections fromtheBench.” Juriansz,RusselG.“TheCharterintheInternationalContext- Thompson, (CanLII) :3[hereinafter Thompson, Khadr (2010) Suresh v. Canada(MinisterofCitizenshipandImmigration) Burns Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. United Statesv. Burns Ibid. , 6 , 150. , 28par. 47 , 23par. 32 , 26par. 40 , 8 , 6 , supra supra ] , [1998]2S.C.R.597.1998(CanLII):3[hereinafter , 2007SCC26,[2007]2S.C.R.292.(CanLII):3 supra Khadr (2010) Hape supra note36at9 , , , note21at68 supra supra supra note22at185. ] , byChristopherP ManfrediandJamesBKelly note22at187. John MarshallLawReview note53at5 note52at19par. 35 note53at27par. 43 , 2001SCC7,[2001]1S.C.R.283. Burns Khadr (2008) ] , 2008SCC28,[2008]2S.C.R.125.2008 National JournalofConstitutionalLaw ] , 2010SCC3(CanLII).2010:4 ] , 2007-2008:1286 Contested , 2003SCC Doucet- Suresh , 2002 Cook ] ] , Zuluaga 175 ,

, March 8, National Post , March 19, 2010. National Post , February 3, 2010. , February The Canadian Business Law , 2007-2008: 1281. , March 19, 2010. note 50) very illustrative, particularly illustrative, particularly note 50) very , 2008. The Globe and Mail supra Works Cited Works The Globe and Mail and The Globe The Globe and Mail John Marshall Law Review International law, chiefly as interpreted and applied in chiefly as interpreted International law, , 208-212. Toronto: Edmond Montgomery Publications Ltd., Edmond Montgomery Toronto: , 208-212. , 1990: 160. Library of Parliament Interdependence: Rethinking the Constitutional Dimensions of Interdependence: Rethinking the Constitutional External Economic Relations.” Canada’s Journal Australia, Archives of Balfour Declaration, 1926, Canberra: National 2010. 2010. military trials.” 2006. Juvenile Justice, and Moral Questions of International Law, Trial: on Culpability.” cess.” Canada.” In Canada request repatriation.” repatriation.” request is beyond the scope of the Khadr case an extensive discussion Although matter may find are interested in the readers who of this paper, article ( Dore’s Christopher the culpability of conventions on on international for its discussion child soldiers for way to return Khadr.” Steven. “U.S. looks Edwards, March 8, 2010. detainees “U.S. close on deal to shutter Gitmo; Goodman, Lee-Anne. trials.” would face military Makin, Kirk. “Ignoring Supreme Court’s Khadr ruling, Ottawa won’t won’t ruling, Ottawa Khadr Court’s Supreme Kirk. “Ignoring Makin, Inter-Imperial Relations Committee: Report, Proceedings and Memoranda. Committee: Report, Proceedings Relations Inter-Imperial Howse, Robert. “The Labour Conventions Doctrine in an Era of Global Howse, Robert. “The Labour Conventions Goodman, Lee-Anne. “U.S. close on deal to shutter Gitmo; detainees would face Goodman, Lee-Anne. “U.S. close on deal Edwards, Steven. “U.S. looks for way to return Khadr.” return Khadr.” Edwards, Steven. “U.S. looks for way to Dore, Christopher L. “What to Do with Omar Khadr - Putting a Child Soldier Dore, Christopher L. “What to Do with in Martin Saunders. “Treaties Brunnee, Juta, Hugh M Kindred, and Phillip Books, Periodicals, and Internet Sources: Books, Periodicals, Pro Treaty-Making Approach to the Barnett, Laura. “Canada’s 59 58 57 56 176 Zuluaga Singh v. Minister ofEmploymentandImmigration Reference Re NgExtradition R. v. Hape R. v. Cook Operation Dismantlev. TheQueen Kindler v. Canada(MinisterofJustice) Doucet-Boudreau v. NovaScotia(MinisterofEducation) Canada (PrimeMinister)v. Khadr Canada (Justice)v. Khadr Attorney GeneralforCanadav. Attorney GeneralforOntario Cases Cited: Thompson, Andrew S.“Uneasy Abolitionists: Canada,theDeathPenalty, and Roach, Kent.“NationalSecurityandtheCharter.” In Mendes, ErrolP. “DismantlingtheClashbetweenPrerogativePowerto Makin, Kirk.“IgnoringSupremeCourt’s Khadrruling,Ottawawon’t request Juriansz, RusselG.“TheCharterintheInternationalContext-Reflectionsfrom 3 S.C.R.3.2003. 673 (J.C.P.C.) 1937. 2008: 172. the ImportanceofInternationalNorms.” 165. Vancouver: UBCPress,2009. Constitutionalism al v.Omar Khadr.” Conduct Foreign Affairs andtheCharterinPrimeMinisterofCanadaet repatriation.” the Bench.” , [1998]2S.C.R.597.1998. , 2007SCC26,[2007]2S.C.R. 292.2007. National JournalofConstitutionalLaw The GlobeandMail , 2008SCC28,[2008]2S.C.R.125.2008. , byChristopherP ManfrediandJamesBKelly, 145- National JournalofConstitutionalLaw (Can.),[1991]2S.C.R.858. 1991 , 2010SCC3(CanLII).2010. , [1985]1S.C.R.441.1985. , [1991]2S.C.R.779.1991. , February3,2010. Journal ofCanadianStudies , [1985]1S.C.R. 177.1985. Contested , 2003SCC62,[2003] , 2004/2005:347. , [1937]1D.L.R. , 2009:67. , Zuluaga 177 , 2002 SCC 1, , 2002 SCC (Canada) online: Department (Canada) online: Department (Canada), 1971 (LexUM) (U.K.), 1931. , 2001 SCC 7, [2001] 1 S.C.R. 283. 2001. 7, [2001] 1 S.C.R. , 2001 SCC of the United States of America. of of the United States of Justice Canada . [2002] 1 S.C.R. 3. 2002. [2002] 1 S.C.R. Treaty on extradition between the Government of Canada and the Government on extradition between the Government Treaty Statute of Westminster, 1931. Statute of Westminster, Consolidation of Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982. Consolidation of Constitution United States v. Burns v. United States Cited: Legislation Suresh v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) Canada (Minister of v. Suresh 178 Contributors/Credits Contributors the future. pursuing studiesinConstitutionalPolitics and/orLaw in rights and Aboriginal rightsinCanada. Sheplanson constitutional protectionofminoritylanguage educational McGill University. Sheis particularlyinterestedinthe Political ScienceandaminorinGermanLanguageat Émilie Horrocks-Denis going ontostudy publicpolicyandadministration. relations, and anything related to Canadian politics. Denis is normative politicaltheory, cooperationininternational minor inCanadianstudies. Hisacademic interestsinclude pursuing anhonoursdegreeinPolitical Scienceanda Denis Douville Lina Crompton Natalie Stoljar. thesis onthephilosophy ofpunishmentwithProfessor as philosophy oflaw. SheiscurrentlywritingherHonours research interestsincludepoliticalandmoraltheoryaswell in philosophy andpoliticalscience. Heracademicand Éléna Choquette illustrating “zines” andswimming inCanadianlakes. student. When she’s notin Arts W-215, sheenjoys Rebecca Chapman isastudentfromCandiac, Quebec. Heis isafinal year Joint Honoursstudent isaU3 Art HistoryandCommunications iscompletingamajorinHonours Contributors/Credits 179 is a U2 student in Honours Economics. is a U2 student in Honours Economics. is a fourth-year Honours student in is a fourth-year will graduate in May with a major a major with in May graduate will is a U2 student completing a Joint Honours completing a Joint is a U2 student trade policy. David Zuluaga Cano Zuluaga David and constitutional law, politics, He is interested in Canadian David Nagel David English (Cultural Studies) with a minor in Geography. His His a minor in Geography. English (Cultural Studies) with studies and critical prison dance, interests include film, social theory. and gatekeepers interacted and negotiated citizenship. interacted and gatekeepers McKeich Cameron of Canada from a critical theory perspective, particularly the a critical theory perspective, of Canada from arrivals new in which and the ways history of immigration Laurin Liu in Middle Cultural Studies and a Minor in History and is interested in the social history Laurin Eastern Languages. semester, in which she wrote this essay, and is honoured to and is honoured essay, she wrote this in which semester, journal. the by accepted had her work have attend graduate school in English in the future. She very She very future. in the in English school attend graduate last Fiction Prose class in Canadian her first enjoyed much in English Literature and minors in Philosophy and and in Philosophy minors and Literature in English a career studies to pursue after her She hopes Mathematics. to and possibly industry and Publishing in the Editing Madeline LaRue Madeline 180 Contributors/Credits Editorial Team ing. tion Jewish American Composers, Frank ZappaandCanoe Minor inMusic. SomeofherinterestsincludeFirst Genera treal working onaBA inEnglishCulturalStudieswitha Sydney Warshaw Anne-Laure Mercier listens toCBCRadio1or2, dependingonhermood. time, shecollectsHudson’s Bay Company souvenirs and Robert Kroetsch, andGwendolyn MacEwen. Inherspare fiction andpoetry, includingthe works ofMavis Gallant, Her fieldofinterestisprimarilyinpostmodernCanadian BA inEnglishLiteraturewithaMinorCanadianStudies. Meredith McLean School inthefall. Studies andPolitical Science, andwillbeattendingLaw currently completingaJoint HonoursdegreeisCanadian Evan Akriotis

is aU3studentfrom Toronto, Ontario. Heis isaU2studentbornandraisedinMon

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